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Uriel Weinreich, Languages in Contact. Findings and Problems, with a )1 (

Preface by André Martinet, 6th Printing (The Hague; Paris: Mouton, 1968).
15
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Carol Myers-Scotton: Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in )2 (

Codeswitching (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993), and Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from Africa
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
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Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, Translated from the )3 (

French by Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf ([New York]: Basic
Books, 1963).
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Neilson Voyne Smith, The Twitter Machine: Reflections on Language )4 (

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), p. 180.
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y,v@GPvyG {vf9vqvAvyGz ))v}q vTv}vyG( (Alfred Schütz) )5(Rv@(vV Ov*QvqvyC e(v%vqv|
y?v +v zv wv yG ?v +v gv FGQPv yGz hC ,?v +v Gv %v "v |(v "v C G Uv +v Szv @h ,(Intersubjectivity)
,v p xv yP f(v wv * (Habermas) )6(S9v |Qv <9v %v y (Universal pragmatics)
{v f9v qv Av yG {v gv Gv @ ,v Av yG ?v +v zv wv yG WhQv Wv yG Qv =v Av Mv * Ov *Qv Gv Av yG kv y9v < i(v Av Tv |
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e;vwvyG ,vp f(vDvJv=v* Y9v}vAvF:G A9v}vzvf ^vgv< bvtvph .9v"vwv}v| ,vf9v}vAvF:G
J9v SGQOv yG Ov gv @h .IQv +v jv Av }v yG &v Av gv +v =v _ #v f f(v y(v tv * 9v | ~v %v y hC ,v zv gv qv yG
J9vSGQO {vDv| ,?v+vzvgvp ?v*(vjvy J9v+vavgv| )vzvf BvTvSzv@ ,vAvyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
)9(
(v vWv v}v v*Qv vih (Cicourel) )8({v v*Q(v vwv v+v vS ,(Bernstein) )7(#v v*9v vAv vWv v!Qv v+v v<
Alfred Schütz, The Phenomenology of the Social World = Der sinnhafte )5 (

Aufbau der sozialen Welt, Translated by George Walsh and Frederick Lehnert;
with an Introd. by George Walsh ([Evanston, IL]: Northwestern University Press,
1967).
Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action = Theorie des )6 (
kommunikativen Handelns, 2 vols., Translated by Thomas McCarthy (Boston,
MA: Beacon Press, 1984-1987).
Basil B. Bernstein, Class, Codes and Control, 4 vols. (London: Routledge )7 (
and Kegan Paul, 1971-1990), vol. 3: Towards a Theory of Educational
Transmissions.
A. V. Cicourel, «Theoretical and Methodological Suggestions for Using )8 (
Discourse to Recreate Aspects of Social Structure,» in: Allen Day Grimshaw,
What’s Going on Here: Complementary Studies of Professional Talk (Norwood,
NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1994).
Allen D. Grimshaw, «Social Interactional and Sociolinguistic Rules,» )9 (
Social Forces, vol. 58 (1980).
20
?v}v$9vTv| 9v%vy f(vwvAvy hvSGh {vwvWv< IOv}vAvgv| BvTv+vyh IQO9v! (Grimshaw)
hv| ,vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyG {v|9vgvAvy9vp ,GPvwv$h .?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v*Qvdv"vyG ,vp ?v}v%v|
QvDvvC ?v+vf9v}vAvFG J9vs9v+vS ,vp j(vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvS;vy ?v*Qvdv! HvAv"v*o ~vy ?vjvzvyG
.J9+!9TzyG &< B|9s 9}|
Uv +v Szv Av y ?v *(v +v I ?v }v %v | ^v gv =v yG 9v $Qv =v Av gv * gPv %v v ?v *Qv dv ! A9v "v < fE

,xv yP ~v iQh .)10(?v <;v Y Qv Dv vC ?v *Qv dv ! ~v F9v fO )v zv f J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG
Qv v=v vf Ov vsh .GPv v%v vv )v vgv vTv v| ihOv vF d(v vI f(v v+v v!9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vTv vyG ~v vTv vtv v!G
IOv v v vIq (v v v v| ?v v v v*Qv v v vdv v v v! AGRE &v v v v|D9v v v vWv v v v@ #v v v vf (Fasold) )11(Ov v v vy(v v v vS9v v v vp
9v }v "v +v < ,y?v Zv y9v Mv yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv yz ?v *Qv dv ! hv | ?v vQv Av Wv | J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv zv y
JGPh 9v %v +v p H(v iQv | gPv %v v ?v *Qv dv ! fC (Romaine) )12(#v +v |hQ Ov tv Av gv @
{v}vgv@ fC bvtvp Uv+vy ,#v+v|hQ dOvAvTv@ 9v}vv ,>vGv*h .fB ,vp ihOvF
: ,vAvyG Qv$G(vdvy9v< uvzvgvAv* 9v| ,vp ?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v*Qvdv"vzvy ,vp9v\E Rv*Rvgv@ )vzvf
{v v |G(v v gv v yG )v v yE Y(v v FQv v yG fhO #v v | ,v v qv v wv v * 9v v }v v < 9v v $Qv v +v v Tv v qv v @ #v v wv v }v v *
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q k k k
Qv $9v dv | {v v ?v SGQOv y ;v *Ov < 9v FP(v }v ! ){v wv Wv Av S 9v %v !E( jC ,y9v +v f9v }v Av FG
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(Williams) Rv v|9v v+v vyh Ov vtv vAv v!G ,Y9v v}v vAv vF:G ~v vzv vf ?v v+v vI9v v! #v v|h
)13(
,vp ,v$ 9v}v"v+v< ,?vY9vMvyG 9v%vAv*Qvdv! L9vAv!E ,vp 9v%vzvWvqvy J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
Esther Figueroa, Sociolinguistic Metatheory (Oxford: Pergamon, 1994). )10(

Ralph W. Fasold, The Sociolinguistics of Language (Cambridge, MA: )11(
Blackwell, 1990), pp. viiiff.
Suzanne Romaine, Language in Society: An Introduction to )12(
Sociolinguistics (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 221ff.
Glyn Williams, Sociolinguistics: A Sociological Critique (London; New )13(
York: Routledge, 1992).
21
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iO9v! Ovsh .9v%v< bv=v@Qv}vyG hv}vAvGv}vzvy ?v+vtvpG(vAvyG ?v+v!GOQvqvyG IQvdv"vyG )vzvfh
?v *Qv dv "v y ?v *hGRv yG Qv Gv I ?v <9v Dv }v < f(v wv * hv }v Av Gv }v zv y ,v fGQv Y LP(v }v "v <
?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G ?v vtv v=v vav vyG J9v vs;v vf Q9v v=v vAv vf:G ,v vp Pv vLzv v@ ?v v+v v!9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vS
i(vtvyG {v+vzvJv@ Ov"vf ?v*(vjvzvyG Qv F9vWvgvyG Qv=vfh {vLGO ?vavzvTvyG J9vp;vAvLGh
fC )vzvf Rv|9v+vyh dOvAvTv*h .j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvyG ,vp ?v}vwvJvAv}vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
,v p 9v $O9v Gv *E #v wv }v * gPv %v v J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv y ?v +v }v $C Qv Dv v}G ?v <Q9v tv }v yG
,(Bourdieu) )14((v *OQ(v < d9v Dv |C #v +v +v Tv !Qv qv yG Y9v }v Av F:G A9v }v zv f {v }v f
?v *Qv dv ! fC ,v p Rv |9v +v yh f(v tv pG(v +v S fhQv +v Dv vh .(Achard) )15(OQ9v VCh
)vyE QvtvAvqvAvS #vwvyh ,AGOQO bvtvp f(vwv@ #vy hv}vAvGv}vyG ,vp ?vjvzvyG d(vI
?v =v sGQv }v yGh ?v av zv Tv yG )v zv f H9v =v wv !:G ,v p Bv zv Wv p GPE ?v }v S9v I ?v av tv !
#v+v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG #v+v< b9vqv@:G ^vgv< c9v"v$ ,xvyP hv|h .?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
A:|v $ #v | Q9v dv Av !:G >v gv Zv *h ,hv }v Av Gv }v zv y ,v tv =v av yG Ov +v ]v "v Av yG d(v I
Qv +v i e(v %v qv | )v yE ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v tv =v av yG {v *(v Jv @ &v "v wv }v * rv *Qv gv @ ~v *Ov tv @
uv *Qv _ VQv Av gv @ ,v Av yG J9v <(v gv Zv yG ^v gv =v p ,GPv wv $h .,v zv }v fh Uv =v Av zv |
GhQv=vAvfG Y9v}vAvF:G A9v}vzvf f(vv )vyE O(vgv@ ?vgv"vtv| ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vS ?v*Qvdv!
k k
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?v*Qvdv! 9v%v< bv=v@Qv@ fC #vwv}v* ?v+vf9v}vAvFG ?v*Qvdv! ~v*Ovtv@ ,vp G(vzvWvp &vTvqv!
.?y(%T< j(jzyG d9}gAS;y
?v+v}vzvgvyG J:9vGv}vyG fC (v$ ?v*Qvdv"vyG ?vyzvTv}vzvy QvLB Qv%vdv| c9v"v$h
Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice = Esquisse d’une )14(

theórie de la pratique, Translated by Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1977).
Pierre Achard, La Sociologie du langage (Paris: Presses Universitaires )15(
de France, 1993).
22
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23
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.{+yOyG GP$ #| (Denison) f(T+"*Oy )4(h
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GP9v|h j(vjv zv yG Y(v"v AvyG (v $ 9v| :,v@zv * 9v| bv<Qv yG GPv $ Q9v_E ,v p ?v IhQv av }vyG
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?j(vjvzvyG Y(v"vAvyG ,vp fRh 9v%vy ,vAvyGh Y(v\(v}vy9v< ?vzvZvyG JGP ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
gPv$ ?9v%v]vgv< hv| ?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ?v*(v%vGvyGh ?v+v"v|RvyG J9vf(v"vAvyG {vf9vqvAv@ rv+vv
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,v!(v$ #v| {vv d(vZvp ,vp 9v%vgv| {v|9vgvAvyG ~q v@ 9v%v< ?vav=v@Qv| iQvLCh 9v*9v]vtvyG
James Milroy, Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical )16(

Sociolinguistics of English (Oxford; Cambridge, MA: B. Blackwell, 1992); William
Labov, Principles of Linguistic Change. Volume 1, Internal Factors (Oxford;
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994), and J. K. Chambers, Sociolinguistic Theory:
Linguistic Variation and Its Social Significance (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995).
24
(James Milroy) jhQv vzv v+v v| Uv v}v v+v vFh (Lesley) ,v vzv vTv v+v vyh )6( (Honey)
Y(v "v Av yG d(v I ?v +v Y(v Zv L Qv Dv vC 9v *9v ]v s c9v "v $ ,xv yP )v yE ?v p9v \ 9v < .)3(
k
,7( (Wolfram) eGQv vqv vyh(v vy iQv vLC d(v vZv vp ?v vC;v vDv vy 9v vf(v v\(v v| {v vwv vWv v@
JQv wv *Eh ,)Uv "v Gv yG ,8( (Benke) ,v wv "v +v <h (Wodak) cGOhh )?v Gv %v zv yG
.)#TyG ,9( (Eckert)
q k
Ev Jv =v zv y Ov < : j(v jv zv yG Y(v "v Av zv y Qv LB GOv gv < {v YG(v Av yG bv +v Sh Qv =v Av gv *
.,v \9v }v yG ,v p {v gv p 9v }v | Qv Dv vC e9v }v Av $:G &v +v yE &v F(v * fC ,v !9v S(v y(v +v S(v Tv yG
PE :{v +v yOv yG GPv $ ,v p e9v gv yG d9v Gv }v yG GPv %v y f9v Zv Zv Mv | f;v Zv p c9v "v $h
,v p IOv Gv <}G QhO )10( (Street) Bv *Qv Av Sh (Roberts) Uv @Qv <hQ Xv s9v "v *
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,vp Qvdv"vyG )11( (Leitner) Qv"vAv+vy Ov+vgv* ,Ev*OvJvyG hv}vAvGv}vyG ,vp ?v+vFP(v}v"vyG
{v YG(v Av yG >v +v y9v SC d(v I ?v +v \9v }v yG JG(v "v Tv yG d;v L ~q v @ jPv yG Ev Jv =v yG
.e;f G {F9S(y ?*(jzyG YG(!}G [F9ZLh
,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG EvJv=vyG ,vp QvLB ,vTv+vFQ Q(vJv| c9v"v$ :OvJvyG ~vSGh
.IQv+vWvgvyG {v+vwvWvAvy ?vtv*Qv_ IQv+vL}G gPv$ Q9v=vAvf9v< ?vjvzvy ?v*Rv|QvyG ?vqv+vc(vyG (v$
,v p ?v jv zv yG d(v I J9v *Qv dv ! MGQv Av sG ~q v @ ,Q(v Jv }v yG GPv $ ?v Gv y9v gv | d;v Lh
,)18(?v*(v%vyG d9vgvpCh j(vjvzvyG rvy9vJvAvyG ;)17( ?v+v"vC G ?vf(v}vGv}vyG J9vs;vf
Howard Giles, Richard Y. Bourhis and Douglas M. Taylor, «Towards )17(

a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations,» in: Howard Giles, ed.,
Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup Relations (London; New York: Academic
Press, 1977), and Rodrigue Landry and Réal Allard, eds., «Ethnolinguistic
Vitality,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 108 (1994).
= R. B. Le Page and Andrée Tabouret-Keller, Acts of Identity: Creole- )18(
25
)20( f;v Zv qv yG eOv tv *h .)19(A:(v yGh j(v jv zv yG d(v Jv Av yGh ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v |(v tv yG
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{v v+v v!(v vv9v v}v vy )21( {v vZv vqv vyG hv v]v v* 9v v}v v"v v+v v< ,d9v vGv v}v vyG GPv v$ ,v vp ?v v+q v vTv v+v vFQv vyG
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.,y(}V Q(d"| ,p ?+!9T! G J9f(}G}yG
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fOvy #v| Qv DvvC hC #v +v Avjv y d9v }vgv Av SG 9v $Rv +v }v* ,vAv yG ?v +v f9v }vAv F:G J9v gv}vGv AvyG
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c(v zv Tv yG ,v p ?v Tv p9v "v Av }v yG hC ?v Wv *9v gv Av }v yG J9v jv zv yG d(v I IOv *Ov f JGQv +v Tv qv @
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)vyE Qvdv"vy9v< 9v%v}v+v+vtv@ #vwv}v* LP9v}v! hC ,Q9v=vAvL;vy ?vzv<9vs J9v+v\Qvp BvzvwvVh
9v"v$ &v*(v"vAvyG QOvGv*h .a9vv {vwvWv< gQv+vTvqv@ 9v%v"vwv}v* jPvyG #vAv}vyG Y9vTv@G iOv|
e(v %v qv }v< &v _9v =v @QG ,v p hv }v Av Gv }v yG ,v p ?v jv zv y ,v qv +v c(v yG hv *R(v Av yG d(v I {v }v gv <
j(v jv zv yG OOv gv Av yG J9v +v |9v "v *O d(v I d9v }v fCh ;)20( y?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v FGhOR:Gz
Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity (Cambridge, MA; New York: =

Joshua A. Fishman, ed., Advances in the Study of Societal )19(
Multilingualism (The Hague; Paris; New York: Mouton, 1978); Joshua A.
Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of
Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon; Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual
Matters, 1991), and Susan Gal, Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic
Change in Bilingual Austria (New York: Academic Press, 1979).
Charles A. Ferguson, «Diglossia,» Word, vol. 15 (1959), Reprinted in: )20(
Dell H. Hymes, ed., Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and
Anthropology (New York: Harper & Row, [1964]).
26
;)22(j(v jv zv yG d9v Zv @:Gh )21(j(v jv zv yG d(v Jv Av yG {v }v Wv * jPv yG ,v gv }v Av Gv }v yG
~q v @ IQ(vvPv }vyG ,v!9vTv zvyG EvJv =v yG IOv"v FC Qv$9v dv | fE .)23(jQv qvWv yG Qv+v +vjv Av yGh
,12 {v v Zv vqv v yG( (Schiffman) f9v v }v v qv v +v v V aQv v_ #v v | 9v v %v v +v v p Qv vdv v "v v yG IO9v vfE
,)j(vjvzvyG OOvgvAvyG ,18 {vZvqvyG( (Clyne) #v+vzvvh ,)?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G
#v v@(v vwv vS RQv v*9v v|h ,)j(v vjv vzv vyG YGQv vZv vyG ,17 {v vZv vqv vyG( (Nelde) Ov vzv v+v v!h
.)jQqWyG Q++jAyG ,13 {ZqyG(
,v$ IOv*OvF iQvLC J9vjvy A(vWv!h 9v%vyGOv=vAvSG hC J9vjvzvyG hvFGQv@ fE

v
gPv$ .?vjvzvyG d9vZv@:h j(vjvzvyG OOvgvAvzvy Q9vC5vv 9v%v+vyE Qvdv"vyG #v| Ov<o : Qv$G(vc
k k
d(vI EvJv=vzvy hv+v\G(v| >v!9vF )vyE GQv+v=vv 9v|9v}vAv$G BvfQvAvSG ,vAvyG Qv$G(vdvyG
q
,vp 9v%vAvGvy9vgv| Bv}v@ ,d9v}vgvAvS:G LP9v}v!h ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+v"v=vyG i(vAvTv| #v| {vv
,(McWhorter) Qv v@Qh(v vv9v v|h (Rickford) OQ(v vqv vwv v*Qv vy )14( #v v+v vzv vZv vqv vyG
.(Brenzinger) Qj"*R!Q=y )16(h ,(Craig) k*Qwy )15(h
k k
,vp 9v|9v$ 9vgvs(v| BvzvAvIG ,vAvyG ?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v+v=vTv"vyG ?v+v\Qvp fE :?v+v=vTv"vyG
k k k
,vp 9v}v%v| GQhO 9v]v*C JOC Ovs ,(Whorf) aQhhh (Sapir) Qv+v<9vS d9v}vfC
?v *GOv =v yG ,v p (Bernstein) )24(#v *9v Av Wv !Qv +v < {v LOC 9v }v yh .J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG
)v zv f YQv Tv Av < 9v }v %v zv *hzv @ ~q v @ y?v gv S(v }v yGzh yIOhOv Jv }v yGz IQv qv Wv yG ,v |(v %v qv |
Calvin Veltman, Language Shift in the United States (Berlin; New )21(
York: Mouton, 1983).
Nancy C. Dorian, «The Problem of the Semi-Speaker in Language )22(
Death,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 12 (1977).
J. -P. Blom and J. J. Gumperz, «Social Meaning in Linguistic )23(
Structures: Code-Switching in Norway,» in: John Joseph Gumperz [and] Dell
Hymes, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, [1972]).
Bernstein, Class, Codes and Control, vol. 3: Towards a Theory of )24(
Educational Transmissions.
27
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.9v%v"v| Qq vqv| : ?vGv+vAv! #v*9vAvWv!Qv+v< 9v$OOvI ,vAvyG JGQvqvWvyG ,v}vzvwvAv}vy ?v*Rv+v+v}vAvyG
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J9vp;vAvL;vy #v*9vAvWv!Qv+v< ?v<Q9vtv}vp xvyPvyh .?v+vS9v+vTvyG ?v+vI9v"vyG #v| &v< >vIQv|
9v%v"vf ,vzvMvAvyG ~q v@ j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvyG ,vp )?v+vf9v}vAvF:G( J9vtv=vavy9v< ?vav=v@Qv}vyG
?v tv *Qv av < ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG H9v av Mv yG Q(v av @ ,v p JQv CC )xv yPv y(h ,?v fQv Tv <
.QdA"*o f9v 9}| {sC 9}<Q
9v| [vMvWvy ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+v"v=vyG {vwvWv@ iOv| jC )vyE hC ,{v$ [?vyzvTv|] fE

.?vy(vzvJv| Qv+vi ?vyzvTv| {vdv@ ~vy9vgvzvy 9v*DQ )bvtvp IOvIGh ?vjvy 9v%v!C VGQvAvpG hv|(
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k
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Y(v "v Av yG f(v v IQv wv p fE .)26(hv }v Av Gv }v yGh ?v jv zv yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv yG rv Y(v < U9v L
,~vy9vgvzvy ?vqvzvAvMv| JGQ(vZv@ hv| uvpG(vAv* (Gender) Y(v"vy9v< bv=v@Qv}vyG j(vjvzvyG
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?v +v =v Tv "v zv y d9v Dv | ,v $ ,f9v tv qv Av @ : ?v jv zv yG ,v p Qv %v dv * 9v }v v ~v y9v gv yG )v yE )v Dv !}G
q
Uv<(vAvTvy )22( {vZvqvyG eOvtv*h .Ov+vgv< OvI )vyE 9v%vAv+v=vgvV Bv=vCC ,vAvyG ?v+vpQh(vyG
[v Jv qv Av *h ,?v +v !9v Tv zv yG ?v +v =v Tv "v yG ,v p Ev Jv =v yG d(v I ?v zv |9v V IQv dv ! (Stubbs)
gPv$ Qv=vf {v}vgvy9v< V(v%v"vzvy 9v%vy9v}vgvAvSG #vwv}v* ,vAvyG J9v+vavgv}vyG ?v+vf(v! ?vyzvTv|
.,=*QGAyG Q9=AL;y {<9s i(AT| )yE W(aMyG
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Qv F9v Wv gv yG ?v !Q9v tv | {v wv Wv | Hv y9v gv @ 9v |Ov "v f ?v +v ]v s 9v ]v *C ?v +v =v Tv "v yG Qv =v Av gv @
John Arthur Lucy, Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation )25(

of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1992).
Elaine Chaika, Language, the Social Mirror (Rowley, MA: Newbury )26(
House Publishers, 1982).
28
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?v vs9v v+v vzv vyG Qv v$G(v vdv vy a9v vYh}G #v v| Ov v*Ov vgv vyG ~v v+v v}v vgv v@ ~q v v@ bv v<Qv vyG GPv v$ ,v vph
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J9v tv =v av yGh J9v Gv %v zv yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv yG ,v p Ev Jv =v yG 9v }v ! Ov sh .hv }v Av Gv }v yG
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29
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aQv_ #v| {v+vyOvyG GPv$ ,vp 9v}v%v\GQvgvAvSG ~q v@ Ovsh .U9vL {vwvWv< #v+vGvAv"v|h
.(Verhoeven) )27(#p($Q+p
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b(vtvJv< ?vs;vf 9v%vy 9v*9v]vtvy cQ9vgv| J9vI9vS ~vv9vJv}vyG BvJv=vYC ,J:9vJvyG
~v%v F9v"v<C ~v+vzvgv@ {vFC #v| J9v+vzvs}G J9vjvy ,v}vzvwvAv| >vy9vav|h J9vf(v}vGv}vyG
fGOv vzv v=v vyG #v v| OOv vf )v vzv vf Qv v+v v=v vv bv vjv v\ SQ(v v| Ov vsh .)28(J9v vjv vzv vyG gPv v%v v<
.H9AwyG GP$ #| 18 {ZqyG Qd!G )27(

Jim Cummins, Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in Assessment )28(
and Pedagogy (San Diego, CA: College-Hill Press, 1984), and Sylvia Joseph
Galambos and Kenji Hakuta, «Subject-Specific and Task-Specific Characteristics
of Metalinguistic Awareness in Bilingual Children,» Applied Psycholinguistics, vol.
9, no. 2 (June 1988).
30
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?v vSGQO Bv v}v v@ Ov vsh .)29(?v v+v v<Qv vAv vyG LQ9v vL #v v%v v}v vy9v v< ?v vav v=v v@Qv v}v vyG ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG
,)30(?v +v =q v av yG Kv y9v Zv }v yG ?v }v dv !C ,v p ?v +v zv YG(v Av yG J;v av gv Av yGh J9v <(v gv Zv yG
,vp ,)32(?v*Q9vGvAvyG J9v\h9vqv}vyG ,)31(IO9v+vtvyG JGQvGvIh ?v=vsGQv}vyG LGQv<C
Peter Trudgill, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics (London; Orlando: )29(

Academic Press, 1984).
Elliot George Mishler, The Discourse of Medicine: Dialectics of Medical )30(
Interviews (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1984).
Steven Cushing, Fatal Words: Communication Clashes and Aircraft )31(
Crashes (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
J. Stalpers, «The Expression of Disagreement,» in: Konrad Ehlich and )32(
Johannes Wagner, eds., The Discourse of Business Negotiation (Berlin; New York:
Mouton de Gruyter, 1995).
31
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?v v SGQOv v yG J:9v v Gv v | #v v | Ov v IGh d9v v Gv v | #v v | Qv v Dv v vC Kv v Tv v | ?v v y9v v Jv v Av v SG
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Q9v+vAvLG ~q v@ ,IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG ,vp ?vY9vLh ,jQvZvgvyG hv}vAvGv}vyG ,vp
{vZvqvyG ,vp (Finegan) f9vjv+v"v+vp [vJvqv*h .?v*9vjvyG gPv%vy ?v+v!(v!9vtvyG ?v"v%v}vyG
?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ?vSGQOvyG 9v%v< e(vtv@ fC #vwv}v* ,vAvyG J9v}v$9vTv}vyG )26(
.?+!O}yG J9fGRAyGh ?+|GQF G {F9T}yG {Jy
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?v *(v jv zv yG e(v zv gv yG #v | iQv L}G YhQv qv zv y Uv +v yh .9v | ?v jv y Q(v av @ Qv +v S ,v p
Uvqv! ,vp ,v$ ?v*Qvdv"vyG J9v+v!9vTvzvyGh .H9v=vyG GPv$ ,vp &vy(vtvAvy {v+vzvtvyG :E
e(v %v qv | fC 9v }v < ,Y(v \(v }v yG GPv $ dh9v "v @ ,v p ?v =v iGQ Qv +v i IRv F9v f Bv s(v yG
?vjvzvyGz A9v"v< ,vp ?vzvDv}vAv}vyG 9v%vs;vav!G W9vtv! hv| {vLGOvAv* j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG
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Lawrence Solan, The Language of Judges (Chicago, IL: University of )33(

Chicago Press, 1993).
Grimshaw, What’s Going on Here: Complementary Studies of )34(
Professional Talk.
Florian Coulmas, Language and Economy (Oxford; Cambridge, MA: )35(
Blackwell, 1992).
32
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,(Standardization) Qv v +v v +v v gv v Av v yGh ,(Graphization) J9v v jv v zv v yG ?v v <9v v Av v v
?v+vqv+vc(vyG ?vZvJvyGh R9v+vAv|:Gh hv\(vyGh ,?v%vF #v| ?v+v}vGvgv}vyG ?vp9v\ Gh
J:9v Gv }v yG ~v dv gv | ,v p 9v }v "v +v <h .iQv LC ?v %v F #v | hv }v Av Gv }v yG ,v p J9v jv zv y
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?v +v }v $C ,v @zv @ 9v "v $ #v |h ,~v %v Av jv y ,v p #v +v }v wv Jv Av |h #v +v fOv =v | ~v $Q9v =v Av f9v <
.{wv ,!9Ty(+S(TyG YhQW}yG )yE ?=T"y9< j(jzyG b+aMAyG
QGPAfG
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v q
(Pragmatics) ?v +v gv FGQPv yG fC 9v }v v ,9v %v vQv @ ~v @ ,v Av yG ,v f9v }v Av F:G Uv qv "v yG
,vp ~q v@ 9v%vyh9v"v@ fC hv| ,9v%v< ?vY9vL d(vZvp 9v%vy BvTv+vy H9vavMvyG {v+vzvJv@h
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9v%v"vwvy ,d(vZvp IOvf ,vp ,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG EvJv=vyG J9v+v"vtv@ ?vWvs9v"v| Bv}v@h
bOv Zv *h .Rv +v Jv yG ?v *OhOv Jv | :(v y Qv =v vC ?v +v }v $zv < )v dv Jv @ fC f9v wv | 9v < f9v v
9v%v"v| ?v=v*QvtvyG J9vZvZvMvAvy9v< J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG J9vs;vf )vzvf &vTvqv! d(vtvyG
,xvyP hv|h .J9vGv%vzvyG ?v+vpGQvjvFh ,?v+vTvqv"vyG J9v+v!9vTvzvyGh 9v+vpGQvi(v"vC G {vDv|
#vwv}vAvS 9v+vpGQvi(v+vzv=v+v< #v | 9v %v< bv=v@Qv* 9v|h ?vf(v }v Gv}vyG gPv$ J:9vtv| f{vp
33
?v<(vFC O9vGv*E #v| ,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG EvJv=vzvy ?v+q vTv+vFQvyG J:9vGv}vy9v< #v+v}vAv%v}vyG
EvJv=vyG ?vgv<9vAv| #vwv}v* Ev+vI J9v$9vGv@G )vyE ?vp9v\E ,~v%vAvzv8vSC #vf ?v+vp9vv
.QDvC u}g<
34
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fvvvv0DG
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L9<(y .H .Q
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d(vI Uv}vWvyG fGQhO #vf f(v}vzvwvAv* G(vyGR9v| ~v%v!} ;?v+v}vzvgvyG ?v+vI9v"vyG #v|
?v+vav}v"vyG JGQ9v=vgvyG NvSQv@ iOv}v< &vTvqv! (v$ &vzv%vF #vf rvWvv Ovs ,VQ}G
hC ,(Schaff) )1(a9v v V xv v yP Xv v s9v v ! 9v v }v v v v v ?v v jv v zv v yG ,v v p (Stereotypes)
q
#v f ~v zv wv Av * dGR9v | &v Tv qv ! (v $ &v !C Ov v|v }v yG #v | (Cameron) )2(fhQv +v |9v v
{v}vf #v| ARvF ,v$h ,?v+vy9vAvyG ?vWvs9v"v}vyG ,vp .y9v%v<hQvizh Uv}vWvyG yY(vzv_z
,J9vf(v}vGv}vyGh ,?v*(vjvzvyG b9vTv!}Gh ,OGQvp}G #v+v< ?vs;vgvyG d(vI RvGn v"v|
?v+vav}v"vyG JGQ9v=vgvyG )vzvf 9v"vy:OvAvSG >vzviC 9v"vzvv UvS|v! iOv| jC )vyE RQv<C
Adam Schaff, «The Pragmatic Function of Stereotypes,» International )1 (

Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 45 (1984).
Deborah Cameron, «Demythologizing Sociolinguistics: Why Language )2 (
Does Not Reflect Society,» in: John Earl Joseph and Talbot J. Taylor, eds.,
Ideologies of Language (London; New York: Routledge, 1990).
37
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k
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fC 9v"v+vzvfh .)j(vjvzvyG( 9v"v"vAv| #v| ?v}v%v| AGRvFC {vwvWv@ ?v+vav}v"vyG JGQ9v=vgvy9vp
hC yIQv+vjv Av|z J9v jvy #vf ~v%vDv*OvI ,vp ?vtv<9vTvyG d9v+vF}G ?vjvy ~v%vp dh9vJv!
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f{vp GPvwv$h ,iQvLC J9vjvy #v| y9v+vCGQh IQOvJv"v|z hC ,yJ(v}vyG )vyE ?vzv*Bz
q
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k
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#v v| ~v v$ S9v v"v vyG fCh :A9v v+v vV}G {v vgv vqv v@ : J9v vjv vzv vyGz fC Ov vvDC fC Ov v*QC
9v"vzvv ,hv=vavy9v<h .yS9v"vyG &vzvgvqv* 9v}vf IOQvGv| J9vjvzvy9vp ,A9v+vV}G f(vzvgvqv*
.JGOQG}yG {}gAT!h {gq!
Y9T@:G ,p PLp B f(v v v 2

hvSG(vyG Ov+vYQvyG d(vI ?v|9vf IQvdv! VQvgvy ,vp9vwvyG Rv+vJvyG jOvy Uv+vy
y?vjvzvyG 9v+vF(vy(v+vS(vSz hC yJ9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGz d9vGv| )vyE ,v}vAv"v}vyG {v}vgvzvy
d(vZvp ,vp ?v+v\Q}G ~vdvgv| ?v+vavjv@ Bv}v@ Ovsh v v J9v+v"v+vAvTvyG JG(v"vS Pv"v|
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Q9v v }v v Av v *Oh ,(Ammon) f(v v |C fOv v y #v v | #v v *Q(v v Wv v "v v }v v yG #v v +v v +v v f(v v S(v v }v v yG
fE .xv vyP {v v=v vs )4(Q9v v}v vAv v*O )v vyEh .(Mattheier) )3(Qv v*9v v%v v@9v v|h (Dittmar)
Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar and Klaus J. Mattheier, eds., )3 (

Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society
= Soziolinguistik: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und
Gesellschaft, 2 vols. (Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 1987-1988).
Norbert Dittmar, Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory and )4 (
Application = Soziolinguistik: Examplarische und kritische Darstellung ihrer
Theorie, Empirie und Anwendung, Translated from the German by Peter Sand [et
al.] (London: Edward Arnold, 1976).
38
J;vGv}vyG #v| OOvf Q(v%vc )vyE iOC J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvzvy Qv}vAvTv}vyG Q(vavAvyG
~q v @ ,v Av yG J:9v tv }v yG OOv f fC (Verdoodt) )6(JhOQv p {v tv !h .)5(IOv *Ov Gv yG
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k
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200 #v | Ov *RC J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG Qv }v @|v | {v =v tv Av SG 9v }v v .9v $Qv Wv ! #v wv }v }v yG
9v %v s9v +v S ,v p ?v jv zv yz J9v SGQO 9v %v zv v Bv !9v vh ,1994 ?v "v S g9v tv Av zv | ,v p d9v tv |
k k
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k
Qv Zv Izv S .?v *Qv dv ! fhO #v | ,9v +v =v Tv ! ,J9v SGQOv yG gPv $ #v | Qv +v Dv v Bv !9v vh
a(v <: {v Dv | #v *Qv L6G )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h ,,v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < (v $ 9v | ,v p ,v Tv qv !
f9v v Dv v I9v v =v v yGh (Trudgill) {v v +v v FOhQv v @h (DeCamp) >v v |9v v wv v *Oh (Labov)
uv Tv ! {v wv V f(v wv * fC >v Gv * rv +v v :?v *Rv vQv | ?v +v ]v s #v +v |hQh jhQv zv +v |
,jQv +v Tv qv @h {v |9v V {v wv Wv < ,Q9v =v Av f:G ,v p Pv Lzv * fC &v "v | 9v !OQC GPE j(v jv y
q
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q
IQOv tv yGz ?v Wv s9v "v | ,v "v Dv Av SC fC ,v zv f jQv dv "v yG Q9v _ G GPv $ #v }v \ )v Av Ih
,vp f9v}vWv+vp hv=v@zvSh ,?v*QhQv\ (Hymes) Rv}v*9v$ 9v$Qv=vAvfG ,vAvyG y?v+vzvYG(vAvyG
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a;S}G ^g< v v 3
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9v"v!E OvtvAvgv! 9v"vv Bvs(vyG xvyP ,vp #vwvy ,?vJv+vJvY ?v+vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyG ?v+vI9v"vyG
k
;v *(v _ Bv SQ(v | J:9v Gv | ,?v sO Qv Dv vC f(v wv "v y hC ,J9v +v !9v Tv zv y9v < {v jv Av Wv !
.H9AwyG QLB ,p hFGQCG ?}F9s Qd!G )5(

Albert Verdoodt, «Organisation of the Discipline of Sociolinguistics,» in: )6 (
Ammon, Dittmar and Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook
of the Science of Language and Society, vol. II, section 191.
39
9v +v pGQv jv Fh ,?v +v qv Y(v yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv yGh ,?v !Q9v tv }v yGh ?v +v Mv *Q9v Av yG 9v +v F(v y(v zv +v qv y9v v
,vAvyGh ,y?v+v}vzvfz f(vwv@ fzv< J9vZvZvMvAvyG gPv$ ?v=vy9vav| fE .)7(J9vGv%vzvyG
^v gv < 9v %v y ,Qv Wv f #v |9v Dv yG fQv tv yG Pv "v | IQv | #v | Qv Dv vC 9v %v Av i9v +v Y JOv +v fC
y?v+vf9v}vAvF:G e(vzvgvzvyz IQvLzvAv}vyG J:9v]v"vyG ,vp JQvCC 9v%v!C 9v}v< 9v"v$ ?v+v}v$}G
GPv%vy ?v+v!9vTvzvyG LP9v}v"vyG 9v%v<9vgv+vAvSG >vf(vAvTv@ ,vwvyh ,e(vzvgvv 9v%v< aGQvAvf;vy
fQv vtv vyG rv vZv vAv v"v v| ,v vp (Max Müller) Qv vy(v v| Uv vv9v v| eOv vs Ov vsh .VQv vjv vyG
k k
,vp {vDv}v@ 9v*(vs 9v=vzvav| ,?vjvzvyG ~vzvf d(vI &v@GQv\9vJv| #v}v\ ,QvWvf hvS9vAvyG
)vyE xvyP O9vsh .~vzvgv v eRv Jv< f6G 9v$QGQvsE ~q v@ ?v!Q9v tv }vyG 9v+v F(vy(vzv +v qv yG fC
bhQvqvyG 9v%vtvph Uvwvgv@h ,J9vjvzvyG 9v%vtvph Qv+vjvAv@ O9v=v|h y#v+v!G(vsz hv\h
.y#+!G(tyGz gP$ {}f {IGQ| ?+G%zyG
k
,j(vjvzvyG bv+vJv}vyG >vTvJv< ,:hC ,Qv+v+vjvAvyG )vzvf bv<G(v]vyG JOOvI
d9vZv@:Gh IQvGv%vyG {vDv| ,,vf9v}vAvF:G b9v+vTvyG >vTvJv< IQhQv]vyG Ov"vf ~q vC
(A. S. ShQ .S .S .C MQvAvsG J9v+v"v+vgvTvAvyG JG(v"vS ,vph .,vf9v}vAvF:G
9v |h IQ(v vPv }v yG Qv +v jv Av yG J9v +v zv }v gv y ?v f(v "v Av | ?v +v \9v *Q y#v +v $GQv <z C. Ross)
#v| I(vtv< &vy9vGvgvAvSG ~q v@ y?v+v}vzvgvyGz >vzvav| fE .)8(J9v}vzvTv| #v| 9v%v< bv=v@Qv*
k
#v +v < {v Y9v qv yG Ov Jv yG xv yPv < GQv av Tv | ,(Chomsky) )9(,v wv Tv |(v V aQv _
J. K. Chambers and Peter Trudgill, Dialectology (Cambridge [Eng.]; )7 (

New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980), and Peter Trudgill, «Dialect
Contact, Dialectology and Sociolinguistics,» in: Kingsley Bolton and Helen Kwok,
eds., Sociolinguistics Today: International Perspectives (London; New York:
Routledge, 1992):
>v!9vF ]E ,J9+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGh IQv+vL}G gPv$ #+v< OhOvAG d(vI ?v}v%v| J9vdvI;v| #v}v]vAv@
.J9+!9Ty(+@G d(I ?|OtA| J9dI;|
Alan S. C. Ross, «Philological Probability Problems,» Journal of the )8(
Royal Statistical Society, Series B, vol. 12, no. 1 (1950).
Noam Chomsky, Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of )9 (
Rationalist Thought (New York: Harper & Row, [1966]).
40
k
9v av <GQh ,d9v *hQ JQ(v < I9v Jv !h (Descartes) JQ9v wv *Oh jOv +v y(v Av yG (v Jv "v yG
.Z9|OyG ?+"=<h ,zwyG (J"y9< g9*E
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?vvQvI 9v]v*C c9v"v$ Bv!9vv ,QvWvf hvS9vAvyGh QvWvf #v|9vDvyG #v+v!QvtvyG ,vp
uvpGQ jPv yG Xv I(vAv }v yG fOv}v Av yG g9v Gv@ {v gvp OQv v y?v +v=v gvWv yG ~v +v tvyGz A9v+v I
(Samuel f(vTv!(vF {v*(v|9vY #v+v< Qh9vGv@ ?v|9vsE 9v"v"vwv}v*h .?v+vf9v"vZvyG IQ(vDvyG
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hv| ,9vpQvAvgv|( )10(&vS(v|9vs ,vp ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ~v+vdv"v@ &vAvyh9vJv| ,vp Johnson)
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OGOvAvf:9v< ?v*9v"vgvyG 9v]v*C 9v}v$9v"vgv| Kv*QvyG Y9vpOv!Gh hv_9vtv}vyG ,vyG(v@ fC ,xvyP
.(Burns) Rv!Q(v<h (Barnes) Rv!Q9v< {vDv| J9vGv%vzvyG AGQvgvV #v+v<h )Uvqv"vy9v<
?v gv SGh ?v vQv I ?v *GOv < Qv Wv f hv S9v Av yG fQv tv yG #v | Qv +v L}G ARv Gv yG Ov %v V Ov sh
S(v v|9v vs ,v vp 9v v}v vv( Uv v+v v|G(v vtv vyG ,v vp AG(v vS ?v v+v vGv v%v vzv vyG d9v vwv vV}G #v v*hOv vAv vy
,v vp hC (Joseph Wright) Bv v*GQ rv v*R(v vGv vy )11(?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G J9v vGv v%v vzv vyG
?vzv}vgvAvTv}vyG )?v+vGv%vzvyG( d9vwvV~vy ,vpGQvjvGvyG hv*R(vAvyG ~vSQ O9vsh .)bvFGQvMvyG
{vYG(vqvyG( hv| Qvc9v"vAvy9v< (Isogloss) yj(vjvzvyG {vY9vqvyGz e(v%vqv| Q(v%vc )vyE
?v+vpGQvjvGvyG OhOvJvyG :(Isotherms) QQ9vJvAvyG W(vavLh (Isobars) )?v+v\9v*QvyG
Uv qv !z ,v p yA,v Wv yG Uv qv ! ?v +v }v Tv Av yz ?v qv zv Av Mv | d9v wv V} #v +v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG #v +v <
,vAv"vS #v+v< ?v*(vjvzvyG &v@9v+vavgv| 9v+v!9v}vyC ,vp (Wenker) Qvwv"v+vp hv}vFh .y?vjvzvyG
?v v<9v vAv vv jOG(v v=v vyG ,v vp #v v+v vSQOv v}v vyG #v v| 50,000 #v v| &v v=v vzv vav v< 1887h 1876
,v p ?v f(v \(v | ?v zv }v F 40 {v <9v tv | )&v !(v zv }v gv Av Tv * jPv yG( ,v Gv %v zv yG {v <9v tv }v yG
#v +v SQOv }v yG )v zv f Ov }v Av gv * f9v v Ov tv y( 9v +v zv gv yG ?v +v !9v }v y}G ?v jv zv y9v < IQ9v }v Av SG
.)&v< ?v+vFRvF ?vpQvgv| :E ~v%v*Ovy Uv+vy 9v}v<Q A,vWvy uv+vsO AGOC )vzvf d(vZvJvzvy
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aQv_ #v| v v ?v*GOv< ?vavtv"vv ?v_9vTv=v< fEh v v 9v=v*Qvtv@ ?vtv*QvavyG Uvqv! Bvzv}vgvAvSGh
Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language..., 2 vols. )10(

(London: J. and P. Knapton, 1755).
Joseph Wright, ed., The English Dialect Dictionary..., 6 vols. (London: )11(
OUP, 1898-1905).
41
,)12(?v v*Ov v!;v v@(v vwv vS:G J9v vGv v%v vzv vy &v vAv vSGQO ,v vp (McIntosh) T(v vAv v"v v+v vv9v v|
k
9v%v@COv< ,vAvyG ?v+v=v*GQvwvyG ?v+v!9vav*Qv=vzvy ?v*(vjvzvyG ?vSGQOvyG ,vp 9v+vZvMvV 9v%vAvzv}vgvAvSGh
.)13(1952 ?"S &@Of9T}<
)vzvf (Jules Gilliéron) fhQv+v+vzv+vF d(vF ,vTv!QvqvyG ~vy9vgvyG Ov}vAvfGh

(Edmont) Bv!(v|OE (v$ HQOv| ,v!GOv+v| EvI9v=vy ?v+vZvMvWvyG J9vdvI;v}vyG
k
IOQvqv| 1,500 v v y ?v+v%vqvWvyG d9vwvV}G fhqOh ,9vTv!Qvqv< 9vgvs(v| 639 QGR jPvyG
,cGPv !B Pv "v |h .~v $9v tv Av !G #v +v +v zv Jv | (Informants) #v *Qv =v Mv | #v f 9v $Pv LC
o
J9v SGQOv yG ,v p ,fhQv +v +v zv +v F ?v tv *Qv _ ,J;v *Ov gv Av yG ^v gv < hv | ,JOv }v Av fG
J9v*:(vy9v<h ,GQvAvzvGv!E 9v%v+vp 9v}v< ,?v+v<hQh}G dhOvyG ,vs9v=v< J9vGv%vzvyG d(vI
k
{v}vgvyG ?vSQ9v}v| ,vp ?v+v"vtvAvyG JGQv+vjvAvyG JQvCC Ovsh .9v]v*C GOv"vvh IOvJvAv}vyG
J9v<9vFE {v+vGvTv@ bQv_ ,vp U(vZvMvy9v<h ,J9v+vavgv}vyG {v+vzvJv@h ,v!GOv+v}vyG
k
.?v+vTv+v_9v"vjv}vyG ?v_QvV}G ~q vC ?v+vpGQvi(v!(vqvyG ?v_QvV}G )vzvf :hC #v*Qv=vMv}vyG
q v
AGRvFC {v+vGvTv@ #v| #vwv| ?v+v!hQvAvwvy G JGhO~vy Ov*GRvAv}vyG Qv*(vavAvyG fC 9v}vv
{v}vGvv J9v<9vF G hC IOQvqv}vyG J9v}vzvwvyG dOv< ,v F9vtvzvAvyG e;vwvyG #v| d(v_C
QGQv v vwv v vAv v vyG IRv v v%v v vFC Bv v v"v v vwv v v|h .A9v v v+v v vV}G A9v v v}v v vSC d(v v vI ?v v vzv v v8v v vSC #v v vf
.?<9AwyG ,p u+sOyG R++}AyG #| J9pGQi(!(ZyGh
?*Qd! J9\GQApG v v 4
J9vf9v"vtvyGh ?v+vav}v"vyG JGQ9v=vgvyG Qv*QvJv@ )vyE J9vGv%vzvyG ~vzvf iOC Ovtvy
(v$ ~v*OvtvyG &vF(vAvyG f9vvh ,J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ,vp 9v%vy(vI ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*}G
Angus McIntosh, An Introduction to a Survey of Scottish Dialects )12(

(Edinburgh: T. Nelson, 1952).
R. B. Le Page: «A Survey of Dialects in the British Caribbean,» )13(

Caribbean Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 3 (1952), and «General Outlines of Creole English
Dialects in the British Caribbean,» Orbis, vol. 6 (1957-1958).
42
{v<9vtv| ,vp ?v*hQvs uv_9v"v| ,vp y?v+vtv+vtvJvyG ?v}v*OvtvyG J9vGv%vzvyGz ^vgv< ?vgvs(v|
?v+q vTv+vFQvyG ?v*Ov*OvGvAvyG JG(vavMvyG iOvIE Bv!9vvh .fOv}vzvy y?vqv*Rv}vyGz ?vjvzvyG
?vGv+vAv! ,jQv]vJvyG J9vGv%vzvyG ~vzvf )vyE QhQv}vyG J9v+v"v+vTv}vMvyG JG(v"vS ,vp
bv S(v y9v v< ?v zv |9v gv yG ?v tv =v av yG d9v qv _} ?v +v }v v+v vzv vgv vAv yG J9v +v =v zv Tv y9v < e9v }v Av $;v y
)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<h .IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyGh 9v+v!9vav*Qv<h 9v+v!9v}vyC ,vp )14(jQv]vJvyG
Qv vvPv vyG (v v$ ,v vav v}v v"v vyG Qv v=v vMv v}v vyG f9v vv jhQv vtv vyG bv vS(v vyG d(v vI J9v vSGQOv vyG
(v $ Ev Jv =v yG Y(v \(v | f9v v ~q v C #v |h ,(NORM) {v tv "v Av }v yG Qv +v i #v Tv }v yG
,vjv=v"v* 9v}vv( ,vS9vSC bvMvv Y(v"vAvyG d(v=vs Uv+vyh j(vjvzvyG Qv+vjvAvyG H9v=vSC
JOC ,v Av yG H9v =v S}G #v f Ev Jv =v yG ~q v @ ,)?v *Qv ]v Jv yG J9v s9v +v Tv yG ,v p xv yP
Qv +v i ?v }v Gv Tv "v }v yG J9v jv zv yG ,v p ?v +v av }v "v yG JGQ9v =v gv yG ~v +v $9v qv | O(v Fh )v yE
MhQvyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vtv=vavyG d(vI J::O #v| &vzv}vJv@ 9v| hv|( IQv+vjvAv}vyG
.)?+"_(yG
#v|h .J9vGv%vzvyG ?v+vpGQvjvF )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vAv<9vC ?v+vf9v}vAvFG ?v+v"v< c9v"v$h

k
9v+v=vTv! f(vwv* fC {vDv|}G ?vGv%vzvyG ~vzvwvAv| )vzvf ,J;vC9v}vAv}vyG ?v!Q9vtv| {vFC
v
?v +v Gv %v zv yG uv _9v "v }v yG fC 9v }v v .~v +v zv gv Av yG uv *Qv _ #v f ihOv gv zv y VQv gv | Qv +v i
hv v "v v Y #v v| ,v v$ ?v v av v *Qv vMv v yG )v vzv vf ?v v *(v v jv vzv vyG {v v YG(v v qv vyG ,v v p ?v v|(v vSQv v}v v yG
,vp ?v+vav}v"vyG JGQ9v=vgvyG ^vgv=vy ~v+v$9vqv}v< bv<Qv@ fC 9v%v+vzvf f9vvh ,#v+v+vpGQvjvGvyG
k
9v| 9v=vy9vi ,vAvyGh ,ychOvyG ?vjvyz hC y?v+v!9v}v+vy}Gz hC y?v+v<(v"vGvyG ?vGv%vzvyGz {vDv|
[v+vZvMvAvy bvtvp #v*Qv+vjvAv| hC OvIGh Qv+vjvAv}v< >v!9vF}G f9v$PC ,vp Bvav=v@QG
.hatA|h {|9v uT!
k
Basil B. Bernstein, «Some Sociological Determinants of :;v v v v vDv v v v v | Qv v v v vdv v v v v !G )14(
Perception: An Inquiry into Sub Cultural Differences,» British Journal of
Sociology, vol. 9 (1958), and Dittmar, Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory
and Application.
43
fC Ov Gv +v S (Features) J9v }v Tv yG d9v }v gv Av SG ,v p 9v !Ov IC )v ]v | GPEh
#v| ~vTvs ,vp RmG(v@ ,vp >v$Pv@ fCh hv_9vtvAv@ fC 9v%v"vwv}v* ?v*(vjvzvyG {vYG(vqvyG
#vwv@ ~vy J9v Gv %vzv yG f{v p GPvwv $h ,Ov *Ov F #v | bQv Av qvAv y O(vgv @ ~q v C ,uv *Qv av yG
?v +v f9v }v Av F:G JGQv +v jv Av }v zv y #v wv }v * jPv yG iOv }v y9v p ,?v gv av tv Av | :h IOv Iq (v |
f9v v bv FGQv L {v wv V ,v p )v "v =v @ fC &v +v p ?v *(v %v Gv yG JGQv +v jv Av yG #v f ?v qv zv Av Mv }v yG
k
fC Bv vyh9v vI ,,v vAv vSGQO 9v v%v v+v vp 9v v}v v< ,J9v vSGQOv vyG ^v vgv v< fC :E .GOhOv vJv v|
o
hC ,y(Old Fashion) ?v }v *Ov s ?v \(v |z {v Dv | JGQ9v =v gv < JGQv +v jv Av }v yG f(v "v gn v @
.yahQg|z hC yQO9!z
)v yE ?v p9v tv C #v | ?v *(v jv zv yG bhQv qv yG U(v Zv Mv < J9v \GQv Av p:G rv zv Av Mv @

hC ?v v+v "v vCE hC )v vyh}G ?v FQOv y9v < ?v v+v pGQv jv F Bv !9v vv GPE 9v v| >v Tv Jv v< :?v vp9v tv vC
q
?v av =v @Qv | hC Uv "v Gv y9v < ?v tv zv gv Av | hC )15(?v +v tv =v _ hC ?v +v f9v }v Av FG hC ?v *O9v Zv Av sG
hC yYGQv Zv vyGz hC y#v v|9v ]v vAv yGz v v v < ?v av =v @Qv | Bv !9v vv GPE 9v | hC ;)16(#v Tv y9v <
hC ,~v%v+vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vAv<9vC [vMvWvyG ?vGv%vy Bv!9vv GPE 9v| hC ,)17(y?vavzvTvyGz
q
?v*(vjvy JGh9v<QvI 9v| OvI )vyE ),vAv+v\Qvp MQvAvtv@ 9v}vv( 9v"vgv+v}vF 9v"vv GPE 9v|
q
.U9v L b9v +v S {v v ,v p 9v $Q9v %v cE dh9v Jv ! ,v Av yG ?v *(v %v yG >v Tv Jv < )f(v zv Av @(
?vtv=vavyG 9v%v+vp f(vwv@ ,vAvyG J9vgv}vAvGv}vyG #v+v< J9v\Q9vgvAvyG ?v+v}v$C 9v"vy hOv=v@h
QvjvY}G Nv+vWvyG #v+v< fQ9vs( #v*Ovy9v< ?v!Q9vtv| {vsC JGQvV|v| 9v%vy ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
M. Berntsen, «Social Stratification in the Marathi Speech of :Qv v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v !G )15(

Phaltan,» Indian Linguistics Poona, vol. 39, nos. 1-4 (1978), and Lachman
Mulchand Khubchandani, Plural Languages, Plural Cultures: Communication,
Identity, and Sociopolitical Change in Contemporary India (Honolulu, HL:
University Press of Hawaı̈, 1983).
.H9AwyG GP$ #| hS9AyGh #|9DyG #+zZqyG Qd!G )16(

Penelope Brown and Albert Gilman, «The Pronouns of Power :Qv v v v vdv v v v v !G )17(
and Solidarity,» in: Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., Style in Language ([Cambridge, MA]:
MIT Press, [1960]).
44
k
hC ,(Agnihotri) )18(jQv@(v%v+v"viC ~v%vSQO 9v}vv 9v+v!9vav*Qv< ,vp 9v"vS Qv=vv}Gh
d(vI J9vdvI;v| jOv=v! fC dh9vJv! 9v"v!E .xvyP Qv+vih IQvWv=vyG f(vzv< ?v!Q9vtv|
L9v<(vy ,vp #vwvy .9v"v+vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vyGO J9vshQvp S9vSC )vzvf iQvLC J9vp9vtvC
#v+v*Rv+vzv+v=vyG ^vgv=vy ?v+v@GPvyG a9vYh}G fC rv+vv 9v"vzvGvS )19(Qvzv+vv v v jQ(v<9v@h
#v f Kv \Gh {v wv Wv < Bv qv zv Av LG IQv Wv =v yG f(v yh ?v +v sQv gv yG d(v I (Belizeans)
k k
{v}vgvyG JGO9vtvAv!G #v| 9v|9v$ GARvF fE .#vJv! 9v%v< e(vtv"vS 9v"vv ,vAvyG a9vYh}G
?v gv +v =v av yG )v zv f Rv wv @QG Y9v }v Av F:G A9v }v zv f &v < e9v s jPv yG ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG
9v "v !C 9v }v v .j(vjv zvyG Qv +v jv AvyG 9v %v < 9v "v av<Q ,v Av yG ?v +vf9v }v Av F:G J9v +v "v=v zvy ?v av+v Tv =v yG
,9v"v< ?vY9vL ?v*(v+v"v< J9v}vS S9vSC )vzvf iQvL}G J9vjvzvyG Y9v}vS 9v"vyh9vI
k
f(vwv@ ,vAvyGh v v ;vDv| ?v+vgvavtv}vyG J9v}vTvy9vv v v ?v*(vjvzvyG J9v}vTvyG 9v"vzv}v$C 9v}v<Qh
.y?vjvzvyG Uvqv"vyz #v*QvLB #v+v}vzvwvAv| )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vI9v"vyG #v| ?vyGO
k
9v !Q9v =v Av f9v < 9v | hv }v Av Gv | )v yE 9v !Qv dv ! GPE ?v Y9v L ?v qv Zv < GOQGh GPv $ f(v wv *h
k
,vp {v+v FOhQv@h cQ(v *(v+v! ,vp a(v <: {v Dv| ,#v +v}v+v tv | 9v !9vwv S : ,>v!9v FC
Ov +v vzv @ ?v yh9v Jv | ,v p {v Dv }v Av @ Qv _9v Mv | {v }v Jv * #v +v }v +v tv | 9v "v !(v vh .Xv Av *hQ(v !
.9"< ?Y9MyG ?+a}"yG JGQ9=gyG
?v v+v vpGQv vjv vF J9v v!9v vwv v|Eh IRQ9v v=v vyG {v vv9v vWv v}v vyG #v vf rv vWv vwv vyG ~q v v@ Ov vtv vy
?v tv *Qv _ Uv qv "v < )20({v +v FOhQv @h (Chambers) RQv =v |9v V fOv y #v | J9v Gv %v zv yG
d(v I Bv }v @ ,v Av yG J9v SGQOv yG ,v ph .IOv IGh ?v jv zv y J9v Gv %v yz #v f rv Wv wv yG
f(vwvAv@ ~q v|p z :#v+v+vy9vAvyG #v+vyG|vTvyG ?v<(vgvY 9v"v%vFGh ,d(v*QvwvyGh ?v+v<QvjvyG Ov"v%vyG
fC &v+vzvf f9vv GPE j(vjvzvyG uvTv"vyG {vwvV f(vwv* fC >vGv* rv+vvzh y??vjvzvyG
Rama Kant Agnihotri, «The Processes of Assimilation: A )18(

Sociolinguistic Study of Sikh Children in Leeds,’’ (Unpublished PhD Dissertation,
University of York, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1979).
Le Page and Tabouret-Keller, Acts of Identity: Creole-Based )19(
Approaches to Language and Ethnicity, chapter 6.
Chambers and Trudgill, Dialectology. )20(
45
.y??+F(y(w+TyGh ?+f9}AF:G hF9s(yG Q9=Af:G #+g< PLz*
J9+"+T}MyG JG("S ,p d9Z@:G J9+!9Ty Q(a@ v v 5

&v !C )v yE IQ9v V 9v < ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv zv y 1989 #v +v |hQ ?v SGQO JCOv < Ov tv y
f{vp ,~q vC #v| .?v*(vjvzvyG ?v*O9vI}G fG(v"vgv< H9vAvv ?vpO9vZv| >v*QvjvyG #v| f(vwv+vS
k
)?v*OOvgvAvyG hC( ?v+vF9v"vDvyG fC ,v$ ,9vtv=vTv| ?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v*Qvdv"vyG 9v%v\QvAvqv@ ,vAvyG ?vy9vJvyG
k
f9v v|hQ )v vyE ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v< Bv v!9v vv Ov vsh .GO9v v+v vAv vfG Qv vDv vv}G ?v vy9v vJv vyG ,v v$ ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG
.yJ9+!9Tzy ,S9S}G {wW}yGz )21(f(T<(v9F
Kv vzv vav vZv v| {v vGv vTv v* )22(jRv v+v vzv vGv v! G OQ(v vqv vTv vvC S(v v|9v vs uv vJv vzv v| fE
k
(Eugene GOv*9v! #v+vFhC fOvy #v| :hC {v}vgvAvSG &v!C )vzvf yJ9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGz
.1949 ,v p ?v @G(v Zv yG d(v I jQ9v +v gv }v yG &v zv }v f #v | ?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v gv =v av yG ,v p Nida)
,v p v v 1939 ,v p [v Zv Mv Av v yJ9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGz )v zv f IQv | dhC {v +v ICh
J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG d(v Iz (T. C. Hodson) f(v SO(v $ .S .J ,J:9v tv |
,v p (Martinet) &v +v "v +v @Q9v | aQv _ #v | Kv zv av Zv }v yG {v }v gv Av SGh )23(yOv "v %v yG ,v p
:)25(d9s E+I ,Languages in Contact )24(X*Q"*9p ?IhQ_} &A|Ot|
Roman Jakobson, «Results of the Conference of Anthropologists and )21(

Linguists,» International Journal of American Linguistics, supplement, memoir no.
8 (1953).
R. W. Burchfield, ed., A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary. )22(
Sc-Z (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1986).
Thomas C. Hodson, «Sociolinguistics in India,» Man in India, vol. XIX )23(
(1939), p. 94.
Uriel Weinreich, Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems, )24(
Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York; no. 1, with a Preface by André
Martinet (New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953).
.vii U ,&Tq! QOZCG )25(
46
q q
)?v *(v jv y( IQv +v Wv f {v v fC ,v ]v Av tv * Ev Jv =v yG eOv tv @ f9v v 9v | Bv sh ,v p
k
)vyE GQGQv| GhO(vgv* fC #v+v+v!9vTvzvyG )vzvf f(vwv+vS .?v}vGvTv"v|h ?vzvtvAvTv| f(vwv@
?v*(vjvzvyG IQv+vWvgvyG fC Ovv|v! fC f6G 9v"v+vzvf #vwvy .,v@9v}viGQv=vyG VGQvAvp:G GPv$
k
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,vp ,vy9vDv}vyG hv}vAvTv}vyG v v ~vzvwvAv}vyG ),vp {vDv}vAv}vyG( Qv+v%vWvyG Kv=vWvyG xvyP )vzvf
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JG(v"vS ?v*GOv< ,vp (Contact Linguistics) yd9vZv@:G J9v+v!9vTvyz ?vZvs #v|
#v v+v v< uv vp(v v* fC &v v"v vwv v}v v* LP(v v}v v! #v vf Ev vJv v=v vyG d(v vI QhOv v* J9v v+q v v"v v+v vAv vTv vyG
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~v +v $9v qv | #v +v <h ,J9v +v av gv }v yG d(v I GOv F ?v =v F9v Zv yG &v +v "v +v @Q9v | J9v dv I;v |
,v p O9v ]v Av yG xv yP {v <9v tv | :E &v Av *9v qv v Q9v =v Av LG #v wv }v * : (v Jv "v y ,v wv Tv |(v V
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Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (’S-Gravenhage: Mouton, 1957). )26(
47
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(Fant) Bv!9vph ,f(vTv<(vv9vF >vAvvh ,yIOOvJv| ?vjvy )vyE ,v}vAv"v* ,v|;vv KOvI
Ov vsh .(Code Switching) yjQv vqv vWv vyG Qv v+v v+v vjv vAv vyGz d(v vI (Halle) )28(,v vy9v v$h
(A fG(v"vgv< (Beryl Bailey) ,vzv*9v< {v*Qv+v< ?vIhQv_C )vzvf Xv*Qv"v*9vp aQvVC
)29(
,9v %v Av +v }v Tv @ ?v Dv I9v =v yGh 9v !C JQQv s 9v }v v( Grammar of «Jamaican Creole»)

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)?vIhQv_}G gPv$( Bv=vAvvh .)?vjvzvv 9vgvavtvAv| 9vgv\h ?v+vwv*9v|9vGvzvy xvyPv< 9v"v+vavfzvp
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9v}v<Qz :?v*Q9v+vgv| QvDvv}G ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G J9vGv%vzvyG #v+v<h )?v"v+vGv%vyG ?vjvzvyG( d(v*QvwvyG
J9v +v "v =v yG ,v p Ev Jv =v yG #v | ?v sO {v sC (Layers) J9v tv =v av yG ,v p Ev Jv =v yG f(v wv *
9v !OhRv @ fC 9v %v "v wv }v * ?v !hQv }v yG ?v jv y9v =v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v gv \(v yG gPv $z .y?v zv LGOv Av }v yG
,?v +v S9v S}G &v FO9v =v |h j(v jv zv yG Y(v "v Av yG d(v I IRv +v }v Av |h IQv }v Dv | ?v SGQOv y JGhOzv <
?v +v "v =v yG gPv $ >v zv s ,v p IO(v F(v }v yG b9v Tv !}G Ov IC rv Y(v y ?v yh9v Jv | gPv $ #v wv yh
d9vZv@:G b9vTv!C rvYh ,vp ,{vgvqvy9v< ,J9v<(vgvZvyG Qv%vdv@h .)30(y?vvQvAvWv}vyG
q k
f(vwv* hv\h {vv ,vph ,y?vzvLGOvAv}vyG ?vgvavtvAv}vyG J9vjvzvyG #v| 9vFGhRCz 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v<
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John Lotz, «Speech and Language,» Journal of the Acoustical Society of )27(
America, vol. 22, no. 6 (1950).
Roman Jakobson, C. Gunnar M. Fant [and] Morris Halle, )28(
Preliminaries to Speech Analysis: The Distinctive Features and Their Correlates,
Technical Report; 13 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, [1952]).
Beryl Loftman Bailey, Jamaican Creole Syntax: A Transformational )29(
Approach (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1966).
.2-1 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )30(
Penelope Gardner-Chloros, Code-Switching in :U(v v v v v v Zv v v v v v B9v v v v v v < Qv v v v v vdv v v v v v !G )31(
Community, Regional and National Repertoires: The Myth of the Discreteness of
Linguistic Systems ([Forthcoming]).
48
J9+"+ATyG JG("S v v 6
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{v*(v_ Ov+vzvtv@ c9v"v$ f9vv 9v+v!9vav*Qv<h IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG #v| {vv ,vp
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{v Dv | A9v }v Szv < xv yP bv =v @QG ,IOv Jv Av }v yG J9v *:(v yG ,v ph .?v zv +v LOv yG ?v +v =v "v F}G
,v v wv v Tv v p(v v "v v +v v y9v v | hv v | )32(9v v +v v !9v v av v *Qv v < ,v v ph ,Qv v +v v <9v v Sh (Boas) SG(v v <
?v v v vSQOv v v v}v v v v< &v v v vF;v v v v|Rh (J. R. Firth) KQv v v v+v v v vp .Q .Lh (Malinowski)
q
Q(v %v c )v yE ~v %v "v | {v v iOCh .fOv "v y ,v p ?v +v tv *Qv p}Gh ?v +v sQv Wv yG J9v SGQOv yG
Ev vJv v=v vyG {v v+v vwv vWv v@ ,v vp JOv vf9v vS ?v v +v v !9v v Tv v zv v yG ?v v+v v"v v=v vzv v y IRv v +v v }v v | J9v v *Qv v dv v !
k
9v|9v}vAv$G Y9v}vAvF:G A9v}vzvf Q9vfC ,#v*9vAvWv!Qv+v< {v=vs #vwvy ,)33(,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
k
.?+z+zJ@ IGOzv J9+!9Tzy ;+zs
LGhOR:Gz d(v vI (Ferguson) f(v vTv viQv vqv vy Rv v+v v}v vAv v}v vyG d9v vtv v}v vyG Qv v%v vc
?v"vS ,vp ,y?vjvzvyG Uvqv!z v v vy ?vqvzvAvMv| J;vGvTvy ,vqv+vch {v+vzvJv@ ,yj(vjvzvyG
dG|v Tv yG MQv _ )v yE ,U(v Zv Mv y9v < ,,v Av *9v $ )v zv f 9v %v tv +v =v av @ iOC( .1959
9v | d(v I ,(Creolists) j(v jv zv yG #v +v Gv %v Av yG H9v Jv YC )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < LQv Jv yG
x n
?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G i(v vtv vyG d(v vI a(v v<: {v v}v vf Kv vAv vph .)34()9v v| ?v vjv vy f(v vwv v*o
J9v!9vwv|E )vzvf Y9v}vAvF:G A9v}vzvf ^vgv< #v+vfC cQ(v*(v+v! ?v"v*Ov}vy ~q vC S9v@Q9v}vy
?v v"v vGv vy Bv vfOv vAv vSG ,1964 rv v+v vY ,v vph .gPv v%v vv y?v v+v v}v vzv vfz ?v v+v vzv v+v vzv vJv v@ bQv v_
?vf(v}vGv| Y9v}vAvF:G ~vzvf ,vp EvJv=vzvy ?v+vvQv+v|}G ?v8v+v%vzvy J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
n
J9v Y9v Zv Av L:G ,v p )v tv Av zv |o )v yE #v *Qv LB yY9v }v Av FG A9v }v zv fzh #v +v +v !9v Tv zv yG #v |
k
Edwin Ardener, ed., Social Anthropology and Language, ASA :;vDv| Qvdv!G )32(
Monographs; 10 (London; New York: Tavistock Publications, [1971]).
k
R. Hasan, «Meaning in Sociolinguistic Theory,» in: Bolton :;v v Dv v | Qv v vdv v !G )33(
and Kwok, eds., Sociolinguistics Today: International Perspectives.
R. B. Le Page, «What Is a Language,» York Papers in :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v !G )34(
Linguistics, vol. 13 (1989).
49
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.)35(f(TiQp ,p &"f Q*Qt@ OQh ,h+<9SC ?+!9}C IO}y ?zLGOA}yG
o
#v|z 1964 v v 1963 ?v"vS ,vp cQ(v+v< 9vAv=n vgvV BvTvSzv@ 9v+v!9vav*Qv< ,vph
~v vzv vf ,v vp Ev vJv v=v vyG Rv vvQv v| COv v<h ,y,v vv(v vzv vS ~v vzv vgv vv ?v vjv vzv vyG ?v vSGQO {v vFC
.&vI9v"vF BvJv@ ,v!9vTvzvyG EvJv=vyG ,q v_ ,vp (SSRC) ,v!9vav*Qv=vyG Y9v}vAvF:G
q o
,vp Y(v"v Av y9v < d9vjv AvVG {vv Kv*Rp v @ 9v %v!zv v JOv< ,v wv Tv|(vV ?v*Qvdv ! fC 9v }v<h
r o
f9vv ,y9v| ?vjvyz ,vp yIQnOvtvyGz )vzvf ,?v+vF9v"vDvAvSG ?vqvZv< ,JRvvQh ,?vjvzvyG
q
I(v vfOv v< #v v+v v+v vpGQv vi(v v"v vC Gh #v v+v v+v vF(v vy(v v<hQv vDv v!}G &v vF;v v|Rh Rv v}v v*9v v$ {v vgv vp OQ
y?v+vzvYG(vAvyG IQOvtvyGz rvYh uv*Qv_ #vf 9v$Rv+vI d9v}vwvAvSG )vyE J9v+v!9vTvzvyG
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,v p G(v ]v f gQ9v =v Av f9v < 9v %v zv +v jv Wv @ )v yE 9v | hv }v Av Tv | /~v zv wv Av | L9v Av Jv * ,v Av yG
q
OQhCh .?vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvS: ?v=vS9v"v}vyG bQvavyG {vv ?vpQvgv| jC v v ?v*(vjvy IQv+vWvf
)36(
?vjvzvyG 9v+vF(vy(v+vS(vS ,vp JGQ(vav@ f9v}vWv+vp ){v}vf( #v| dh}G OvzvGv}vyG
a(v<:h ,(vWv}v*Qvi ,)37(>v*Qv@ v v #v+vpQE 9v%v=vAvv ?v+vav+vavMv@h ?v+vzv|zv@ J:9vtv|
f9v}vWv+vp dPv< v v H9vAvwvyG rvZv! )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< v v h J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ,vp
k k
#v+vpQE d9vtv}vy .?vzvZvqv"v| y?vjvzvyG 9v+vF(vy(v+vS(vSz cQvAvy GQv+v=vv GO(v%vGv| &vTvqv!
LP(v}v! A9v"v=v< ,vzvDv| ?vzvjvWv"v| ,v%vp ?,vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vY9vL ?v+v}v$C >v*Qv@ v v
i(v sh #v *(v wv Av yG #v +v < (Symbiotic Relationship) ?v +v }v i9v "v Av yG ?v s;v gv zv y
,v ph .?v +v !9v Tv ! G ?v jv zv yG i(v sh #v *(v wv Av yG #v +v <h ,?v +v !9v Tv ! G J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG
Charles A. Ferguson, Directions in Sociolinguistics: Report on an )35(

Interdisciplinary Seminar ([n. p.]: Committee on Sociolinguistics of the US Social
Science Research Council, 1965), Items 19.
Joshua A. Fishman, ed., Advances in the Sociology of Language, vol. 1: )36(

Basic Concepts Theories and Problems: Alternative Approaches (The Hague:
Mouton, 1971).
Susan Ervin-Tripp, «Sociolinguistics,» in: Leonard Berkowitz, ed., )37(

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Academic Press, 1964-),
vol. 4.
50
k
~v +v dv "v @ #v | 9v gv | >v |9v wv *Oh Rv }v *9v $ #v wv }v @ J9v +v "v +v Av Tv yG ?v *9v %v ! ,v yG(v I
.(Mona) )38(9!(| IQ\9J|
~v vy;v vTv vyG :?v v+v vzv vYC ?v vqv vZv v< IQv v+v vjv vAv v}v vyG ?v vtv vTv v!}G LP9v v}v v! v v 7
?+"+}]AyG
(David >v v|9v vwv *O Ov qv *GOh ,(F. G. Cassidy) jOv +v vS9v v L .a f9v v
?vSGQOvyG ,vp ,v!hOvf9vS #v+v+vvQv+v|C #v+v+v!9vTvy ?vC;vC ,vzv*9v< {v*Qv+v<h ,DeCamp)
~v%v"v| 9v+vtv*QvpC d(vI #v+vDvI9v< #v+v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG #v*Ovf9vTv}vyG uv*Qvp ~v\h ,?v+v=v*GQvwvyG
.ShQ .S .S .Ch (A. McIntosh) T(v Av "v v9v | .Ch ,(J. Berry) jQv +v < .L
?v v SGQO ShQ Qv v Wv v ! ,J9v v +v v \9v v *Qv v yG ,v v p &v v @Qv v =v v L #v v f Qv v dv v "v v yG ^v v v jv v <h
,y9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yGz d9v }v gv Av SG #v +v < J9v p;v Av L;v y )39(IQv wv =v | y?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Sz
q
,vTv!9v! aQv_ #v| IOv}vy Qv%vAvVG Rv+v+v}v@ (v$h ,GQvAvzvGv!E ,vp 9v+vzvgvyG Qv+vi ?vtv=vavyGh
(Noblesse
)40(
?v y9v =v "v yG &v \Qv qv @ 9v | ,v p ShQh (Nancy Mitford) OQ(v qv Av +v |
(The
)41(
>vJvyG ?vtvI;v| ,v p Rv +v +v }v Av yG GPv %v y ?v zv Dv |C OQ(v qv Av +v | eOv sh ,Oblige)
.(Love in Cold Climate) )42(OQ9< (F ,p >JyG ,ph Pursuit of Love)
v
>v |9v wv *O eOv s ,9v wv *9v |9v F ,v p 9v }v $9v ]v s #v +v Av zv yG #v +v Av "v Tv yG ?v *9v %v ! ,v p
Dell H. Hymes, On Communicative Competence (Philadelphia, :Qv v v v v v vdv v v v v v v!G )38(

PA: University of Pennsylvania, 1971).
Alan S. C. Ross, «Linguistic Class-Indicators in Present-Day English,» )39(
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen (Helsinki), vol. 55 (1954).
Nancy Mitford, ed., Noblesse Oblige: An Enquiry into the Identifiable )40(
Characteristics of the English Aristocracy (London: H. Hamilton, [1956]).
Nancy Mitford, The Pursuit of Love (London: Hamish Hamilton, )41(
1945).
Nancy Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate: A Novel (New York: Random )42(
House, [1949]).
51
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d(v vI ,(Creole) )44(?v v"v v+v vGv v%v vyG J9v vjv vzv vyG J9v vSGQO d(v vI )v vyh}G ?v v+v vyhOv vyG
)v yE &v @O(v f Ov "v fh .y?v +v wv *9v |9v Gv yG J9v Gv %v zv yG ,v p ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G {v |G(v gv yGz
IQ(v Dv yG hv | Ov f(v | ,v p >v |9v wv *O f9v v ,,v zv *9v < {v Dv | ,IOv Jv Av }v yG J9v *:(v yG
,,vwv*9v|9vGvyG Ov+vYQvyG #v| ?vgvSG(vyG &vAvf(v}vGv| {vzvJv* f9vv 9v|Ov"vf ?v+vwvTv|(vWvyG
uvph Ov+vYQvyG GPv$ ,vp {vYzvAv}vyG Y(v"vAvyG (Systematize) uvTp v"r v}n v*o fC dh9vIh
q
d9v }v gv Av SG {v gv Gv < {v wv Wv }v yG {v Jv * ,v zv *9v < f9v v 9v }v "v +v <h .?v +v f9v }v Av FG Qv Y9v "v f
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,vp hvtv@ 9v%v!C )vzvf ?v*(vjvzvyG &v@9v+vavgv| >v|9vwv*O {v|9vf ,)45(9v+vy9vDv| :9v}vgvAvSG
)vyE d9v}vgvAvS:G ?vgvSG(vyG d(v*QvwvyG #v| ?v+vavL ?v*QGQv}vAvSG Qv=vf ?vqvzvAvMv| bvtv!
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)v yE )v zv qv Tv yG ?v Gv %v zv yG #v | JQG(v +v Av S &v qv "v Zv * f9v v 9v | v v 9v }v zv gv @ Qv Dv v}G ?v jv zv yG
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fG(v"vgv< :9vtv| >v|9vwv*O eOvs (Mona) )46(9v!(v}vyG IhOv! ,vph .9v+vzvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyG
fC &v+vp aQvAvfG ,yd(v*QvwvyG v v {v=vs 9v| e;vv ?v+vyG(vAv}vy jOv+vy(v@ {v+vzvJv@ (vJv!z
v
,v v}v v zv vTw v vyG S9v v +v vtv v }v vyG uv vTv v"v v < 9v v%v v +v v=v vV f9v v v &v v Gv vy9v v gv v* f9v v v jPv vyG uv vTv v"v v yG
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,v p ,(Guttman) )47(f9v }v @(v jv y ,v "v +v }v ]v Av yG ,v F(v y(v wv +v Tv yG (Scalogram)
David DeCamp: «The Pronunciation of English in San Francisco, Part )43(

I,» Orbis, vol. 7 (1958), and «The Pronunciation of English in San Francisco, Part
II,» Orbis, vol. 8 (1959).
R. B. Le Page, Jamaican Creole: An Historical Introduction to Jamaican )44(
Creole, Creole Language Studies; no. 1, with Introd., Phonemic Transcriptions,
and Glosses, by David DeCamp (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1960), and Proceedings of the Conference on Creole Language Studies Held
at the University College of the West Indies, March 28-April 4, 1959, Creole
Language Studies; 2 (London; New York: Macmillan, 1961).
)45(
Bailey, Jamaican Creole Syntax: A Transformational Approach, p. 3.
Hymes, On Communicative Competence, pp. 349-370. )46(
Louis Guttman, «A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data,» American )47(
Sociological Review, vol. 9 (1944).
52
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.&zqSC Qd!G )48(

Derek Bickerton: «Inherent Variability and Variable Rules,» )49(
Foundations of Language, vol. 7 (1971), and Dynamics of a Creole System
(London; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1975).
Charles James Nice Bailey, Variation and Linguistic Theory ([Arlington, )50(
VA]: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1973).
Suzanne Romaine, «What Is a Speech Community,» in: Suzanne :Qv v dv v !G )51(
Romaine, ed., Sociolinguistic Variation in Speech Communities (London: Edward
Arnold, 1982).
53
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,vAvyGh ,)52(#v+v|hQ {v=vs #v| Xvs(v! ?v+v"v+v}v]vAvyG ?v+v}vzvTvyG rvgv\ fE

PE ,y#v+vTv+v< c(v@z ?vGv%vzvy 1992 ?v"vS 9v%vAvSGQO ,vp ,xvyP hv| ,&vAvzv}vgvAvSG
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Suzanne Romaine, Socio-Historical Linguistics: Its Status and )52(

Methodology (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1982).
Suzanne Romaine, Language, Education, :,v v p ,/fo/~/po/four :,v v p 9v v }v v v )53(

and Development: Urban and Rural Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea (Oxford:
Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 181ff..
54
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R. B. Le Page, «Problems of Description in Multilingual )54(

Communities,» Transactions of the Philological Society (1968).
Howard Giles, ed., «The Dynamics of Speech Accommodation,» )55(
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, special issue, vol. 46 (1984).
55
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&vAvIhQv_C JQvWv!h .#v*QvL6G 9v%v!9vwvSh IQv*RvGvzvy #v+v+vqv+vZvyG #v*QvFGRvyG {v<9vtv|
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,v p Ev Jv =v yG Hv $9v "v | SQO Ov sh .1966 ?v "v S )Xv *Qv "v *9v p aGQv V{v < 9v ]v *C(
{v +v zv Jv Av yG &v Av IhQv _C ,v p SQOh .cQ(v *(v +v "v < ,v f9v }v Av F:G Ev Jv =v yG >v Av wv |
Y(v"vAvyG ?vSGQO jC ,,vS9vSC {vwvWv< Y(v"vAvy9v< ~vAv%v* gQ9v=vAvf9v< ,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
Y(v "v Av zv y &v av <Qv <h .)57(IQv +v jv Av |;v yG ?v +v y(v tv }v yG Ov fG(v tv zv y jQv dv "v yG Q9v _ G ,v p
Ovs Bv!9vv ,cQ(v*(v+v! ,vp #v+v+vf9v}vAvF:G Rv+v}vAvyGh ?vtv=vavy9v< ,v@G(vZvyG Qv+vjvAvyGh
)58(
#v vav v"v vVGh ,v vp O(v vTv vzv vy j(v vjv vzv vyG d9v v}v vgv vAv vS:G d(v vI J9v vSGQO &v vAv vtv v=v vS
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Word ,vp 9v]v*C IQ(vWv"v}vyG( (Ruth Reichstein) #v*9vAvWv*GQ KhQ ?vSGQOh
?v+vTv*Q9v< ?v+vf9v}vAvFG J9v8vp #v| SQGOv| K;vC ,vp I9vAvp 570 v v vy )1960 e9vf
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?v +v @G(v Zv yG JGQv +v jv Av }v yG #v | YG(v !C ?v C;v C OhQh 9v +v }v v Bv SQO ,v Av yG ?v qv zv Av Mv |
)vavS(vyG ?vtv=vavyG ,vp A9v<6G ?v"v%v|h ,?vgv_9vtv}vyGh ,?vSQOv}vyG Y(v"v< 9v%vAvav<Qh
.iQvL}G ~v+vy9vs}G #v| hC ,vTv*Q9v< ~v%vzvYC f9vv GPE 9v|h ,9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyGh
William Labov: «The Social Motivation of a Sound Change,» Word, )56(

vol. 19 (1963). [Reprinted in: Sociolinguistic Patterns (Philadelphia, PA: University
of Pennsylvania Press, [1973]).
William Labov, «The Notion of System in Creole Languages,» in: Dell )57(
Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages (Cambridge [Eng.]:
Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 461.
George Putnam and Edna O’Hern, «The Status Signiflance of an )58(
Isolated Urban Dialect,» Language Dissertation, vol. 53 (1955), Supplement to
Language, vol. 31, no. 4, part II.
56
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(Peter Trodgill, The Social Xv v Av v *hQ(v v ! ,v v p 1974 {v v +v v FOhQv v @ ?v v SGQO Bv v gv v =v v @ )59(

Differentiation of English in Norwich (Cambridge [Eng.]: Cambridge University
Press, 1974)),
.Q+=v {wW< a(<: ?_9aL
Le Page and Andrée Tabouret-Keller, Acts of Identity: Creole-Based )60(
Approaches to Language and Ethnicity.
57
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Qv v*9v vWv v+v vVh ,)61({v v+v vFOhQv v@ {v v}v vf ,v vp J9v v+v v\Qv vqv vyG gPv v$
,rvsG(v}vy9v< ?vzvZvAv| JGQv+vTvqvAvyG f(vwv@ fC #vwv}v* .#v*QvLB #v+v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vSh
&v gv Gv Wv * )63(?v "v +v gv | ?v f(v }v Gv | {v LGO ,v f9v }v Av F:G e9v Gv Tv !:9v < S9v Tv I{v <h
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,e(v %v qv }v yG GPv $ {v c ,v p ,9v "v "v wv }v *h )64({v |G(v gv yG #v | ?v f(v }v Gv | hC {v |9v f
c(vzvTvyG #v+v< bv<GhQvyG d(vI ?v*Qv+vTvqv@ QvDvv}G J9v+v\QvqvyG Q9v=vAvLGh ?vi9v+vY
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yO(v+vsz ;vDv| v v ?v*OQvqvyG ?v+vF(vy(vwv+vTvyG hC ,vf9v}vAvF:G Rv+vqvJvAvyG #v+v<h j(vjvzvyG
f(v|RvAvzv* : #v*PvyG S9v"vyG ,)66(jhQvzv+v}vy y?vqv+vqvMvyG bv<GhQvyGzh )65(a(v<:
9v %v < f(v av =v @Qv * G(v !9v v ,v Av yG ?v f(v }v Gv }v zv y ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G hC ?v *(v jv zv yG Ov fG(v tv y9v <
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Peter Trudgill: «Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the )61(
Urban British English of Norwich,» Language in Society, vol. 1, no. 2 (1972), and
The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich.
Jenny Cheshire, Variation in an English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Study )62(
(Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
.&zqSC (Edwards) ROQGhOE hFQ| ]E IQ9V G Qd!G )63(
k k
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, and :{+FOhQ@h a(<: #| ;v ;D| Qd!G )64(
Trudgill, «Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban British
English of Norwich,»
.yK*QZyG Q+i R9+A|;yz 9}%|(%q| ,p
William Labov, «The Linguistic Consequences of Being a Lame,» )65(
Language in Society, vol. 2 (1973).
Lesley Milroy, «New Perspectives in the Analysis of Sex Differentiation )66(
in Language,» in: Bolton and Kwok, eds., Sociolinguistics Today: International
Perspectives.
59
Ov fG(v tv yG 9v $Qv +v Dv @ ,v Av yG {v v9v Wv }v zv y IQv +v Dv v J9v Wv s9v "v | c9v "v $ Bv !9v v Ov tv y
9v v %v v s9v v +v v S ,v v p ?v v jv v zv v yG ?v v SGQOz( ,1970 ?v v "v v S &v v y d9v v tv v | ,v v ph .)67(IQv v +v v jv v Av v }v v yG
QGO jPv yG T9v tv "v yGh ?v +v Gv %v "v }v yGh ?v *Qv dv "v yG gQ9v wv pC a(v <: eOv s )y,v f9v }v Av F:G
#v +v FQOv +v S {v }v gv Av SG ,?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ?v +v F9v Zv I G Hv $9v "v }v zv y ?v SGQO ,v p 9v %v y(v I
k
J:9v }v Av I:G ?v *QGQv wv Av y 9v FP(v }v ! ,(Sankoff) )68(a(v wv !9v Sh (Cedergren)
,R9vGv!E /IQOvs jh9vwvTv|(vWvyG Rv+v+v}vAvy9v< X9vqvAvI:G {vFC #v| 9v%vAv+vp9v\E V(vf
#v+v<h )?v*(vjvzvyG( IQOvtvyGh J;v}vAvI:G OvfG(vs #v+v< uvpG(v@ uvzvL xvyPv< #v+vIQvAvtv|
9v%v!C )vzvf )69(a(v<: QGQvYE #v| ~viQvy9v< #vwvy .R9vGv! Gh OvfG(vtvyG gPv$ IQv+v@h
,,v Gv%v y(v+v S(vTv yG (v Jv"v yG #v| ARv Fh ,?v f(v }vGv }v zvy ~v zvwv Av}vyG ?vpQvgv | #v | ARvF
9v| a;vMv<h .,vF9vZvI G d9v}vAvI;vy J:9vI hvsG(vyG ,vp )OvfG(vtvyG gPv$( )vtv=v@
: ,?v+v"v+v}v]vAvyG ~vy;vTvzvy Qv+v=vwvyG &v}vfOh 9v%v+vzvf &v\GQvAvfG ,vp )70(f(v@Qvwv+v< MQvAvsG
ahQvdvyG Bv!9vv 9v}v%v| ,?v=vS9v"v| jC ,vp ~vzvwvAv}vyG &v< e(vtv+vS 9v}v< |v=v"vAvyG 9v%v"vwv}v*
?v+vGv%vy(v+vS(vTvyG OvfG(vtvyG fC 9v"v+vTv! GPE bvtvp {vv9vWv}vyG Qv%vdv@h .?v*9v"vgv< ?vZvZvMv|
,(Idiolects) 9v +v zv gv yG J9v Gv %v zv yG #v | ?v Zv Zv Mv | Qv +v i ?v f(v }v Gv }v y JGOQw v Gn v @ ,v $
n n
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.{tAT| h\h 9+a}! 9%+yE O"T*h ?*Q9+g| QO9Z}< ?a=@Q| Q+i 9%!(v ~iQ
Ralph W. Fasold, «Two Models of Socially Significant Linguistic :Qv dv !G )67(

Variation,» Language, vol. 46 (1970); Beatriz Lavandera, «Where Does the
Sociolinguistic Variable Stop?,» Language in Society, vol. 7 (1978); Barbara M.
Horvath, Variation in Australian English: The Sociolects of Sydney (Cambridge
[Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Suzanne
Romaine, «Variable Rules, O.K.? Or Can There Be Sociolinguistic Grammars?,»
Language and Communication, vol. 5 (1985).
Henrietta Cedergren and David Sankoff, «Variable Rules: Performance )68(
as a Statistical Reflection of Competence,» Language, vol. 50 (1974).
William Labov, «Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the )69(
English Copula,» Language, vol. 45, no. 4 (November 1969).
Bickerton, «Inherent Variability and Variable Rules». )70(
60
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k
uv Tv ! 9v %v !C )v zv f IOOv gv Av }v yG J9v +v |9v gv yG #v | 9v *C hC ,(Creole) ?v "v +v Gv $ ?v jv y
?v v+v v}v v$C ,v vTv vAv vwv v* fC &v v"v vwv v}v v* ,jQ9v v+v vgv v}v vyG e9v vdv v"v vyG #v v| Y(v v! hC hv vav vtv vAv v|
~v vv9v vJv v| ,v vp gQ9v v=v vAv vLG ~q v v@ dG|v vS (v v$h .iQv v=v vv ?v v+v vS9v v+v vSh ?v v+v vF(v vy(v v*Ov v*C
.)71(IOJA}yG J9*:(yG
J9vSGQO ,O(vTvyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E ,?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG Qv+vi ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G v v 10

1968 ,p 9!(}yG IhO!h ,d(*QwyG
#v *9v Av Wv !Qv +v < {v *R9v =v y (Deficit Hypothesis) Rv Gv gv yG ?v +v \Qv p JQv %v c
fC 9v$O9vqv|h ,J9v+v"v+vAvTvyGh J9v+v"v+vTv}vMvyG JG(v"vS ,vp (Basil Bernstein)
>v +v vQv Av yG 9v $QOv Zv | yIOOv Jv | IQv qv Vz f(v av =v "v Av Tv * ?v zv |9v gv yG ?v tv =v av yG d9v qv _C
~vwvJv* Ev+vI ?vSGQOvyG ,vp f(vJvzvqv* : ,vy9vAvy9v< ~v$h ,~v%vF9v<6 OhOvJv}vyG
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IQ(v vav vAv v}v vyG ~v v%v v@Qv vqv vVz #v v| 9v vs;v vav v!G )v vav vS(v vyG ?v vtv v=v vav vyG IPv v@9v vSC ~v v%v v+v vzv vf
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#v v +v v < 9v v gv v SGh GQ9v v Wv v Av v !G ?v v +v v \Qv v qv v yG gPv v $ Bv v pQv v f Ov v sh .y(Elaborated)
Ev+vI )73(IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG ,vph )72(9v<hQhC ,vp ~v+vzvgvAvyG ,vp #v+vZvAvMv}vyG
q
(Head JQ9v Av S Ov +v $ ?v +v zv }v f {v Dv | ,?v I(v }v _ ?v +v F;v f Hv |GQv < OGOv fE ~v @
a(v <: #v wv * ~v yh .O(v Tv yG d9v qv _~v y ?v Y9v L 9v %v %v +v F(v @ ~q v @ ,v Av yGh ,Start)
R. B. Le Page, ed., Abstract of the Proceedings of the Workshop of the )71(

International Group for the Study of Language Standardization and the
Vernacularization of Literacy, Dept. of Language, University of York, April 18-20,
1986 (York, England: University of York, Department of Language, 1986),
Abstracts, 1988, and 1990.
Dittmar, Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory and :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v!G )72(
Application.
Stephen O. Murray, Group Formation in Social Science :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v !G )73(
(Carbondale, [IL]: Linguistic Research, 1983).
61
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d9v qv _}G A:|v %v y y?v Zv s9v "v yG ?v jv zv yGz d(v I ?v +v S9v S}G J9v +v yh}G hv | 9v tv qv Av |
?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ?v+v"v<z d(vI ~v+vzvgvAvzvy IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG >vAvwv}vy EvJv< ~v*OvtvAv<
?v "v *Ov | ,v p #v +v +v wv *Q(v @Q(v =v yGh O(v Tv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG fOv y #v | ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG
a(v <: 9v %v IQv Av sG ,v Av yG ?v phQv gv }v yG IQv +v jv Av }v yG Ov fG(v tv yG fE .y)74(cQ(v *(v +v !
&v Av SGQO d;v L #v | )75(O(v Tv yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !Eh :(v <(v wv yG J9v +v "v < )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <
?v*Rv +v zv Gv!E J9v+v"v< uvAv Wv@ ?v SGQOvyG gPv$ ,vph .Bv*QvAvS ~v+v yQ9v %vyG J9v <9v Zvgvy
jQ9v+vgv}vyG (vJv"vyG #v| Uv+vy v v )(The Man Sick) :{vDv|( :(v<(vwvyGh O(vTvyG
f9vv 9v}vDv+vI 9v%vtv+v=vav@ ~vzvwvAv}vzvy #vwv}v* aPvJvzvy IQv+vjvAv| IOvf9vs uv*Qv_ #vf
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J9v+v"v< Qv=vAvgv@ : ,{vgvqvy9v<h .:(v<(vwvyG ?vjvzvy d9vGv}vyG KvTvp {vFC #v| 9v"vwv}v|
k
#v| hOv=v*h ,?v"v+vGv%vyG ?v+v=v*GQvwvyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< GQ9v+vgv| :(v<(vwvyG
#v | b;v av !:G &v +v zv f O(v S}G ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G ~v zv wv Av | fC VGQv Av p:G Ev =v gv yG
#v|h .?v +v |9vgvyG R9vGv! aPv I IOv f9v s uv+v=vav @ ~q vC jQ9v+vgv }v yG (vJv"vzvy ?vpQvgv|
f(vwv@ ,vAvyG xvzv@ hv| IGRG(v}vy9v< J9v+v"v=vyG gPv$ {vDv| d9v}vgvAvSG d(v=vs {v]vp}G
.(Code-Switching) jQqWyG Q++jAzy ?zD|zv ?*Q9+g| QDvC
?v *(v <Qv Av yG J9v SGQOv yG #v | ?v f(v }v Gv | c9v "v $ Bv !9v v Bv s(v yG xv yP ,v p

k k
;vDv| 9v%v< e9vs ,O(vTvyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E d(vI 9v]v*C ?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGh
,(J. L. Dillard) OQ;v v*O .d .Lh ,(W. A. Stewart) JQG(v v+v vAv vS .C .h
.hh ,(R. Fasold) Ov v v v v y(v v v v v S9v v v v v v v p .Qh ,(R. W. Shay) j9v v v v v v v V .h .Qh
?v"v+vGv%vyG J9vjvzvyG d(vI {v}vgvyG f9vvh .(W. A. Wolfram) )76(eGQvqvyhh .C
William Labov, Paul Cohen and Clarence Robins, A Preliminary :Qv vdv v!G )74(
Study of the Structure of English Used by Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New
York City, Final Report, Cooperative Research Project; no. 3091 (Washington,
DC: Educational Resources Information Center, 1965).
Labov, «Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English )75(
Copula».
.H9AwyG QLB ,p hFGQCG ?}F9s Qd!G )76(
62
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J9v+v"v+vAvTvyG JG(v"vS ,vph .X(vJvzv| {vwvWv< hvS(vAvyG ,vp GPvLB #v+vFOv+v=vyGh
Jamaican ,Creole Language Studies ,v vzv v}v vf #v v| #v v*OOv vf Qv vWv v! ~v v@
q
?v v gv v =v v av v yGh ,jOv v +v v S9v v wv v y (Jamaica Talk)h ,,v v zv v *9v v =v v y Creole Syntax
jOv * #v +v < Bv gv \hh ,)77(?v +v wv *9v |9v Gv yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G S(v |9v s v v v y )v yh}G
IhOv v"v vyG >v v|9v vwv v*Oh Rv v}v v*9v v$ {v v*O ~v vdv v! ,1968 ?v v"v vS ,v vph .#v v+v v+v vvQv v+v v|}G
,)78(9vwv*9v|9vF ,9v!(v| ,vp d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG J9vjvy d(vI ?v+v!9vDvyG ?v+vyhOvyG
?v vjv vy ,v vp uv vTv v"v vyG e(v v%v vqv v|z :fG(v v"v vgv v< ?v vgv vS(v v| ?v vSGQOv v< a(v v<: cQ9v vVh
:?v qv zv Av Mv | 9v *GhR #v | {v wv Wv }v yG fhOv *Ov f f(v }v zv wv Av | HQ9v sh .yd(v *Qv wv yG
RQv=v|9vjvy y?vyhQvwvyGh uvpG(vAvyGz ,>v|9vwv*Ovy yd(v*QvwvyG Ovgv< 9v| ?vjvzvy {v+vzvJv@z
?v "v FOv =v yGzh ,Ov "v %v yG ,v p ?v *Ov +v pGQOv yG /?v *Q6G ?v *Ov "v %v yG d(v I f(v Tv zv *hh
yjGh9v$ ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E ,vp ?vWv*9vgvAv}vyG ?vtvTv!}Gzh ,fGQ9v|9vTvy y?v*O9v}vyGh IRQ9v=vyG
?v vtv vTv v!}G #v v+v v< jQv vqv vWv vyG {v v*(v vJv vAv vyG d(v vzv vJv vyG Bv v"v v}v v]v v@h .,v vvGR(v vTv vAv vy
JGQv vqv vWv vyG e(v %v vqv v|h ,>v |9v wv v*Ov vy ?v v+v "v v+v v}v ]v Av vyG ~v y;v vTv vyGh ,?v vWv v*9v vgv vAv }v vyG
?v jv zv yGh d(v *Qv wv yG d9v Zv @G Y9v \hC fC a(v <: Hv Av "v Av SG Ov sh .?v av zv Av Mv }v yG
fCh ,,v wv Tv |(v V e9v dv ! hv | 9v %v qv +v +v wv @ #v wv }v * : #v +v FOv +v =v yGh ?v *Q9v +v gv }v yG
v k
^vgv< fzvv UvIC &v!E PE ,xvyP {vgvp &vAvyh9vJv| ,vp 9v8vavMv| f9vv >v|9vwv*O
.J9v jv y #v | {v sC f(v wv @ fC 9v %v "v wv }v *z 9v %v yh9v "v @ ~q v @ ,v Av yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG J9v jv y
k q
9v+v!9v|R e9v|}G )vyE eOvtvAvyG ?v+vjv<h .)79( y&vtv*Qv_ uvWv* >v+vvQvAvyG e(v%vqv| COv<h
Frederic Gomes Cassidy and R. B. Le Page, eds., Dictionary of )77(

Jamaican English (London: Cambridge University Press, 1967).
Hymes, On Communicative Competence. )78(
Peter Mühlhäusler, «The Standarization of the Tok Pisin,» in: Le )79(
Page, ed., Abstract of the Proceedings of the Workshop of the International Group
for the Study of Language Standardization and the Vernacularization of Literacy,
Dept. of Language, University of York, April 18-20, 1986 (York, England:
University of York, Department of Language, 1986).
63
IQv wv qv yG (v $ &v "v f ,v zv Mv Av yG ,v jv =v "v * 9v | fC ),v *CQv <h( Qv zv S(v %v zv $(v | jCQv <
.y?jzyz ?+a}"yG
?v jv y9v < O(v Tv yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !Eh #v +v FOv +v =v yGh d(v *Qv wv yG J9v SGQO Bv !9v v Ov tv y
,~v +v zv gv Av yG 9v +v F(v y(v +v S(v Sh ,?v *Qv dv "v yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v +v }v $}G
q
J9v *:(v yG #v | {v v ,v p ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGh ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G 9v +v F(v y(v <hQv Dv !}Gh
q
fC Ov tv Av fCh( )81(#v +v qv y|v }v yG #v | OOv f Hv Av "v Av SGh .)80(9v +v !9v av *Qv <h IOv Jv Av }v yG
,v p ?v Y9v L J:9v I #v f IQ9v =v f d(v *Qv wv yG J9v jv y fC )rv _9v L ~v %v F9v Av "v Av SG
9v%v+vyE Qvdv"v*o ,vAvyG y?v+v"v+vGvyG ?vs;vgvyGz ?v_9vavL LQ9vL hvtv@ ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vav}v"vyG
.)82(Q9+g}v
?+f9}AF:G J9w=WyGh OQqyG ~zwA}yG v v 11

9v v%v vAv vSGQO >v vzv vs ,v vp OQv vqv vyG ~v vzv vwv vAv v}v vy9v v< jhQv vzv v+v v| .d X9v vqv vAv vIG fE
k
Viv Edwards, Language in a Black Community (Clevedon, :;v v Dv v | Qv v dv v !G )80(
GB: Multilingual Matters, 1986); Roger Hewitt, White Talk Black Talk: Inter-
Racial Friendship and Communication amongst Adolescents (Cambridge
[Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Suzanne
Romaine: Pidgin and Creole Languages (London; New York: Longman, 1988),
and Language, Education, and Development: Urban and Rural Tok Pisin in Papua
New Guinea (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992);
Mark Sebba, London Jamaican: Language Systems in Interaction (London; New
York: Longman, 1993),
JQG(v v+v vAv vSh j9v vVh Ov vy(v vS9v vph f(v v@Qv vw+v v< d9v v}v vfCh ,g;v vfC Q(v vvPCG ROQGhOE {v v}v vf GPv vvh
.g;fC IQ(vPCG #*QLBh eGQqyhhh
Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman, Language :?v v v v v v v v v v Y9v v v v v v v v v vL )81(
Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press, 1988).
R. B. Le Page, «The Notion of Linguistic «System» Revisited,» )82(
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 109 (1994).
64
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RvvQv* ?v+vf9v}vAvFG J9v+v"v=vv y?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vwv=vWvyGz v v vy bv+vTv< e(v%vqv| )vzvf
)v "v gv | )v yE g9v =v Av !:G JQ9v CC Ov tv y .?v jv zv yG 9v %v +v p 9v }v < c(v zv Tv yG Qv +v *9v gv | )v zv f
.)84(?vzv|9vgvyG ?vtv=vavyG ?vsR} j(vs jQv]vI b9v+vS ,vp {vJv| )vyE A9v}vAv!:G
d(v I (Gumperz) )85(RQv =v |9v ih e(v zv =v y ?v SGQO )v zv f jhQv zv +v | Bv y9v ICh
LQGhOh ?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG ?v+vGv*hQv"vyG #v+v< ,jGhQ(v! Uv"v}v+v%v< jQvqvWvyG Qv+v+vjvAvyG
?v+vzvJv| QvDvvC ?vzv|9vgvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9vwv=vV fC GOvFh Ovsh .?v+vzvJv}vyG ?vGv%vzvyG #v|
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J9v wv =v Wv yG QhO ,)86(9v %v Av SGQO ,v p d9v ih ,RQv =v |9v ih e(v zv < #v | {v v RQv <C
gPv $ ?v +v }v $Ch ,?v *Q9v +v gv }v yG Qv +v i ?v *(v jv zv yG d9v wv V}G ?v !9v +v Y ,v p ?v qv Dv wv }v yG
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9v%v@9vwv=vWvy jhQvzv+v| BvI9v@Ch .J9v+vzvs}G J9vjvy ?v!9v+vY ,vp 9v]v*C J9vwv=vWvyG
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9v| ?vwv=vV Qv=vAvgv@hz .?v*OOvgvAvyGh ?vp9vDvwvy9v< J9vwv=vWvyG gPv$ Bvgv=v_h .yuv*OvZvy
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k k k
,;v Dv | ,f(v wv * fC ?v _9v Tv =v yG #v |h .y9v ]v gv < ~v %v ]v gv =v < 9v ]v *C #v +v av =v @Qv |
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Lesley Milroy: Language and Social Networks (Oxford: Blackwell, )83(

1980); 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), and Observing & Analysing Natural
Language: A Critical Account of Sociolinguistic Method (Oxford: New York:
Blackwell, 1987).
Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1987, p. 15. )84(
Blom and Gumperz, «Social Meaning in Linguistic Structures: Code- )85(
Switching in Norway,» in: Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in
Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication.
Gal, Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in )86(
Bilingual Austria.
65
q
JGQv+vjvAv}vyG #v| Qv+vjvAv| {vv OhQh fE .)87(yiQvLC ?vs;vf jzv< hC ,>v*Qvs
q o k
Qv=p vMv| OQvp {vvp )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< e9vsQ}G gPv%v< 9vav=v@Qv| f9vv IQ9vAvMv}vyG ?v+v@G(vZvyG
9v %v }v +v Tv tv @h J9v _9v =v @Q:G gPv $ Q9v =v Av LG xv yP Ov gv < ~v Av *h ,(Informant)
{vLGO bv<GhQvyG rvgv\ hC I(vs fC 9v"v$ {vGvTv!h .Uv"vGvyGh #vTvyG >vTvJv<
J9v}vTvyG d9v}vgvAvSG ,vp Q9vWvAv!:G hC RvvQvAvyG ?vFQO ,vp Uvwvgv"v@ ?vf(v}vGv}vyG
JGP ?v f9v }v Gv y9v < OGQv p}G W9v =v @QG ?v FQO GPv vh ,?v f9v }v Gv yG {v LGO ?v *(v jv zv yG
.?q+g]yG hC ?*(tyG b<GhQyG
fzv v < (L. Milroy) jhQv vzv v +v v| .d VGQv vAv vpG fC )88(Rv v |9v v+v v yh Qv v=v vAv v gv v*h
&v]vpQv@z VGQvAvpG (v$ OGQvp}G #v| bv+vzvL #vf IQ9v=vf ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vf(v}vGv}vyG
xvyP {v=vs QvvP Ovs f9vvh .)89(y,vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyG {v+vzvJvAvzvy ?v+vS9vS}G IOvf9vtvyG
w
,?v qv _9v gv yGh ,,v f9v }v Gv yG {v Dv }v Av yG fEz :~v +v fOv Av zv y (Durkheim) ~v *9v %v vQhO
9v v%v =v v=v S {v < ,jOQv qv vyG ,v vf(v vyG Y9v \hC ^v gv < 9v %v =v v=v S Uv v+v y J:(v v+v }v vyGh
{vzvtv* Rv|9v+vyh fE .)90(y?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vf(v}vGv}vyG 9v%v+vp hvs(v}vAv@ ,vAvyG ahQvdvyG
q
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J(vwvy9v@ ,vvQv+v|~vy ?v+vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyG J9v*Qvdv"vyG gO9v}vAvf9v< Q(v|}G bvTv=v* &v!C
#v |9v ]v @ d(v I Qv +v wv qv Av yG H9v +v i )v yE ?v p9v \ 9v < ,(T. Parsons) Rv !(v SQ9v <
#v v+v v< #v v| ,v v%v vp cQ(v v*(v v+v v"v v< a(v v<: J9v vSGQO 9v v|C .9v v%v vfQ9v vZv v@h J9v vtv v=v vav vyG
.9%< b(C(}yG
Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1987, pp. 50-51. )87(

Williams, Sociolinguistics: A Sociological Critique. )88(
.195 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )89(
Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, Translated by )90(
Sarah A. Solovay and John H. Mueller, and Edited by George E. G. Catlin, 8th
ed. (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, [1938]), p. 106.
66
)91(
jhQv zv +v | .dh jhQv zv +v | .L dh9v I 1992 ?v "v S 9v }v %v y d9v tv | ,v p
,)?v +v f9v }v Av F:G( J9vwv =v Wv yG J9v s;v fh J9v tv=v av yG #v +v < QPv I Rv +v +v}v @ ?v|9v sE
?v*Qv+vTvqv@ IQOvs H9v+vi OOvZv< a(v<: JGO9vtvAv!G #v| OOvf )vzvf 9v<9vFC 9v}vv
#v v| J9v v+v vav vgv v| )v vzv vf 9v v}v v$Q9v vwv vpC 9v vtv v=v v_ Ov vsh ,?v vwv v=v vWv vyG bv v<GhQ I(v vs ,v vp
#v| JQvWv! Ovs Bv!9vv 9v+vqvzv*O;v+vp ,vp ^v+v=vyGh O(vTvzvy ,v|9vgvyG d9v}vgvAvS:G
q
QhO f9v qv y|v }v yG [v Jv ph .1986 e9v f (Harris) )92(Uv *Q9v $h a(v <: {v =v s
bv <GhQv yG QhOh ,j(v jv zv yG Qv +wv jv Av yG ?v |h9v tv | ,v p ?v *(v tv yG ?v +v wv =v Wv yG bv <GhQv yG
9v +v "v =v @ ,L9v |O G GPv $ d9v }v wv Av SG {v FC #v |h .Qv +wv jv Av yG KhOv I ,v p ?v qv +v gv ]v yG
H(v vFQ(v v$ S9v v|(v v@ ,v vTv vvQ9v v}v vyG ,v vvQ9v v}v v!Ov vyG ,v vF(v vy(v v<hQv vDv v!}G {v v+v vzv vJv v@
IQv +v L}G gPv $ Q9v =v Av f9v < ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v tv =v av yG d(v I (Thomas Hørjup)
9v| 9v%vZvZvMv* y?v+vfQvp J9vf(v}vGv| )vyE ~vTvtv"v* hvSGh ~vzvS JGP ?v+vzv}vfz
J9v wv =v Wv yG #v | Qv +v Dv v ,{v gv qv y9v <h .yI9v +v Jv yG W9v }v !Cz v v v< H(v FQ(v $ &v qv Zv *
.BvS9vqvzv< ,vp ?vzv|9vgvyG ?vtv=vavyG bv<GQvAvy J9vwv=vV ,v$ ?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ?v*(vjvzvyG
k
.)93(jhQz+| ,p 9]*C y,!9Ty(+S(TyG Q+TqAyGz ?yzT| BWs(! Osh
n o
#v | ?v *Qv +v Tv qv @ JGhOzv v J9v wv =v Wv yG Bv zv }p v gv Av Sr G ,#v +v Jv yG xv yP Pv "v |h
?v y:Ov yG fC ROQGhOE {v Gv S Ov sh .)94(#v +v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG #v | OOv f aQv _
Lesley Milroy and James Milroy, «Social Network and Social Class: )91(
Toward an Integrated Sociolinguistic Model,» Language in Society, vol. 21, no. 1
(1992).
W. Labov and W. A. Harris, «De Facto Segregation of Black and )92(
White Vernaculars,» in: David Sankoff, ed., Diversity and Diachrony (Amsterdam;
Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1986).
James Milroy: Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical )93(
Sociolinguistics of English (Oxford; Cambridge, MA: B. Blackwell, 1992), and
«Social Network and Presige Arguments in Sociolinguistics,» in: Bolton and
Kwok, eds., Sociolinguistics Today: International Perspectives.
k
= Joan Russell, Communicative Competence in a Minority :;v v v v vDv v v v | Qv v v v vdv v v v !G )94(
67
f(v wv @ fC 9v %v Tv qv ! ,v $ 9v %v "v wv }v * JGQv +v jv Av }v yG OhQh ,v p Y(v "v Av zv y ?v +v p9v tv Dv yG
{v vDv v| 9v v%v vzv vDv v| 9v v%v vAv v+v v}v v$C 9v v%v vy rv vsG(v v}v vyG [v vF9v vZv vLz fC RQv v<Ch ,IQv v+v vjv vAv v|
.)95(yj(jzyG c(zTyG )zf Q+CzAyG ,p ?+f9}AF:G [F9ZMyG
J9vSGQOvyGh ,?vvQ9vWv}vyG ?vdvI;v}vyG ,y?v+vgv+v=vavyG ?vjvzvyGz v v 12

?+}wyG
?v vjv vzv vyG {v v+v vzv vJv v@h ?v vdv vI;v v| :&v v<9v vAv vv ,v vp jhQv vzv v+v v| .d Xv vs9v v! Ov vtv vy
.{v +v Zv qv Av < J9v +v av gv }v yG hv +v }v Gv @ Hv $9v "v | #v *Qv LB #v +v < #v | )96(?v +v gv +v =v av yG
{v }v gv Av Tv ! 9v "v !E 9v }v $Ov IC :f9v "v CG fGA9v ]v Av sG y?v +v gv +v =v av yG ?v jv zv yGz Kv zv av Zv }v yh
dh9vJv! 9v"v!E 9v}v%v+v!9vCh ,(vJv"vyG >vAvv ,vp IO(vF(v}vyG y?v+vgv+v=vavyG Qv+viz {v}vGvyG
b9vqv@G c9v"v$h( xvyP 9v"v"vwv|C 9v| a(v<;vy yevI;v}vyG ?vsQ9vqv|z )vzvf >vzvjvAvyG
.)~v%v}vzvf fhO #v| #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG {v+vGvTv@ ,vs;vL}G #v| Uv+vy &v!C )vzvf e9vf
KGOv I}G #v f dG|v Tv y9v < y,v gv +v =v _z H(v zv SC O9v Gv *E a(v <: dh9v I Ov sh
Group: A Sociolinguistic Study of the Swahili-Speaking Ccommunity in the Old =

Town, Mombasa (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Stella Maris Bortoni-Ricardo, The
Urbanization of Rural Dialect Speakers: A Sociolinguistic Study in Brazil
(Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985);
Annette Schmidt, Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from
Australia (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1985); Rosina L. Lippi-Green, «Social Network Integration and Language Change
in Progress in a Rural Alpine Village,» Language in Society, vol. 18, no. 2 (June
1989); L. Oladipo. Salami, «Diffusion and Focusing: Phonological Variation and
Social Networks in Ife Ife, Nigeria,» Language in Society, vol. 20, no. 2 (1991),
and Walter Edwards, «Sociolinguistic Behavior in a Detroit Inner City
Neighborhood,» Language in Society, vol. 21, no. 1 (1992).
Edwards, Ibid., p. 112. )95(
Milroy, Observing & Analysing Natural Language: A Critical Account of )96(
Sociolinguistic Method.
68
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,~v +v yQ9v %v < O(v Tv yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E d(v I &v zv }v f ,v ph .&v *Qp v =p v Mv |o I9v +v I ,v p IQv +v Dv }v yG
9v %v Tv =v zv * ?v +v f9v *Pv | ?v +v @(v Y JGQv =v wv | ,Rv +v zv +v < ,v p 9v "v zv gv p 9v }v v ,{v }v gv Av SG
{v}vf ,9v+vqvzv*O;vqv< &vfhQvWv| ,vph .~v%v]vgv< hv| f(v=vgvzv* 9v|Ov"vf fhQv=vMv}vyG
d(vZvJvzvyz ,?vtv<9vTvyG &vAvSGQOvy ?v+vGv%v"v| 9v*GRv| gQv=vAvfG 9v| rv+vyzv@ )vzvf a(v<:
9v*GRv| hv| ,y?v+v"vgv}vyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG #v| rvsG(v}vyGh AGQ7vy ?vzvDv}v| ?v"v+vf )vzvf
fOv y #v | IQv Dv wv < ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ev I;v }v yG v v cQ9v Wv }v yG JGAGQv FE ?v +v Gv %v "v |
[v+vzvtv@ )vzvf {v}vf 9v}vv ,#v+v+vpGQvi(v"vC Gh #v+v+vf9v}vAvF:G #v+v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}G
q
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9v "v Av i9v +v Y ,v p &v $9v Gv @Gh zv av Mv yG ?v FQO Qv *Ov tv @ 9v "v "v wv }v * ,9v gv | #v +v Gv %v "v }v yG
k
9v]v*C jhQvzv+v| .d Bvzv}vgvAvSGh .)97(y,v|9vgvyG d9v}vgvAvS:G OvfG(vtvy IQv+vL}G
hv | Nv =v av }v yG ,v p S(v zv Gv yG {v Dv | ,cQ9v Wv }v yG ?v dv I;v | Bv S9v qv zv < ,v p
fGQv v+v vGv vyG 9v v}v v"v v+v v< {v v+v vGv vTv vAv vyG R9v v%v vF {v v+v vjv vWv v@ hC ,9v v$QhRv v@ y?v vtv v*Ov vYz
.f(COJA* A9sOY}Gh
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.d9vqv_~vy ?v%vF(v| ?vzvGvTv|h ?v}vdv"v| J9v<G(vGvAvSG hv| ,9v%v]vgv< hv| QvS~vy
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#v | GQPv I Qv Dv vC ?v tv *Qv av < 9v "v <9v av L >v sGQv ! ,J9v s9v +v Tv yG ^v gv < ,v p ,9v "v !E
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uv v v F9v v v qv v v yG Kv v v +v v v Jv v v Zv v v Av v v yG ?v v v FQO )v v v yE 9v v v !9v v v +v v v ICh ,iQv v v LC J9v v v s9v v v +v v v S
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,#vJv! (v$ [vMvWvyG GPv$ f9vv (vyh y9v| [vMvVz )vyE 9v}vFGO KOvJvAv! 9v"v"vwvy
William Labov, Field Methods Used by the Project on Linguistic Change )97(
and Variation, Sociolinguistic Working Paper; 81 (Austin, TX: South Western
Educational Development Laboratory, 1981), p. 4.
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns. )99(
69
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#v |h .y?v *(v %v yG d9v gv pCz #v | GARv F {v wv Wv @h ,y?v +v gv +v =v _z Ov gv @ ,H(v zv SC
Rv zv +v jv y yrv +v wv Av yGz ?v *Qv dv ! #v +v <h ?v +v zv }v gv yG gPv $ #v +v < jh9v Tv ! fC ~v %v }v yG
{v < ,9v "v =v _9v Mv | H(v zv SC hv | rv +v wv Av ! : ,e(v }v gv yG )v zv f ,#v Jv ! :(Giles)
.>_9M}y9< 9"As;f ,p 9"Tq!C #f 9"y f(w@ ,AyG IQ(ZyG h| r+wA!
{v vLGO Y(v v"v vAv vyG d(v vI 9v v%v vDv vJv v< ,v vp ,)100(Qv v*9v vWv v+v vV Bv vyA9v vTv v@ Ov vtv vy
f9vvhz .a(v <;vy ,v<(vzvS}G Y(v"vAvyG e(v%vqv| d(vI ,?v*Rv+vzvGv! G J9vGv%vzvyG
Q9v_ G (v$ ,yjQvqvWvyG Qv+vjvAvyGz v v y RmG(v| e(v%vqv| (v$h ,y,v<(vzvS}G d(vJvAvyG
e(v %v qv }v yG GPv $( f9v vh ,rv *OQ9v wv < &v zv }v f ,v p )101(f;v <(v v .f v v vy jQv dv "v yG
k k
e(v %v qv }v < 9v %v ]v gv < bv =v @Qv * ,iQv L}G K9v Jv <}G #v | OOv gv y 9v f(v \(v | )9v ]v *C
.)102(Rz+jy yr+wAyGz
?*(%yG d9gpC v v 13
Rv+vzv+v<h Bvwv*QvAvTv*O(v*9vwv< 9v"vC9vJv<C ,vp 9v$Q9v=vAvLG ~q v@ ,vAvyG ?v+v\QvqvyG fE
,fOv "v y bQv V H(v "v Gv < ?v +v wv *9v |9v Gv yG ?v f(v }v Gv }v yGh ,9v +v S(v y 9v Av !9v S d9v }v Vh
JG(v"vS QvWvf d;vL 9v%vAv%vFGh ,vAvyG j(vjvzvyG rvY(vyG {vv9vWv| #vf ?v8vV9v!
fC )?v+v\QvqvyG gPv$( O9vqv|h .)103(Rv*Ov! G HQvi ,vp Uv*QOvAvyGh Xv+vgvyG #v|
Cheshire, Variation in an English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Study. )100(

Nikolas Coupland, «Style-Shifting in a Cardiff Work-Sitting,» )101(
Howard Giles, Justine Coupland and Nikolas Coupland, eds., )102(
Contexts of Accommodation: Developments in Applied Sociolinguistics (Cambridge
[England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
Le Page, «Problems of Description in Multilingual Communities». )103(
70
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.#Ty9< ?z}AJ| ?s;f &y f9w|E ,$h
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72
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x k
Y(v"vAvyGz d(vI ?v}v+vtvyG J:9vtv}vyG #v| GOOvf )105(#v+v|hQ H9vAvv #v}v]vAv*
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9v $Qv +v Dv * ,v Av yG 9v *9v ]v tv zv y ?v *Ov tv ! ?v SGQO ,v $h ,y??v *(v jv y ?v f(v }v Gv | )v "v gv | 9v |z
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.9+S(y 9A!9Sh R+z+< ,p 9$9"z}gASG ,AyG bQazy ,F9ZI G 9"ZAM| fOy
y?+z*hzAyG ?+!9Ty(+S(TyGzh jQqWyG Q++jAyG v v 14

J9v f(v }v Gv }v zv y ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG J9v SGQOv yG )v zv f fC Kv \G(v yG #v |
yjQv qv Wv yG bv zv Mv yGzh ,yjQv qv Wv yG Qv +v +v jv Av yGz #v }v ]v Av @ fC J9v jv zv yG IOOv gv Av }v yG
,?v $9v vAv | ?v v}v Ch .y?v vav vzv Av vMv v}v yG JGQv qv vWv vyGz d9v v}v gv Av vSGh ,(Code Mixing)
k
,&v+v"v+v@Q9v| d9vs 9v}vv ,,v$h ,9vtv<9vS &v+vyE Q9vWv}vyG )107(Rv@(vy QGQvsE #v| ~viQvy9v<
~v zv wv Av }v yG ?v Gv %v y #v f Qv dv "v yG ^v jv < IOv I(v yG 9v %v +v yE ,v }v Av "v @ IQv qv V jC ?v pQv gv |
k
,v}vAv"v@ eC ,9vgvavtv@ QvDvvC JGQvqvV )vyE eC 9v$GOvIE )vyE ,v}vAv"v@ {v$ ,?vY9vMvyG
)108(
ShQ(vzvv Qv!OQ9vi BvyOvAvSG Ovsh .(Interlanguage) ?vzvf9vqvAv| ?vjvy )vyE
,jQv qv Wv yG Qv +v +v jv Av yG J9v +v av gv | #v | ?v gv SG(v yG 9v %v Av f(v }v Gv | #v | ?v zv Dv |C JOQhCh
.?*(jzyG b9T!}G hat@ e(%q}y ?+F(y(D+}yG ?g+=ayG )zf
D. McEntegart and R. B. Le Page, «An Appraisal Communities,» in: )104(

Romaine, ed., Sociolinguistic Variation in Speech Communities.
Romaine, ed., Ibid. )105(
McEntegart and R. B. Le Page, Ibid. )106(
John Lotz, «Speech and Language,» Journal of the Acoustical Society )107(
of America, vol. 22, no. 6 (1950).
Penelope Gardner-Chloros, Code-Switching in Community, Regional )108(
and National Repertoires: The Myth of the Discreteness of Linguistic Systems
([Forthcoming]).
73
?v+v=v+vvQvAvyG O(v+vtvyG [v+vZvMv@ ?vyh9vJv| )vzvf d9v}vf}G ^vgv< JRvvQh
b9v +v Tv yG )v zv f iQv LC d9v }v fC JRv vQ 9v }v "v +v < ,)109(jQv qv Wv yG Qv +v jv Av yG )v zv f
#v+v< iQvLC d9v}vfC BvqvyCh ,)110(d9vGv}vyGh Q(vJv}vyG )vzvfh ,,vf9v}vAvF:G
,v p ,?v +v <hQh}G e(v zv gv yG ?v Tv S|v | J9v VQh Bv gv }v Av SG Ov sh .#v +v Av <Q9v tv }v yG
51 )vzvf (v<Qv* 9v| )vyE )111(J9vjvzvyG d9vZv@Gh jQvqvWvyG Qv+v+vjvAvyG d(vI 9v%vAvwv=vV
k k
?vzvDv}v| 9v+v}vy9vf 9v%v< aQvAvgv}vyG J9v*Qvdv"vyG Qv*(vav@ J:h9vJv| Bv!9vvh .:9vtv|
#v @(v wv S v v RQv *9v | aQv _ #v | ?v Y9v Lh ,J:9v tv }v yG gPv $ #v +v < Ov +v F {v wv Wv <
k
Qv +v +v jv Av zv y ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G Rv pG(v Jv yG Qv +v Tv qv Av y 9v FP(v }v !z 1983 Pv "v | JQ(v _ ,v Av yG
,(Markedness Model) y~v S(v yG LP(v }v !z v v v< &v +v zv f Bv y9v ICh ,jQv qv Wv yG
?v *Qv qv V JGQ9v +v Av LG f(v zv }v gv Av Tv * #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yGz fC VQv Av qv * )LP(v }v ! (v $(h
yVh9vqvAvyG COv=v|z O(vtv*h .)112(y?v+vzvf9vqvAvyG ?v+vZvMvWvyG J9vs;vgvyG ?v\h9vqv}vy
?v*QG(vJvyG ?v}v$9vTv}vyG {vwvV Q9v+vAvLG )vyE ~vzvwvAv}vyG )?vDvI9v=vyG( &vIQvAvtv@ jPvyG
RvvQv| 9v%vzvgvF ,vp H(viQv}vyG J9v=vFG(vyGh b(vtvJvyG ?vf(v}vGv| )vyE Rv|Qv@ ,vAvyG
k
David Sankoff, Shana Poplack and Swathi Vanniarajan, «The :;v Dv | Qv dv !G )109(
Empirical Study of Code-Switching,» in: European Science Foundation. Network on
Code-Switching and Language Contact, Papers for the Symposium on Code-
Switching in Bilingual Studies: Theory, Significance and Perspectives, Barcelona, 21-
23 March 1991, 2 vols. (Strasbourg: European Science Foundation, 1991), vol. 1.
Penelope Gardner-Chloros, Language Selection and Switching in :d9v Dv | )110(
Strasbourg (Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University
Press, 1991).
European Science Foundation. Network on Code-Switching and )111(
Language Contact, Workshops, Strasbourg, 1990-1991.
Carol Myers-Scotton, «Intersections between Social Motivations and )112(
Structural Processing in Code-Switching,» in: European Science Foundation.
Network on Code-Switching and Language Contact, Papers for the Workshop on
Constriants Conditions and Models: London 27-29 September 1990 (Strasbourg:
European Science Foundation, 1991), p. 58.
74
COv=v}vyG GPv$ Qv=vAvgv* .yjQ9vGvyG dO9v=vAvyG ,vp >v_9vMv}vyGh ~vzvwvAv}vyG #v+v< I(vs
k x o k
9v}vSh hC JGAGQvs O9v"vSE #v| #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #vwv}n v@ ~vS(vzvy ?v*Qvdv! #v| GARvF
?v v+v v=v v+v vvQv vAv vyG Ov vfG(v vtv vyG fE .?v vf(v v}v vGv v}v vzv vy ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG ?v v}v vF9v vtv vyG ,v vp JGQv vqv vWv vy
,v zv v}v f LP(v v}v !z {v LGO COv =v v@ ?v +v v"v gv v}v yG J9v jv vzv y hv _9v tv vAv }v vyG d9v v}v gv vAv S;v vy
,v$h &v"v| uvzvav!G 9v}vf rvzvAvMv@ : iQvLC b;vav!G ?vavtv! ?v}vCh .yjQv+v_zv@
~v v$h ?v vjv vzv vyG ,v v+v vF9v v"v vDv vyG U9v vMv vV}G )v vyE (Peter Auer) Qv v*hC Qv vAv v+v v< IQv vdv v!
J;v |9v gv }v yG ,v p ?v +v f9v }v Av FG {v F9v S(v v ?v +v %v qv Wv yG ~v $OQG(v | f(v zv }v gv Av Tv *z
9v%vS9vSC (Code Alternation) jQvqvWvyG Hh9v"vAvzvy ?v*Qvdv! )v"v< )113(y?v+v|(v+vyG
.)114(RQ=|9i 9$Q(_ ,AyG (Contextualization) bh9TAyG ?*Qd!
y?v +v zv *hzv Av yG J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGz 9v "v $ &v Av zv }v gv Av SG jPv yG fG(v "v gv yG fE
Qv +v Dv | {v }v f Kv zv av Zv | &v !C hOv =v *h ,)115((v *R(v y jOh Qv *hC #v | &v Av \Qv Av sG
k
9v tv ph &v yh|v *h j(v jv zv yG c(v zv Tv yG ?v dv I;v | #v | uv zv av "v * (v $h ,H9v Gv f5v y
9v}vf EvJv=vyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+v"v=vyG #v| b;vav!:G dOv< ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vy:Ovzvy
Qv+v+vjvAvyG d(vI {v}vgvyG #v| Qv+v=vv QOvs c9v"v$h .?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vI9v"vyG #v| 9v%v< bv=v@Qv*
e(v v zv v < &v v"v v f hv v pGOv v * LP(v v}v v ! (v v $h ,Y(v v "v vyG GPv v $ )v v yE ,v v }v v Av v "v v* jQv v qv v Wv vyG
Peter Auer, «Bilingualism in/ as Social Action: A Sequential )113(

Approach to Code-Switching,» in: European Science Foundation. Network on
Code-Switching and Language Contact, Papers for the Symposium on Code-
Switching in Bilingual Studies: Theory, Significance and Perspectives, Barcelona,
21-23 March 1991, vol. II, p. 320.
John Joseph Gumperz: Discourse Strategies (Cambridge, MA: )114(
Cambridge University Press, 1982), and «Contextualization and Understanding,»
in: Alessandro Duranti and Charles Goodwin, eds., Rethinking Context: Language
as an Interactive Phenomenon (Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1992), etc.
Peter Auer and Aldo di Luzio, eds., Interpretive Sociolinguistics: )115(
Migrants, Children, Migrant Children (Tübingen: Narr, 1984).
75
.H*hQ"yG ,p jQqWyG Q+jAyG d(I 9}%ASGQO ,p )116(
RQ=|9ih
?Y;L v v 15
LP9v v}v v"v vyG d(v vI 9v v%v vy(v vtv vAv vy ?v v+v vS9v vs A9v v+v vVC )117(fhQv v+v v|9v vv iOv v y fE
J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG 9v %v zv }v gv Av Tv @ ,v Av yG hv }v Av Gv }v zv y y?v Zv y9v Mv yGzh y?v *Qv av qv yGz
?v*(vjvzvyG 9v*9v]vtvyG ?v*(vyhCz #vf I(vtv< Y9vpOvyG 9v%v< ~q v@ ,vAvyG ?vtv*QvavyGh ,?v+v}vwvyG
)119(
#v SO(v $h )118({v v+v vFOhQv @ aQv v_ #v | y?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G 9v *9v v]v vtv vyG )v vzv vf
k k
GARv F y?v +v }v zv gv yG ?v qv Zv yGz #v f Ev Jv =v yG 9v %v +v p f9v v ,v Av yGh ,;v Dv | (Hudson)
fC gO9vqv| ~vAvgv| ~vfR d(v=vsh ,?v+vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyG ?v*Qvdv"vyG #vf O9vgvAv<:G #v|
bv<Qv@ ?v*Qvdv! )vyE ?vF9vI ,vp 9v"v!E fhQv+v|9vv ~vfRv@h .yhv}vAvGv}vyG IBQv| ?vjvzvyGz
?v =v gv Y ?v +v gv \h ,v pz f(v wv ! 9v %v !hO #v |h ,y,v f9v }v Av F:Gz v v v< yj(v jv zv yGz
v
(Ad Hoc) ?v+vgv\(v}vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9v*Qvdv"vyG fC 9v}vv .yjQv+vTvqvAvyG ZGQvqvzvy
.ZGQqyG GP$ OTy ?=S9"| Q+i
?v *Qv dv ! hv \(v y ?v yh9v Jv | y?v *(v %v yG d9v gv pCz d(v I ,v Av +v \Qv p Bv !9v v Ov sh
J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG Uv wv gv @ O9v gv <}G IOOv gv Av }v yG d9v qv _}G J9v 8v qv p ,bv <Qv zv y gPv %v v
,vp ?v+v<P9vGvyG ?vqv+vch cGQO G GPv%vy f(vwv*h ,~v%vgv}vAvGv| ,vp 9v%v!(vvQOv* ,vAvyG
9v%vzvwvWv* ,vAvyG J9v8vqvyG W9v=v@QG iOv| Ov*OvJv@ (v$ 9v!Q9v=vAvLG aOv$h .~v%v@p GQv vGn v|
Blom and Gumperz, «Social Meaning in Linguistic Structures: Code- )116(

Switching in Norway,» in: Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in
Cameron, «Demythologizing Sociolinguistics: Why Language Does )117(
Not Reflect Society,» in: Joseph and Taylor, eds., Ideologies of Language.
Peter Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English (London: )118(
E. Arnold, 1978).
Richard A. Hudson, Sociolinguistics (Cambridge [Eng.]; New York: )119(
76
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,J9vf(v}vGv}vyG 9v$Qv=vf f(vwvAv@ ,vAvyG ?vs9vavyG Kv"v}v@ yRv+vvQvAvyGzh yS9vwvgv!:Gz
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gPv $ d(v I y?v "v zv tv fz hC y9v +v fhz IQhQv ]v y9v < #v }v ]v Av * xv yP #v | A,v V :h
?v av =v @Qv }v yG 9v "v y9v gv pC ?v "v zv tv gv y JGQOv tv yG gPv $ {v }v gv Av Tv ! #v Jv "v p ,J9v +v zv }v gv yG
?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vFG ?v v*Qv vdv v!z gQ9v v=v vAv vf9v v< xv vyP O9v vgv v<E ~v vAv v* fC #v vwv v}v v*h .?v v*(v v%v vy9v v<
Ov gv < Bv zv wv Wv @ ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v S ?v +v \Qv p ,xv yP V(v f ,&v "v wv y ,y?v +v gv \(v |
bv v=v v@Qv v*h .J9v vjv vzv vyG IOOv vgv vAv v}v vyG J9v vgv v}v vAv vGv v}v vyG ?v v=v vsGQv v| #v v| JG(v v"v vS IOv vf
k
9v_(vjv]v| f(vwv* jPvyGh ,OQvqvzvy Ovtvgv}vyG ,vF(vy(vwv+vTvyG Rv+vqvJvAvy9v< yQv+vTvqvAvyGz
9v }v v v v j(v jv zv yG Y(v "v Av yG (v $ Uv +v y ygQv +v Tv qv @z ~v Av * 9v | .?v +v f9v }v Av F:G i(v tv y9v <
yQv+vTvqv@z )vyE L9vAvJv* 9v| {v< v v &v+v"v+v@Q9v|h (Dante) )120( ,vAv!GO xvyP evI:
)vyE Qvdv"v! rv+vv 9v"v+q v< ?v*(v%vyG d9vgvpC ,vph .?vTv!9vGvAv| ?vjvzvy e(v%vqv| {vwvWv@ (v$
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Qv =v gv @ ,v Av yG JGRGQv av yG Qv =v f ,e;v wv yG ?v dv I;v | #v | 9v s;v av !G GPv %v v e(v %v qv |
)vyE ,y?v+vTv!QvqvyGz hC y?v*Rv+vzvGv! Gz {vDv| J9vjvzvy9v< ?vY9vMvyG A9v}vS}G 9v%v"vf
k
Qv Czv @ rv +v v 9v "v +q v <h ,GOv *Qv Gv @ Qv Dv v}G jh9v wv Tv |(v Wv yG y(v Jv "v yGz )e(v %v qv |(
o
&vAvTvSzv|h gQv+v=vgv@h &vAv!Q(vY {vIGQv| Qv=vf RQo vavy9v< {vgvqvyG j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvyG
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k r v n
.9v8v+vV QvTvqv@ : 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< ?vwv=vWvyG J9vSGQO )121(#v+v|hQ JOvJv@ Ovtvy
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Suzanne Romaine, «The Status of Sociological Models and Categories )121(
in Explaining Language Variation,» Linguistische Berichte, vol. 90 (1984).
77
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Henry S. Shryock, [et al.], The Methods and Materials of Demography, 2 )1 (

vols. (Washington, DC: US Bureau of the Census, 1973), p. 2.
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United Nations. Statistical Office, Handbook of Population Census )2 (

Methods. Vol. III., Demographic and Social Characteristics of the Population (New
York: United Nations, 1959), p. 2.
80
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.1971 P"| jO"wyG A9ZI G )3(

John de Vries, «Statistics on Language,» in: Ammon, Dittmar and )4(
Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics, p. 957.
81
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a9v Wv Av v9v < Qv Dv vC ~v Av %v * fC >v Gv * jPv yG ,v f9v }v Av F:G ~v zv gv yG f{v p ,~q v C #v |h
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Lachman Mulchand Khubchandani, «Fluidity in Mother Tongue )5 (

Identity,» in: Albert Verdoodt, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics (Heidelberg: Groos,
1974), p. 94.
Peter Hans Nelde: Volkssprache und Kultursprache: Die gegenwärtige )6 (

Lage des sprachlichen Übergangsgebietes im deutsch-belgisch-luxemburgischen
Grenzraum (Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1979), and «Multilingualism and Contact
Linguistics,» in: Martin Pütz, ed., Thirty Years of Linguistic Evolution: Studies in
Honour of Rene´ Dirven on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday (Philadelphia, PA;
Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 1992).
82
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?v f(v }v Gv }v yG f{v p xv yP )v yE ?v p9v \ 9v <h .)9(Kv +v Jv Y Uv wv gv yGh ,?v +v sQv gv yG
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d9v Gv | [v +v Zv Mv @ fhO #v | y?v +q v Tv +v FQv yGz ?v jv zv yG d(v I ?v zv 8v S}G fE
Joshua A. Fishman, «The Sociology of Language,» in: Joshua A. )7 (

Fishman, ed., Advances in the Sociology of Language, vol. 1: Basic Concepts
Theories and Problems: Alternative Approaches (The Hague: Mouton, 1971),
p. 564.
United Nations, Demographic Yearbook = Annuaire de´mographique )8 (
(New York: United Nations, 1963), p. 39.
Wsevolod W. Isajiw, «Definitions of Ethnicity,» Ethnicity, vol. 1, no. 2 )9 (
(1970), p. 1, [Reprinted in: Jay E. Goldstein and Rita M. Bienvenue, eds.,
Ethnicity and Ethnic Relations in Canada: A Book of Readings (Toronto:
Butterworths, 1980)], and Paul M. G. Levy, La Querelle du recensement (Bruxelles:
Institut Belge de Science Politique, 1960), p. 55.
83
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John de Vries, «Some Methodological Aspects of Self Report Questions )10(

on Language and Ethnicity,» Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development, vol. 6 (1985), p. 358.
.{ZqyG GP$ ,p 4 IQtqyG Qd!G )11(
De Vries, «Statistics on Language,» in: Ammon, Dittmar and )12(
Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics, p. 959.
84
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)13(
Shryock, [et al.], The Methods and Materials of Demography, p. 56.
Lachman Mulchand Khubchandani, «Linguistic Census around the )15(
World,» in: Actes del Simposi de Demolingüı´stica: III Trobada de Sociolingüistes
Catalans, Tortosa, 15 i 16 de novembre de 1993 (Barcelona: Generalitat de
Catalunya, Departament de Cultura, 1995), p. 110.
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Levy, La Querelle du recensement, p. 61. )16(

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Dittmar, Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory and Application, )19(

p. 115.
88
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Joshua A. Fishman, The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary )20(

Social Science Approach to Language in Society (Rowley, MA: Newbury House,
[1972]), pp. 91-105. [Reprinted in: Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., Current Trends in
Linguistics: Volume 12: Linguistics and Adjacent Arts and Sciences (The Hague:
Mouton Publishers, 1974)].
R. Reichstein, «Etudes des variations sociales et géographiques des faits )21(
linguistiques,» Word, vol. 16 (1960).
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William Labov, The Social Stratification of English in New York City )22(
([Washington, DC]: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1966).
Joshua A. Fishman [et al.], Bilingualism in the Barrio (Bloomington, )23(
IN: Bloomington University, [1971]).
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.502-483 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )25(

Seminario de Sociolingüı̃stica de Real Academia Galega, «Datas sobre )26(
mapa sociolingüı̃tico de Galicia,» in: Actes del Simposi de Demolingüı˜stica: III
Trobada de Sociolingüı˜stes Catalans, Tortosa, 15 i 16 de novembre de 1993.
Grant D. McConnell et Jean-Denis Gendron, dirs., Atlas international )28(
de la vitalité linguistique = International Atlas of Language Vitality (Québec:
Centre International de Recherche en Aménagement Linguistique, 1993-1998).
Mens en Ruimte, Taalgrensonderzoek in Belgie¨ = [Language border )29(
inquiry in Belgium] (Brussels: Mens en Ruimte, 1962).
92
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Maria Oud-de Glas, «Foreign Language Needs: A Survey of )30(

Research,» in: Theo van Els and Maria Oud-de Glas, eds., Research into Foreign
Language Needs (Augsburg: I & I, Universität Augsburg, 1983), pp. 19-34.
93
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J. F. M. Claessen, A. M. van Galen and M. M. B. Oud-de Glas, De )31(

behoeften aan moderne vreemde talen: Een onderzoek onder bedrijven en
overheidsdiensten = [Foreign Language Needs: A Survey in Industry and
Governmental Departments] (Nijmegen: Instituut voor toegepaste sociologie,
1978).
94
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behoeften aan moderne vreemde talen: Een onderzoek onder stafleden en studenten
van universiteiten en hogescholen: tekst = [Foreign Language Needs: A Survey of
Students and Staff of Universities and Schools of Higher Education (Nijmegen:
Instituut voor toegepaste sociologie, 1978).
behoeften aan moderne vreemde talen: Een onderzoek onder leerlingen, oud-
leerlingen en scholen: tekst = [Foreign Language Needs: A Survey of Pupils, Ex-
Pupils and Schools (Nijmegen: Instituut voor toegepaste sociologie, 1978).
R. Baeten et A. Verdoodt, Les Besoins en langues modernes/ e´trangères )34(
en Belgique et leur enseignement, courrier hebdomadaire du CRISP; 1026-1027
(Bruxelles: CRISP, [1984]).
Indicateurs de la situation linguistique au Que´bec (Québec: Conseil de la )35(
Langue Française, 1992).
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(Allophones) JGQv F9v %v }v yG J9v %v |}G )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h .1981 ,v p 1,37h
gPv $ Bv !9v v )Bv +v =v yG ,v p ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG hC ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G #v zv }v gv Av Tv * : ,v @G(v zv yG(
.1986 ,p 1,66h 1981 ,p 1,88 ,$ ?=T"yG
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Language Population Censuses), 1-4 Sep. 1993, University of Hertfordshire
(UK),» in: Actes del Simposi de Demolingüı˜stica: III Trobada de Sociolingüistes
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Labov: The Social Stratification of English in New York :U(v Zv B9v < Qv dv !G )2(
City, and Sociolinguistic Patterns.
U. Weinreich, W. Labov and M. Herzog, «Empirical Foundations for a )3 (
Theory of Language Change,» in: W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel, eds.,
Directions for Historical Linguistics: A Symposium (Austin, TX: University of
Texas Press, [1968]).
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J. Milroy, Lesley Milroy and G. Docherty, «Glottalling and )14(

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118
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an Urban Vernacular,» in: Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in British
English, etc.
Horvath, Variation in Australian English: The Sociolects of Sydney. )23(
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Milroy, «New Perspectives in the Analysis of Sex :Qv v dv v !G ,[v v +v v Zv v Mv v Av v zv v y )25(
Differentiation in Language,» in: Bolton and Kwok, eds., Sociolinguistics Today:
International Perspectives.
L. Rigg, «A Quantitative Study of Sociolinguistic Pattern of Variation )26(
in Adult Tyneside Speakers,» (Unpublished Dissertation, Department of Speech,
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1987).
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Horvath, Variation in Australian English: The Sociolects of Sydney.
124
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Sue Hartley, «A Study of the Effect of Sex and Age on Glottalisation )28(
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?vtv=vavyG J:(vtv| S9vSC )vzvf ?vjvzvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< Uv"vGvyG >vTvJv< ~vS(vyG
#v v}v vp ,#v v+v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G b(v vqv vAv vyGh R9v v+v vAv v|:G hC ,#v v+v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G hv v\(v vyGh
#v| >v=vTvy ,vf9v}vAvF:G Rv+v}vAvzvy Qv+v*9vgv| ?vC(v!}G Qv+v*9vgv| Qv+vZv@ fC #vwv}v}vyG
I(v s Y(v "v yG >v Tv Jv < Rv +v +v }v Av yG f(v wv * xv yPv <h ,Bv s(v yG QhQv | hv | H9v =v S}G
.)34(?t=ayG #f d;tAS9< ,j(jzyG Q+jAzy 9"DJ< ,p 9!O(t@ ?|9$
J9vTv=vI K;vDvy IR(v}v%v}vyG {vFGOv=vzvy ?v*(v8v}vyG >vTv"vyG :2.3 dhOvGvyG
.#*9AyG Q%! ?q\ f9wS #| 16 v v y j(qgyG E*OJyG ,p ?S(}%|
)aS(yG ?t=ayG ?z|9gyG ?t=ayG
/k/h /t/ ,/p/ /k/h /t/ ,/p/
80,5 91,0 96,5 94,5 97,0 99,5 Q(vPyG
11,0 32,5 27,0 28,0 31,0 60,0 K9! G
?+f9}AF:G ?w=WyG v v 7
#v| OQvqvyG iOvy ,v}vv Qv+vjvAv}vv ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vwv=vWvyG e(v%vqv| Qv*(vav@ ~q v@
~v$C #v}vwv*h .BvS9vqvzv< ?v"v*Ov}vy &vAvSGQO #v| ARvGvv ,)35(jhQvzv+v| .d fOvy
~q v@ ,vAvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG ,vs9v<h )9v"v$ ?vzv}vgvAvTv}vyG( ?vwv=vWvyG #v+v< ,vGv%v"v| bQvp
Makkan Arabic,» (PhD Thesis, University of Reading, 1989); Hassan Abd-El- =

Jawad, «Cross-Dialectal Variation in Arabic: Competing Prestigious Forms,»
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William Labov, «The Intersection of :Qv dv !G ,IQv *9v jv | Qv dv ! ?v %v Fh U(v Zv Mv < )34(
Sex and Social Class in the Course of Linguistic Change,» Language Variation and
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Milroy, Language and Social Networks. )35(
127
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q
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k
K9vJv<}G #v| Qv +v =vv OOv gvy 9v gv=v@h ,xv yP )vyE ?v p9v\ 9v< .#v *Qv LB U9vMvVC
gPv$ f(vwv@ 9v|Ov"vf &v!C )vzvf d:OvAvS:G ~q v@ ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}G
Ov tv y .jQ9v +v gv }v yG gGQv v5v y J9v |Rv +v !9v wv +v }v v {v }v gv @ fC 9v %v "v wv }v * ?v *(v s bv <GhQv yG
?vSGQOvy ?vzv+vS(vv Y9v}vAvF:G ~vzvf #v| ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vwv=vWvyG IQvwvp BvTv=vAvsG
?vSGQO b9v+vS ,vph .#v|RvyG Qv=vf ?vzv+vY}G J9vjvzvyG )vzvf ?vdvp9vJv}vyG LP9v}v!
fC 9v}v< ?v}v%v| ?v+v]vs gPv$ Qv=vAvgv@ ,){v}vVC ?vqvZv< ,hvsG(vyG ,vph( BvS9vqvzv<
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j(v tv yG bv jv ]v yG #v | ~v iQv y9v < O(v }v Zv yG dh9v Jv @ )v zv qv Tv yG ?v *(v jv zv yG d9v wv V}G
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k
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?v vwv v=v vWv vyG {v v+v vzv vJv v@ #v vf ,v vS9v vS}G a;v vAv vL:Gh .?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G ?v vwv v=v vWv vyG
,IOhOv Jv | J9v f(v }v Gv }v < Bv }v Av $G a(v <: J9v SGQO f(v v (v $ ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G
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Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, and W. Labov and W. A. Harris, «De )36(

Facto Segregation of Black and White Vernaculars,» in: Sankoff, ed., Diversity
and Diachrony.
128
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?v *(v jv zv yG ?v !9v +v Zv yG ?v SGQOv < ~v Av %v * :h ,Qv +v jv Av yG {v <9v tv | ,v p ?v !9v +v Zv yG ?v +v \Qv p
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?vp9vDvwvyG ?vjvy9v=vyG ?vwv=vWvy9vp ,?v*OOvgvAvyGh ?vp9vDvwvyG ,v|(v%vqv| )vzvf JGQvV|v}vyG
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?v wv =v Wv yG Qv +v jv Av | fC ,v F9v Zv I G {v +v zv Jv Av yG MQv Av sG Ov tv y .)uv *Ov Yh {v }v gv yG
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d(v I hv S(v | T9v tv ! Ov F(v * .#v Tv yGh Y(v "v yG jQv +v jv Av | hv | {v f9v qv Av * &v !C
)37(
Ov y(v S9v p ,v p J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG ,v p ,v F9v Zv I G {v +v zv Jv Av yG d9v }v gv Av SG
.)38(jhQz+|h
,v vp ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G ?v vwv v=v vWv vzv vy ,v v}v vwv vyG {v v+v vzv vJv vAv vyG d9v v}v vgv vAv vSG ~q v v@ Ov vsh
(Bortoni- hOQ9v wv *Q v v ,v !(v @Q(v < {v Dv | ?v jv zv yG ?v *O9v IC ?v *Qv ]v I J9v +v gv \h
)39(
#v f rv Wv wv yG ,v p ?v Jv F9v ! ?v tv *Qv av yG Bv !9v v 9v "v $h .{v *RGQv =v y9v < Ricardo)

#v |h .#v +v *hQv tv yG #v *Qv F9v %v }v yG fOv y #v | ?v *Qv ]v Jv yG ?v Gv %v zv yG ,v "v =v Av y d9v wv VC
Ov Gv ! J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG ,v p ,v wv =v Wv yG {v +v zv Jv Av yG uv +v =v av Av y iQv L}G ?v zv Dv |}G
Ralph W. Fasold, The Sociolinguistics of Society (Oxford: Blackwell, )37(

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129
.)43(ROQGhOE .hh ,)42(ROQGhOE .ah ,)41(#v *Qv i v v ,v =v +v yh ,)40(JOv +v }v V
k
?v+vF9v"vDvyG Y9v\hC {v+vzvJvAvy GOvF ?v=vS9v"v| ?vwv=vWvyG )vzvf IRvwv@Qv}vyG ?v!Q9vtv}vyG Ovgv@h
?v*Ov+vzvtvAvyG ?vSGQOvyG {vDv}vAv@h .j(vjvzvyG d(vJvAvyGh ,j(vjvzvyG d9vZv@:Gh ?v*(vjvzvyG
o
Bvsh ,vp ?vtv*QvavyG JOv}vAvfG Ovsh .)44(d9vi ,vp ?vwv=vWvzvy IOv}vAvgv}vyG ?v*(vjvzvyG
f9v vwv vS iOv vy j(v vjv vzv vyG d(v vJv vAv vyGh j(v vjv vzv vyG d9v v}v vgv vAv vS:G ?v vSGQOv vy uv vI:
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J:h9v Jv | 9v ]v *C c9v "v $ Bv !9v v .)45({v Av S9v v(v +v "v < ?v +v "v +v Zv yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG
9v}v"v+v< .)46(?vjvzvy ?v+v\9v}vyG J:9vJvyG )vzvf ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vwv=vWvyG IQvwvp W9vtvS
k k
JGQv+v+vjvAvyG ?vWvs9v"v| #v| #vwv}v* 9v*Qvdv! GQ9v_E Qvp(v* Qv+v+vjvAvyG /?v!9v+vZvyG LP(v}v!
A9v "v < IO9v fE &v +v p c(v wv Wv }v yG #v |h ,?v Jv \Gh ?v tv *Qv av < ?v +v \9v }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG
«Australian Aboriginal Adolescents,» in: Schmidt, Young People’s )40(

Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from Australia.
«An Alpine Rural Community in Austria,» in: Lippi-Green, «Social )41(
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«Black Adolescents in England,» in: Edwards, Language in a Black )42(
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«Black Detroit Speakers,» in: Walter Edwards, «Social Network )43(
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Li Wei, L. Milroy and S. C. Pong, «A Two-Step Sociolinguistic :Qv v v dv v v v!G )45(
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Chinese Community in Britain,» International Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol.
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: #v*PvyG U9vMvV}G )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< >vS9v"v| {vwvWv< ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vwv=vWvyG
.,tT! {wW< ~%AdI;| #w}*
?+f9}AF:G ?t=ayGh ?+f9}AF:G ?w=WyG

#v+vAvqvzvAvMv| #v+vAv=v@Qv| ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vtv=vavyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vwv=vWvyG {vDv}v@
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)v"vgv@ 9v}v"v+v< ,)?vavzvTvyGh IhQvDvyG ,vp IGh9vTv}vyG eOvf #v| ?vgv<9v"vyG( hv}vAvGv}vzvy
?v }v Ch .?v +v |(v +v yG &v @9v s;v fh OQv qv yG i(v Av Tv | ,v p ,v "v |9v ]v Av yG Ov gv =v y9v < ?v wv =v Wv yG
k
uv *Qv _ #v f ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v S LP(v }v ! ,v p 9v gv | #v +v |(v %v qv }v yG bv <Qv y ?v yh9v Jv |
.)47(?q+qMyG ?w=WyG b<GhQ e(%q| d9}gASG
J9v v8v vqv vzv vy [v vF9v vZv vL ,v v$ ?v v+v v"v v|9v v]v vAv vyG bv v<GhQv vyG fC ,v v%v v*Ov v=v vyG #v v|
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?v tv =v av zv y ,v FGQv FE LP(v }v ! ?v }v Ch .?v qv +v qv L 9v %v !(v v )v yE {v +v }v @ J9v f9v av tv yG
fzv < MQv Av tv @ Xv +v gv yG W9v }v !} H(v FQ(v $ S9v |(v @ ?v *Qv dv ! {v Dv | ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G
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9v%v!E {v< ,?vpO9vZv}vy9v< ,v@zv@ : ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vwv=vWvyG J9v+v"v< YG(v!C rvzvAvMv|
{v+vjvWvAvyG bv}v! {vDv| ,yI9v +vJv yG W9v}v!C rvzvAvMv| ,vp ?v+vgv+v=v_ ?vtv *Qvav< hvtv@z
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#v| ?vqvzvAvMv| YG(v!} #vwv}v* ?vtv*QvavyG gPv%v< .?vqvzvAvMv| J9vtv=vavy ?v!(vwv| 9v$QhOv<
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Milroy and Milroy, «Social Network and Social Class: Toward an )47(
Integrated Sociolinguistic Model».
.&Tq! QOZCG :Qd!G ,{+Y9qAzy )48(
131
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,)49(#v v +v v |hQ aQv v _ #v v | ?v v <(v v gv v Zv v yG gPv v $ Bv v Wv v s(v v ! Ov v sh ,j(v v jv v zv v yG
Suzanne Romaine, «The Sociolinguistic History of t/d Deletion,» Folia )49(

Linguistica Historica, vol. 5, no. 2 (1984).
132
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Is a Merger Not a Merger? The Meat/ Mate Problem in a Present-Day English
Vernacular,» English World-Wide, vol. 1 (1980).
134
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William Downes, Language and Society (London: Fontana, :d9v v vDv v v|C #v v v| )55(
1984), and Chambers and Trudgill, Dialectology.
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Melanesian Languages,» in: Philip Baldi, ed., Linguistic Change and
Reconstruction Methodology (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990), and
«How Do Languages Change (More on «Aberrant» Languages),» Oceanic
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to Language and Ethnicity.
John Joseph Gumperz, «Theory :Qvdv!G ,KvzvavZCG Kv+v\(v@ d(vI IQvZvAvJ IQvdv"vy )2(
and Method in Pluriglossia: The Interpretive Analysis of Language Usage,» in:
Liliana Spinozzi Monai, ed., Aspetti metodologici e teorici nello studio del
plurilinguismo nei territori dell Alpe-Adria (Tricesimo, UD: Aviani Editore, 1990),
pp. 33-34.
= Hugo Ernst Mario Schuchardt, Dem Herrn Franz von Miklosich zum 20. )3(
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Norman Denison, «Sauris: A Trilingual Community in Diatypic Perspective,»
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dOv< O(vtvgvy( hvSGh ,v"v|R ~vzvS >vTvJv< xvyPh ,?v"vwv}v| f9vwvTvyG e(v}vf
q
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?v f(v }v Gv | )cGPv !B( )Bv !9v v ,v Av yG( (Sauris) Uv *Q(v Y ?v *Qv tv < 1962 ?v "v S
Labov, The Social Stratification of English in New York City. )5 (
145
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J:9v tv }v yG #v | ?v f(v }v Gv | )c9v "v $( &v Av |9v sEh &v @GQ9v *R #v f Hv Av ! Ov sh .9v +v y9v av *E
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JGQ(v Zv @ IQ(v zv < ,v p Bv }v $9v S )J:9v tv }v yG gPv $( fC xv yP #v | ~v $}Gh
k q
9v"vwv}v| #vwv* ~vy iOv| )vyEh ,?v|9vf ?vqvZv< ?vjvzvyG d(vI rvy|v}vy9v< ?vY9vL
9v%vAv+vav}v! eOvfh )?v*(vjvzvyG( ?vf(v}vGv}vyG ~vGvI QvjvY )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< ,?v*GOv=vyG ,vp
Z(vzv<h ~vvGQvAvyG )GPv$( uv+vtvJv@ Ovgv< )?vqvzvAvMv| H9v=vS}h( f6Gh .?vJv\G(vyG
9v}v<Q ,)OGOvf G Ov+vs ?v+v!9v}vy}G ?v+vTv*Q(vZvzvy S(v|9vs c9v"v$( ?v+v"v+v"vtv@ ?vzvIQv|
k
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q
Qv Zv Av Mv | rv Yh ~v *Ov tv @ ,A,v V {v v {v =v s ,jQhQv ]v yG #v | f(v wv +v S
,?v+vTv*Q(vZvyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ?vf(v}vGv}vy9v< ?vav=v@Qv}vyG ?v=vS9v"v}vyG J9v\GQvAvp:Gh hvF9vs(vzvy
#v |h .)6(,v tv +v C(v @ (v $ 9v |h j(v jv y (v $ 9v | #v +v < {v LGOv Av yG ?v $GOv < )v yE )Qv dv "v y9v <(
J9vGv%vzvyG ,v}vzvwvAv| #v| IQv+vjvY ?vf(v}vGv}vy IQvGv$ {vDv}v@ ?v+vTv*Q(vZvyG fC Ov+vv}G
Primus Lessiak, Die Deutsche Mundart von Zarz in Oberkrain.... 1, :Qv dv !G )6(
Grammatik, Deutsche Dialektgeographie, Untersuchungen zum Deutschen
Sprachatlas; Heft 50, mit Ergänzungen von Eberhard Kranzmayer und Annemarie
Richter (Marburg: N. G. Elwert, 1959); Giovanni Lorenzoni, La Toponomastica di
Sauris oasi tedesca in Friuli (Udine: Istituto delle Edizioni Accademiche, 1938);
Eberhard Kranzmayer: Historische Lautgeographie des gesamtbairischen
Dialektraumes (Wien: H. Böhlaus Nachf., 1956); Die bairischen Kennwörter und
ihre Geschichte (Wien: H. Böhlaus Nachf., 1960), and Laut- und Flexionslehre der
deutschen Zimbrischen Mundart, 2 vols. (Wien: VWGÖ, 1981-1985); Maria
Hornung: «Die Osttiroler Bauernsprachinseln Pladen und Zahre in Oberkarnien,»
Osttiroler Heimatkunde. Heimatkundliche Beilage des «Osttrioler Bote», vol. 28, no.
3 (1960); Mundartkunde Osttirols: Eine dialektgeographische Darstellung mit
volkskundlichen Einblicken in die altbaüerliche Lebenswelt, Österreichische
= Akademie der Wissenschaften. Studien zur österreichischbairischen Dialektkunde;
146
k
9vs;vav!G )IQvGv%vyG Bv!9vvh( .QvWvf Evy9vDvyG fQvtvyG QvLGhC ,vp ?v*Q9vp9v=vyG ?v+v!9v|QvGvyG
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k
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k
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&vAvzvLO( ,(vAv"v|9v+vzvi9vAvzvy ,v<Qvi >vZv| )j9v|(vzvyGh( v v j(v v v v "vTvyG jQhOvyG #vwvTvyG
k
.(v "v +v !Q9v v hRv +v =v |C ,v p uv +v \ Qv }v | Qv =v f 9v gv *Qv S 9v %v yhRv ! Ov gv < )?v f(v }v Gv }v yG gPv $
?v *9v i )v yE ?v +v Tv *Q(v Zv yG ?v *OhOv Jv yG ?v tv av "v }v yG A9v Wv !E Pv "v | fhQv s ?v gv =v S ?v <GQv tv yh
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Ovgv<C )vyE ?vpO9vZv|h {v}vf ?vs;vf )?v+vy9vav* G ,v}vzvwvAv|h ,(vav+v"v+vqvyG ,v}vzvwvAv|
q
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?vtvpOvAv}vyG ?v+v}vS(v}vyG JGQvGv%vy9v< Uv*Q(vY #v| S9v"vyG uvJvAvzv* ~vyh .?v+v!9v|QvGvy9v<
k
fQv tv yG ?v *9v %v ! ,v p :E ,{v }v gv yG UQv p #v f 9v Dv Jv < ,d9v }v Wv yG ,v p 9v +v !Q9v v #v |
.,\9}yG
,vWv!9v|hQvyG QG(vGvyG )vyE {vtv"vAvyGh jQ9vGvAvyG dO9v=vAvyG f9vv ,xvyP hv|h
k
f9v v vwv v vS {v v v}v v vgv v vAv v vSG Ov v vsh .Q(v v vZv v vgv v vyG eOv v vsC Pv v v"v v v| 9v v v*QhQv v v\ (Romance)
3 (Wien: H. Böhlaus Nachf., 1964); Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprachinselmundart =

von Pladen-Sappada in Karnien (Italien) (Wien; Graz; Köln: H. Böhlaus Nachf.:
Kommissions-verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1972),
and «Alte Gemeinsamkeiten im speziellen Wortschatz südbairischer Sprachinseln,»
in: Hans-Werner Eroms, Bernhard Gajek and Herbert Kolb, eds., Studia
linguistica et philologica: Festschrift für Klaus Matzel zum sechzigsten Geburtstag,
überreicht von Schülern, Freunden und Kollegen (Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1984), and
Norman Denison, «Spunti teorici e pratici dalle ricerche sul plurilinguismo con
particolare riferimento a Sauris,» in: Spinozzi Monai, ed., Aspetti metodologici e
teorici nello studio del plurilinguismo nei territori dell Alpe-Adria.
147
q
gPv $ O(v Fh )v zv f dOv * 9v }v | ,,v y(v *Qv qv yG O9v Av gv yG ,v !9v |Qv Gv yG Uv *Q(v Zv yG
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k
.IQh9vGv}vyG ?v+v!Q9vwvyG uv_9v"v}vyG #v| 9vs;vav!G ?vf(v}vGv}vyG gPv$ )vyE ,IQv}vAvTv|h
J9v v+v vzv v}v vgv vyGh J9v v+v vwv vzv v}v vyGh ,v v\GQ~v vy( ?v v*QGO G J;v vGv vTv vyG Bv v!9v vv Ov vtv vy
k
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xvyP {v=vs f9vv &v!C {v}vAvJv}vyG #v|h( QvWvf #v|9vDvyG fQvtvyG ?v*GOv< ,vp ?v+vy9vav* G
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q
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k
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k
9v}vv ,GQvL|v| 9v$D9vWv!E ~q v@ ,vAvyG d9vqv_}G V9v*Q ?vjvy xvyPvvh ,jQ9v=vF G
)vyE QvLzvAv| Bvsh )vAvI ?vzv}vgvAvTv| Bv!9vv ,vAvyG( ?v+v!9v}vy}G {vJv| BvzvI 9v%v!C
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?vav=v@Qv}vyG GO9v<9vS IQv*RvGv<h Uv*Q(vZv< #v+vs(v|Qv}vyG f9v=v$QvyG Ov+vy9vtv@ ,vV;v@
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9vtv<9vS Uv*Q(vZv< ?v+vy(v*Qvqvzvy ,v%vqvWvyG d9v}vgvAvS:G f9vvh .?v+v!9v}vy}9v< 9v*(vjvy
^v gv < #v | ?v +v !9v }v y}G A9v Zv s J9v |;v f )?v +v y(v *Qv qv yG( JOv <Ch ,?v +v y9v av *5v y
Norman Denison, «Some Observations on :Qv v dv v !G ,{v v +v v Y9v v qv v Av v yG #v v | Ov v *RC )7(

Language Variety and Plurilingualism,» in: Ardener, ed., Social Anthropology and
Language.
148
cQv @ ,v p 9v $QhOv < COv =v @ fC {v =v s xv yPh )8(
hv }v Av Gv }v yGh ?v Tv +v "v wv yG J:9v Gv |
k
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Uv v*Q(v vY ,v vp )fhQv vLB f(v vjv vy9v v<h( A9v v<6G COv v< ?v v"v vS #v v+v vC;v vC {v v=v vs
?v=vy9vjvyG ?vp9vtvDvyG IO:(vyG Pv"v| ~v%vy9vqv_C ~v+vzvgv@ ,vp {vDv}vAv@ ?v|9vf ?vF(v| ?v=vvG(v*
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xvyP ~q v@ Ovsh .)~v%v!9vwv|E ,vp 9v| {vwv<p ( .?v=vy9vjvyG )?vGv%vzvyG hC( ?vjvzvyG Qv=vf
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?v +v C;v Dv yG fC ,v $ Uv *Q(v Y ,v p ?v +v y9v Jv yG ?v Gv +v Av "v yGh .uv <9v Tv yG ,v p d9v +v F}G
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JGQ(v vWv v"v v| ,v vp J9v v+v vzv v}v vgv vyG gPv v$ {v vDv v}v v< ,v v!9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vTv vyGh ,v v!9v vTv vzv vyG
,)10(f(v v Tv v +v v "v v *O ,)9(Qv v Av v yhO(v v +v v y v v cGOhhh (Dressler) Qv v zv v Tv v *QO {v v Dv v |
.9%+z* 9|h 168 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )8(

Wolfgang Dressler and Ruth Wodak-Leodolter, «Language Preservation )9(
and Language Death in Brittany,» International Journal of the Sociology of
Language, vol. 12 (1977).
Norman Denison: «Language Death or Language Suicidé,» in: Dressler )10(
= and Wodak-Leodolter, Ibid.; «Heterogenität und Kompetenz,» in: Klaus Lichem
149
JGQ9v v vgv v vAv v vSG #v v v}v v v]v v v@ jPv v vyG .)12(J(v v vFGQv v v@h f(v v vTv v v+v v v"v v v*O ,)11(f9v v v*QhO
.)13(y?jzyG J(|z {D| ?+pQ(|(<hQD!C
k k
,vS ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v}vF9vtvyG fC ,9vtv<9vS {v+vs 9v}v| 9vs;vav!G ,VGQvAvp:G #vwv}v*
Qv v+v vi Bv v!9v vv {v vFGh}G fhOv vpG(v vyG 9v v%v v< )v v@C ,v vAv vyG (S Bavarian) jQ9v vp9v v=v vyG
?v gv SGh ?v +v pGQv jv vF J9v s;v vf )O(v Fh( )v zv f ?v yOC #v | ?v v+v vy9v Lh ?v Tv !9v Gv Av |
v
?v +v !9v }v y}G ?v !Q9v tv | fE PE ,Kv +v Jv Zv yG (v $ Uv wv gv yGh .?v +v f9v }v Av FG J9v wv =v Vh
k
9v %v "v | f9v Av "v CGh ,9v +v Mv *Q9v @ 9v %v < ?v av =v @Qv }v yG ?v =v *Qv tv yG J9v Gv %v zv y9v < ?v +v Tv *Q(v Zv yG
Xv@hO v v RQGRh )14(fO;v< /GO9v<9vTvy yBvL}Gz ?v*(vjvzvyG QRvGvy9v< f9vAvzvDv}v|
Pv"v| IQv+vL}G gPv$ Bv\Qvtv!G Ovsh v v )15(9v+v"v+vp(vzvTv< JhQ (Zarz-Deutsch)
and Hans Joachim Simon, eds., Hugo Schuchardt, geb. Gotha 1842-gest. Graz =
1927: Schuchard-Symposium 1977 in Graz: Vorträge und Aufsätze (Wien: Verlag
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1980), and «Endstation
Sprachtod? Etappen im Schicksal einer Sprachinsel,» in: Andreas Weiss, ed.,
Dialekte im Wandel, Göppinger Arbeiten zur Germanistik; no. 538 (Göppingen:
Kümmerle Verl., 1992).
Nancy C. Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic )11(
Dialect (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), and Nancy C.
Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and
Death (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Norman Denison and J. Tragut, «Language Death and Language )12(
Maintenance,» in: Ulrich Ammon, Klaus J. Mattheier and Peter H. Nelde, eds.,
Minorities and language Contact, International Yearbook of European
Sociolinguistics, Sociolinguistica IV (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1990).
Maria Hornung, Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprachinselmundart :Qv v v v v dv v v v v v!G )14(
von Pladen-Sappada in Karnien (Italien).
Lessiak, Die Deutsche Mundart von Zarz in Oberkrain, and :Qv v v v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v v v !G )15(
= Eberhard Kranzmayer und Primus Lessiak, Wörterbuch der deutschen
150
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,v vp ?v vzv v}v vgv vAv vTv v| Bv v!9v vv ,v vAv vyG (S E German) ?v v+v v!9v v}v vy}G j S ?v vGv v%v vzv v<
~vv #vf rvWvwv@ ,QvWvf Evy9vDvyG fQvtvyG ,vp IQvGv%vyG Bvsh hvSG(vyG {vYG(vAvyG
.#v +v |Ov s}G #v *Ov pG(v yG ?v +v !9v }v yC ,v p ,?v Wv $Ov zv y Qv +v Dv }v yG ,Uv !9v Gv @;v yG #v |
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Schicksal einer Sprachinsel,» in: Weiss, ed., Dialekte im Wandel, pp. 147-149.
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Denison, «Spunti teorici e pratici dalle ricerche sul plurilinguismo :Qv dv !G )25(
con particolare riferimento a Sauris,» in: Spinozzi Monai, ed., Aspetti metodologici
e teorici nello studio del plurilinguismo nei territori dell Alpe-Adria.
Norman Denison, «Sociolinguistics, Linguistic Description, Language )26(
Change and Language Acquisition,» in: Joshua A. Fishman [et al.], eds., The
Fergusonian Impact: In Honor of Charles A. Ferguson on the Occasion of His 65th
Birthday, 2 vols. (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1986), vol. 1: From
Phonology to Society.
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E. and W. Mayerthaler, «Aspects of Bavarian Syntax or «Every :Qv v v dv v v !G )27(

Language Has at Least Two Parents»,» in: Jerold A. Edmondson, Crawford
Feagin and Peter Mühlhäusler, eds., Development and Diversity: Language
Variation across Time and Space: A Festschrift for Charles-James N. Bailey
(Arlington, VA: University of Texas, Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1990).
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Norman Denison: «Conservation and Adaptation in a Plurilingual )28(

Context,» in: Wolfgang Meid and Karin Heller, eds., Sprachkontakt als Ursache
von Veränderungen der Sprach- und Bewubtseinsstruktur (Innsbruck: Institut für
Sprachwissenschaft, Universität Innsbruck, 1981), Denison, «Endstation
Sprachtod? Etappen im Schicksal einer Sprachinsel,» in: Weiss, ed., Dialekte im
Wandel.
170
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phonologie diachronique = [Economy of Phonetic Changes] (Berne: A. Francke,
[1955]).
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Hans Henrich Hock, Principles of Historical Linguistics, 2nd rev. and )4 (

updated ed. (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991), pp. 156-157.
Labov, Principles of Linguistic Change. Volume 1, Internal Factors. )5 (
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Anthony S. Kroch, «Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language )6 (

Change,» Language Variation and Change, vol. 1 (1989).
Labov, «The Social Motivation of a Sound Change». )7 (
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William Labov, «Hypercorrection by the Lower Middle Class as a )9 (

Factor in Sound Change,» in: William Bright, ed., Sociolinguistics (The Hague;
Paris: Mouton, 1966). [Revised Version in: Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns].
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, p. 117. )10(
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Labov, ed., Locating Language in Time and Space (New York: Academic Press,
1980).
Penelope Eckert, ed., New Ways of Analyzing Sound Change (San )18(
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991).
Linguistics: A Symposium, p. 102.
Labov, «The Social Origins of Sound Change,» in: Labov, ed., )20(
Locating Language in Time and Space, p. 252.
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W. Bright and A. K. Ramanujan, «Sociolinguistic Variation and )23(
Language,» in: Horace Lunt, ed., Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of
Linguists, Cambridge, Mass., August 27-31, 1962 (London; The Hague; Paris:
Mouton, 1964).
189
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English Dialectology,» in: Eckert, ed., New Ways of Analyzing Sound Change.
Labov, «The Intersection of Sex and Social Class in the Course of )26(
Linguistic Change».
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Romaine, Socio-Historical Linguistics: Its Status and Methodology. )29(

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Explaining Language Variation,» pp. 30-31.
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Code-Switching in Norway,» in: Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in
Milroy, «Social Network and Presige Arguments in Sociolinguistics,» )32(

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John Raymond De Symons Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The )3 (

Development of the Victorian Public School (London: Millington, 1977), and
Donald P. Leinster-Mackay, The Rise of the English Prep School (London;
Philadelphia, PA: Falmer Press, 1984).
John Honey, «‘Talking Proper’: Schooling and the Establishment of )4 (
English RP,» in: Graham Nixon and John Honey, eds., An Historic Tongue:
Studies in English Linguistics in Memory of Barbara Strang (London; New York:
Routledge, 1988).
198
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John Honey, «Acrolect and Hyperlect: The Redefinition of English RP,» )5 (

English Studies, vol. 66, no. 3 (1985).
199
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B. Honikman, «Articulatory Settings,» in: David Abercrombie [et :Qv v dv v !G )6(

al.], eds., In Honour of Daniel Jones (London: Longmans, 1964).
John Laver, The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality (Cambridge :Qv dv !G )7(
[Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
John Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor (London; )8 (
Boston, MA: Faber and Faber, 1989), p. 41.
200
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T. :fQ9v s ,kv !(v v kv !(v $h 9v *Qv +v G+v ! ,v p Kv +v Jv Zv yG uv av "v zv y ,v =v Tv "v yG hv \(v yG d(v I )9(
Ufumata, «Acceptable Models for EFL (with Special Reference to Nigeria),» in:
Susan Ramsaran, ed., Studies in the Pronunciation of English: A Commemorative
Volume in Honour of A. C. Gimson (London: Routledge, 1990),
Kingsley Bolton and Helen Kwok, «The Dynamics of the Hong Kong :hv v v v v v|
Accent: Social Identity and Sociolinguistic Description,» Journal of Asian Pacific
Communication, vol. 1, no. 1 (1990).
Robert McCrum, William Cran and Robert MacNeil, The Story of )10(
English (London: Faber: BBC Publications, 1987), p. 294.
201
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Ellis Bell, Wuthering Height: A Novel (London: Thomas Cautley )11(

Newby, 1847).
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Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor, pp. 81-82. )12(
W. A. Stewart, «Urban Negro Speech,» in: Roger W. Shuy, ed., Social )13(
Dialects and Language Learning (Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English, [1965?]).
Bickerton, «Inherent Variability and Variable Rules». )14(
203
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k k k
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.(Broad Paralect) hvSG(vyG d9v}vgvAvS:G jP Q9v+vgv}vyG #v| ?v=v*Qvs ?vGv%vy
#v+v< KvFQzvAv* fC &v"vwv}v* ,(Register) )16({vGvTvyGh ?v+vgv\(vyG >vTvJv<h
uv av "v yG #v +v <h 9v }v %v "v +v < hC ,)Q9v +v gv }v yG #v | #v +v =v *Qv tv yG( #v +v qv "v Zv yG #v *Pv $
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g9vGv@G ,vph ,?vzvTvzvTvyG Qv=vf Q9vTv+vyG g9vGv@G ,vp &vvQq vJvAv< bv=v@Qv}vyG ~v$}G
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Peter Trudgill, On Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives )15(

(Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1983), p. 187.
.{ZqyG GP$ ,p 9.1 IQtqyG Qd!G )16(
204
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,v p 9v }v v ,#v wv }v }v yG #v |h )Uv *Q9v < ,v p ?v +v wv zv }v yG ?v +v V9v Jv yG uv av ! )v zv f
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xv vyP {v v=v vs f(v vwv v* fC #v vwv v}v v}v vyG #v v|h ,)17( J9v v+v v"v v+v vgv v=v vTv vyG JG(v v"v vS ,v vp
R. Hawkins, «Regional Variation in France,» in: Carol Sanders, ed., )17(

French Today: Language in Its Social Context (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press, 1993), p. 60.
205
9vTv!Qvp #v| ARvF jC #v| ?vpQvgv| {v+vJvAvTv}vyG #v| xvyP {vgvGv*h .)18(Qv+vDvwv<
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Q9v =v Av f:G ,v p 9v !Ov LC GPE ,J9v }v Tv yG #v | IOv tv gv | J9v f(v }v Gv | )b(v av "v yG(
xvyPv< Kv=vYC jPvyG ,vAvF9vZvyG uvTv"vyG d9v}vgvAvSG ,vp ?v+vzvJv}vyG J9vp;vAvL:G
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IQv+vDv| J9vp;vAvLGz IOOvgvAv| ?v*(vjvy J9vavzvTvy ?v!Q9vtv| JQv%vcC Ovtvp ,Qv+vDvwv<
.)23(jQ9v+vgv}vyG uvav"vyG {vwvV &v+vzvf f(vwv* fC #vwv}v* 9v| U(vZvMv< y?vWv$Ovzvy
R. Anthony Lodge, French, from Dialect to Standard (London; New )18(

York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 98, 102, and 166.
Hawkins, Ibid., p. 56. )19(
Carol Sanders: «Sociosituational Variation,» in: Sanders, ed., French )20(
Today: Language in Its Social Context, p. 45.
Hawkins, Ibid., p. 61. )21(
Jacques Durand, «Sociolinguistic Variation and the Linguist,» in: )22(
Sanders, ed., Ibid., pp. 259, and 263.
.262 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )23(
206
jQ9v+vgv}vyG ,vTv!QvqvyG uvav"vzvy &vqvYh fC (Fouché) )24(,vV(vp ~vfR 9v|Ov"vfh
&v!{vp ,)25(y#v+vqvtvDv}vyGz #v+v+vTv*Q9v=vzvy [v*QvJvyG yjO9vgvyGz uvav"vyG )vzvf Rvwv@Qv*
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k k
uv av "v yG ,v p GQv +v =v v 9v f(v "v @ c9v "v $ fC ,)26(Qv Av yGhh &v +v "v +v @Q9v }v y ?v qv V9v v ?v SGQO
,,vy9vgvyG ,vSGQOvyG i(vAvTv}vyG jhP #v+vjvy9v=vyG #v+v+vTv*Q9v=vyG #v| 17 v v y ,v}vSQvyG
J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv y9v < ?v Zv Zv Mv Av }v yG &v Av pQv gv | )v yE ?v p9v \E ,xv yP gO9v s Ov sh
?vgv+v=vavzvy ^v+vtv"vv( ?v+v=v*QvGvAvyG ?vgv+v=vavyG ?vyA9vTv| )vyE ,IQvY9vgv}vyG ?v+vTv!QvqvyG
)vyE ,)27(yQ9v+vgv}vyGz ,vTv!QvqvyG uvav"vyG e(v%vqv}vy )?v+vF(viGOv+v=vyG hC ?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG
?v v+v v Tv v!Qv vqv vyG e(v v%v v qv v| fC (Morin) fGQ(v v| .T .E ~v vfR I9v vv9v vJv v | ?v v FQO
.)28(yj(jy #*9AW"w!GQpz &!(v #| QDvC U+y yQ9+g}yGz
~v v vfR PE ,?v v v*Rv v v+v v vzv v vGv v v! G fzv v vWv v v< ?v v vzv v vC9v v v}v v v| Q9v v vwv v vpC JOQh Ov v vtv v vy
{v gv qv y9v < c9v "v $ Uv +v y &v !C )29(Uv <(v Av S {v wv *9v | ,v !9v av *Qv =v yG ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG
.f9vv uvav! jzv< ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ~vzvwvAv! fC #vwv}v*h ,Q9v+vgv| jRv+vzvGv! G uvav"vzvy
e(v v %v v qv v| fC (Loreto Todd) )30(O(v v @ (v v Av v *Q(v vyh {v v +v v!hOhC .Q .h ~v vfRh
Pierre Fouché, Traité de prononciation française, [2ème éd.] (Paris: C. )24(

Klincksieck, 1959).
Durand, Ibid., p. 262. :,p OQh )25(
.&Tq! QOZCG :,p JOQh )26(
.263 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )27(
Yves-Charles Morin, «French Data and Phonological Theory,» in: )28(
Brian Wenk, Jacques Durand and Catherine Slater, eds., «French Phonetics and
Phonology,» Linguistics, vol. 25, no. 291 (1987).
Michael Stubbs, Language, Schools and Classrooms (London: Methuen, )29(
1976), p. 26.
W. R. O’Donnell and Loreto Todd, Variety in Contemporary English )30(
(London; Boston, MA: G. Allen & Unwin, 1980), p. 143.
207
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Q9vwvp}Gz ?vgv+v=v_ )vzvf G(v"v$Qv< Ovs )34(Qv<(v< dQ9vvh (Tarski) ,vwvSQ9v@ d9vDv|C
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John Christopher Wells, Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (Harlow, )31(

England: Longman, 1990).
Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor. )32(
David Rosewarne, «Estuary English: Tomorrow’s RP?,» English Today )33(
37, vol. 10, no. 1 (January 1994).
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Bryan Magee, Karl Popper (New York: Viking Press, [1973]). :;D| Qd!G )34(
208
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#v| ?v+v}v$C QvDvvC f(vwv@ fC 9v%v"vwv}v* )uvav"vyG GPv%vy( #v+vgv}vAvTv}vyG J9vvGQOE fC
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#v| ,vAvyG (Paralect) Q9v+vgv}vyG #v| ?v=v*QvtvyG ?vGv%vzvyG IQvwvp Q9v=vAvf:G ,vp PvLC
IQvwvqvyG(h ,&vdvI: jPvyG Qv+v+vjvAvyG #v| Qv+vDvv 9v%vy;vL #v| Kv]vAv* fC #vwv}v}vyG
{v +v !hOhCh Uv <(v Av S e9v wv IC Qv +v Tv qv @ ,v p Ov f9v Tv @ fC #v wv }v }v yG #v | )9v %v Tv qv !
.O(@h (O’Donnell)
)35(
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,vp J9vdvqvJv@ O(vFh #v| ~viQvy9v<h .y?v|9vgvyG ?v+vvQv+v|}Gz KvzvavZv| (Krapp)
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George Philip Krapp, The Pronunciation of Standard English in America )35(

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1919).
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Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics (Cambridge [England]; New York:
John Earl Joseph, Eloquence and Power: The Rise of Language )37(
Standards and Standard Languages (London: F. Pinter, 1987).
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William Labov, Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English )38(
Vernacular (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, [1972]).
Charles Allen, ed., Tales from the Dark Continent (London: Futura, )39(
1990).
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Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor, p. 60; Howard )40(
Giles and Peter F. Powesland, Speech Style and Social Evaluation (London; New
York: Academic Press, 1975), and Hawkins, «Regional Variation in France,» in:
Sanders, ed., French Today: Language in Its Social Context.
212
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Scouse,» in: Peter Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English (London:
E. Arnold, 1978).
213
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Speakers of Regional Accents of French: Effects of Regionality, Age and Sex of
Listeners,» Linguistische Berichte, vol. 90 (1984),
Hawkins, «Regional Variation in France,» in: :,v p Ov +v qv | {v wv Wv < 9v %v Zv +v Mv zv @ ~v @h
Sanders, ed., French Today: Language in Its Social Context.
Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor. )43(
214
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Labov, Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English )44(
Vernacular, p. 36.
Jean-Claude Bouvier, «Les Paysans drômois devant les parlers locaux,» )45(
Ethnologie française, nos. 3-4 (1973), pp. 232-233.
Hawkins, «Regional Variation in France,» in: Sanders, ed., :,v v v v v vp JOQh )46(
French Today: Language in Its Social Context.
215
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L. W. Lanham and C. A. Macdonald, The Standard in South African )47(

English and Its Social History (Heidelberg: Groos, 1979).
Barbour and Stevenson, Variation in German: A Critical Approach to )48(
German Sociolinguistics, pp. 222, and 237.
Robert N. St. Clair, «From Social History to Language :?v v v Y9v v v L Qv v v dv v v !G )49(
Attitudes,» in: Ellen Bouchard Ryan and Howard Giles, eds., Attitudes Towards
Language Variation: Social and Applied Contexts (London: E. Arnold, 1982),
p. 165.
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John Honey, Standard English and Its Enemies, [Forthcoming]. )52(

Klaus Mattheier, Pragmatik und Soziologie der Dialekte: Einfuhrung in die )53(
kommunikative Dialektologie des Deutschen (Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer, 1980),
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Barbour and Stevenson, Variation in German: A Critical :9v v v v v v v v v]v v v v v v v v v*C Qv v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v!G
Approach to German Sociolinguistics, pp. 100-101.
David Barton, Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written )54(
Language (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), p. 48.
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Walter Jackson Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the )55(
Word (London; New York: Methuen, 1982), pp. 78 and 82,
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Dittmar and Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the
Science of Language and Society, vol. II.
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, chap. 7. )56(
David Sutcliffe, British Black English (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), and )58(
Sebba, London Jamaican: Language Systems in Interaction.
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Jenny Cheshire, «The Relationship between Language and Sex in )59(

English,» in: Trudgill, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics, p. 44.
Chambers and Trudgill, Dialectology, pp. 98-100. :Qd!G )60(
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Milroy and Milroy, Authority in Language: Investigating Language )62(
Prescription and Standardization (1991), pp. 18-19.
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Peter Trudgill: Accent, Dialect and the School (London: :;v v v v v vDv v v v v v| Qv v v v v vdv v v v v v!G )63(
Edward Arnold, 1975), chap. 4, and Dialects (London; New York: Routledge,
1994), pp. 2 and 6.
Honey, :Qvdv !G (Linguistic Congruence) j(vjvzv yG e9vGvTv!:G e(v%vqv| U(vZvMv< )64(
Standard English and Its Enemies, [Forthcoming].
Stubbs, Language, Schools and Classrooms, :fQ9s )65(
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221
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Howard Giles [et al.], «The Social Meaning of RP: An :U(v Zv B9v < Qv dv !G )66(
Intergenerational Perspective,» in: Ramsaran, ed., Studies in the Pronunciation of
English: A Commemorative Volume in Honour of A. C. Gimson.
Charles Francis Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics (New York: )67(

Macmillan, [1958]).
222
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)73(
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Carol Sanders, «Sociosituational Variation,» in: Sanders, ed., French )68(

.38 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )69(
M. H. Offord, Varieties of Contemporary French (Houndmills, )70(
Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education, 1990).
.&Tq! QOZCG :Qd!G )71(
Labov, Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English )72(
Vernacular, p. 244.
Trudgill, Dialects, pp. 56 and 67. )73(
223
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H. Giles and P. Smith, «Accommodation Theory: Optimal Levels of )74(

Convergence,» in: Howard Giles and Robert N. St. Clair, eds., Language and
Social Psychology (Oxford [Eng.]: Blackwell, 1979).
Sebba, London Jamaican: Language Systems in Interaction, p. 126. :Qd!G )76(
224
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Chambers and Trudgill, Dialectology, pp. 152-161. :Qd!G )77(

Barbour and Stevenson, Variation in German: A Critical Approach to )78(
German Sociolinguistics, p. 115.
Honey, Does Accent Matter?: The Pygmalion Factor, pp. 61 and 190, )79(
:Qvdv!G ,,vF9v]vtvyG {v}vgvyG ,vp _v}vzvwvACG JG(vYC ?vpQvgv| ,vp ?+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ?v+vGv%v"CG {vv9vWv| d(vI
James Milroy, «Sociolinguistic Methodology and the Identification of Speakers’
Voices in Legal Proceedings,» in: Trudgill, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics.
225
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)vtv=v* ,?v"v+vgv| ?v+vGv%v"v| Qv$9vdv}vy ?v%vF(v}vyG )82(JGO9vtvAv!:G #v| ~viQvy9v<
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,9v +v !9v av *Qv < [v Mv * 9v | ,v ph .,v @G(v Y(v +v S(v Tv yG Qv +v jv Av yG ?v gv +v =v _h 9v $Q9v }v Dv Av SG
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.)84(&F9vQVh {+FOhQ@ QA+<
W. P. Robinson, «Speech Markers and Social Class,» :U(v vZv vB9v v< Qv vdv v!G )80(
in: Klaus R. Scherer and Howard Giles, eds., Social Markers in Speech
(Cambridge, [Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 223-226.
,(Bob Hawke) ch9v v $ H(v v < ,(Margaret Thatcher) Qv v Wv v @9v v @ Bv v *Qv v iQ9v v | d(v v I )81(
Honey, Ibid., :Qd!G (Arthur Scargill) {+FOQ9wS QCQBh (Harold Wilson) #Tz*h OyhQ9$
:Qv vdv v!G (Georges Marchais) &v v+v vVQ9v v| LQ(v vF ,v vTv v!Qv vqv vyG ,v vvGQv vAv vV:G ~v v+v vfRv vyG d(v vIh
Durand, «Sociolinguistic Variation and the Linguist,» in: Sanders, ed., French
Robinson, Ibid., pp. 223-226. )82(
Labov, Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English :?v v Y9v v L )83(
Vernacular.
Trodgill, The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich; Trudgill, ed., )84(
Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English, Trodgill: Sociolinguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Society, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth; New York:
Penguin, 1983), and On Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives,
k
Robinson, «Speech Markers and Social Class,» in: Scherer :9v v ]v v *C Qv v dv v !G #v v wv v y
and Giles, eds., Social Markers in Speech, and Petyt, The Study of Dialect: An
Introduction to Dialectology, pp. 158-159,
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Jules Gilliéron et E. Edmont, Atlas linguistique de la France (Paris: H. Champion,
1902-1910).
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Hans Kurath [and] Raven I. McDavid, Jr., The Pronunciation of :;v v v v vDv v v v | )3(
English in the Atlantic States (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press,
[1961]); Harold Orton, Stewart Sanderson and John Widdowson, eds., The
Linguistic Atlas of England (London: Croom Helm; Atlantic Highlands, NJ:
Humanities Press, 1978), and Craig M. Carver, American Regional Dialects: A
Word Geography (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1987).
Hans Kurath, Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New England, )4 (

Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada, with the Collaboration of
Marcus L. Hansen, Julia Bloch, Bernard Bloch (Providence, RI: Brown
University, 1939), p. 44.
Labov: «The Social Motivation of a Sound Change»; The Social )5 (

Stratification of English in New York City; Sociolinguistic Patterns, and Language
in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English Vernacular.
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J. Chambers, «Vernacular Roots,» Paper Presented at: Twenty Second )9 (

Conference on New Ways of Analyzing Variationin English, University of
Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, October 1993.
Walt Wolfram [and] Ralph W. Fasold, The Study of Social Dialects in )10(
= American English (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, [1974]); Cheshire,
233
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?vy9vI ,vph ,,vGv%vzvyG Y(v"vAvyG d9vwvVC ^vgv< O(vtv@ ?v+vzvLGO ?v*(vjvy ?v+vAvJv@
?v+vyB ,vp ?vzvDv}vAv| J9v+vzv}vgvyG ~v+v}vgvAvy J9vjvzvyG ?v+vzv<9vs f(vwv@ ,,vqv"vyG uvpG(v@
rvzvAvMv| #v+v< ?v+vzv}vgvyG gPv$ {v+vDv}v@ Kv\(v@ fC 9v%v"vwv}v* ?v+vgv+v=v_ ?v+vzvLGO
Qv+vL}G GPv$ eRvzv@ ,vqv"vyG ~vS(vy IOvf9vs fE .?vzvtvAvTv}vyG ?v+v|9vgvyG J9vGv%vzvyG
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?vgvsG(vyG ?vpQvgv}vyG Qv+vi A9v}vS}G {vwv<h ?v+vzvgvp ?vzv}vF ,vp QvZv"vgv< W9v=v@Q:9v<
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IQ(v Zv zv y hv S(v }v yG Ov +v gv tv Av yG hC ,my-/your-/her-/our-self(ves) ?v +v tv Tv "v yG
Variation in an English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Study; Richard W. Bailey and =

Manfred Görlach, eds., English as a World Language (Ann Arbor, MI: University
of Michigan Press, 1982), and Peter Trudgill, The Dialects of England (Cambridge,
MA: B. Blackwell, 1990).
Roger Brown, A First Language: The Early Stages (Cambridge, MA: )11(
Harvard University Press, 1973).
John H. Schumann, The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second )12(
Language Acquisition (Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, 1978).
234
I/you/she/we/you/they ,v v vp be v v v v vy ,v\9v}vyG #v v v|Rvzvy (Finite) ?v+v%vAv"v}vyG
,v v$ ,v vGv v%v vzv vyG Y(v v"v vAv vyG ,v vp ~v vwv vJv vAv v@ ,v vAv vyG ?v v+v vAv vJv vAv vyG O9v v=v v}v vyG fE .was
.)13(?v|9vf ?vqvZv< j(vjvzvyG Y(v"vAvyG ,vp ~vwvJvAv@ ,vAvyG O9v=v}vyG Uvqv! S9vS}9v<
)v yE O(v gv * ,j(v jv y Qv +v jv Av v &v qv *Qv gv @ ,v y9v Av y9v <h ,Y(v "v Av y9v < aGQv Av f:G #v wv y
,vf9v}vAvF:G {v*hzvAvyG fC #v| ~viQvy9v<h .&v+vp hvtv* jPvyG ,vf9v}vAvF:G b9v+vTvyG
,NPv =vyG {v +v=v s #v| hOv =v* fC #v wv }v* Y(v "vAv yG ,v p IOQG(v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG d9vwv V~v y
k k k
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m
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Qv v+v vi :9v vwv vVC Bv vGv vAv v!C ,v vAv vyG ?v v+v vgv v+v v=v vav vyG ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG JGQv v+v vjv vAv vyG ^v vgv v< #v vf
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oxen OQv av }v yG Qv +v i e(v S(v }v yG hv }v Gv yG ?v *QGQv }v Av SG ,;v Dv }v p , ?v |(v S(v |
)14(
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.VhQq}yG ,fG(yG g9=A!:G
)15(
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P. Kiparsky, «Phonological Change,» in: Frederick J. Newmeyer, :;v vDv v| )13(
ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, 4 vols. (Cambridge, MA; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1988); B. D. Joseph and R. Janda, «The How and
Why of Diachronic Morphologization and Demorphologization,» in: Michael
Hammond and Michael Noonan, eds., Theoretical Morphology: Approaches in
Modern Linguistics (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1988), and Kroch, «Reflexes
of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change».
Anthony S. Kroch, «Toward a Theory of Social Dialect Variation,» )14(
Language in Society, vol. 7, no. 1 (1978).
William Labov, Malcah Yaeger and Richard Steiner, A Quantitative )15(
= Study of Sound Change in Progress (Philadelphia, PA: US Regional Survey, 1972);
235
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?vgv+v=v_ )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< .Ovgv< 9v| ,vp ?v+vf9v}vAvFG J::O 9v%v+vyE Ov"vTv@ 9v%v< zv=v"vAv|h
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Bv F9vY #v | GOv gv < Qv Dv vC hC 9v +v@G(v YC HQvsC )f(v wv *h( ),v @G(v Y}G &v gv s(v|
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QvDvvC Kv=vZv+vp ,?vzvf )vyE bed BvF9vY d(vJvAv* ,,v<(v"vGvyG ,vAvF9vZvyG d(vJvAvyG
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?v +v |9v |}G Bv FG(v Zv yG cQv Jv Av @ ,Bv s(v yG Uv qv ! ,v p .beyd (beId) v v v< 9v %v =v V
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{vwvWvyG ,vp ?vzvDv}v| IQv$9vdvyG gPv$ .e9v|}G (vJv! ?v+vqvzvMvyG BvFG(vZvyG cQvJvAv@h
O9v=v}vyG #v| ?vf(v}vGv| #vwvy ,9v%vAv+v$9vGv@G 2.7h 1.7 f;vwvWvyG #v+v=v*h .2.7
.d(vJvAvyG ,vFP(v}v! ;vv ,vp BvFG(vZvzvy ,vtvTv"vyG cQq vJvAvyG VQvqv@ IOOvJv}vyG
?v+vyh}G ?v+vqvY(vyG O9v=v}vyG #v| OOvf {vDv}vAv* ,?vy(vJvAv}vyG J9v+vyG(vAv}vyG ,vph
:,z* 9| ,p
William Labov: «The Three Dialects of English,» in: Eckert, ed., New Ways of =
Analyzing Sound Change, and Principles of Linguistic Change. Volume 1, Internal
Factors.
236
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Labov, «The Three Dialects of English,» in: Eckert, ed., :#v v v| Uv v v=v v vAv v vtv v v| )16(
Ibid.
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237
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238
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Roger W. Shuy, Walter A. Wolfram and William K. Riley, Linguistic )18(

Correlates of Social Stratification in Detroit Speech, Final Report; Project no. 6-
1347 ([Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of
Education, Bureau of Research], 1967).
239
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Gregory Guy, «The Quantitative Analysis of Linguistic Variation,» in: )19(

Dennis R. Preston, ed., American Dialect Research (Amsterdam; Philadelphia PA:
J. Benjamins, 1993).
Walt Wolfram, Dialects and American English (Englewood :#v v| Uv v=v vAv vtv v| )20(
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991).
242
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Dennis R. Preston, «Fifty Some-Odd Categories of Language :d9v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v| )21(

Variation,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 15, no. 2 (June
1986).
Labov, Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English :{v v v v v Dv v v v v v| )22(
Vernacular, and Walt Wolfram, A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro
Speech (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1969).
Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1980. )23(
244
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Douglas Biber and Edward Finegan, eds., Sociolinguistic Perspectives )24(

on Register (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
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Sally McConnell-Ginet, «Language and Gender,» in: Newmeyer, ed., )27(
Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, vol. 4: Language: The Socio-Cultural Context.
Penelope Eckert, «The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in )28(
Variation,» Language Variation and Change, vol. 1 (1989).
.247 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )29(
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Canon: The Case of the Ocracoke Brogue,» Language, vol. 71 (1995).
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Joan C. Baratz, «Language and the Economically Deprived Child: A )40(

Perspective,» Asha, vol. 10, no. 4 (April 1968), and William Labov, «The Logic of
Nonstandard English,» in: James Alatis, ed., «The Logic of Nonstandard
English,» Georgetown Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics, vol. 22
(1969).
Walt Wolfram and Carolyn Temple Adger, Handbook on Dialect )41(

Differences and Speech and Language Pathology (Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics, 1993).
The Ann Arbor Decision: Memorandum Opinion and Order and the )42(
Educational Plan (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1979).
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Endangerment Canon: The Case of the Ocracoke Brogue».
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Deborah Tannen, ed.: Framing in Discourse (New York; Oxford: :Qv v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v!G )1(
Oxford University Press, 1993), and Gender and Conversational Interaction (New
York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); Helga Kotthoff, «Unruhe im
= Tabellenbild? Zur Interpretation weiblichen Sprechens in der Soziolinguistik,» in:
265
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Susanne Günthner and Helga Kotthoff, eds., Die Geschlechter im Gespräch: =

Kommunikation in Institutionen (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1992); Jennifer Coates and
Deborah Cameron, eds., Women in Their Speech Communities: New Perspectives on
Language and Sex (London; New York: Longman, 1989); G. Klann-Delius, «Sex
and Language,» in: Ammon, Dittmar and Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics: An
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Language and Gender,» in: Micaela Di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of
Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, CA: University
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.#+y9GCG #*P$ d(I ?|9f IQd! {FC #|
Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet, «Communities of Practices: )2(
Where Language, Gender, and Power All Live,» in: Hall, Bucholtz and
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266
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Black Women in the Rural South,» in: Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae and
Nancy Henley, eds., Language, Gender, and Society (Rowley, MA: Newbury
House, 1983); Eckert, «The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in
Variation,» and Jennifer Coates, «Introduction,» in: Coates and Cameron, eds.,
Women in Their Speech Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex.
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Judith Lorber and Susan A. Farrell, eds., The Social Construction of )5 (

Gender (Newbury Park, CA; London: Sage Publications, 1991), p. 7.
Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about )6 (
Women and Men (New York: Basic Books, 1985), p. 71.
J. K. Chambers, «Linguistic Correlates of Gender and Sex,» English )7 (
World-Wide, vol. 13, no. 2 (1992),
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Y(v"vyG ?v*(v$ Q(vav@ :?v+vf9v}vAvF:G IQhQv+vTvyG OhQh ?v+v}v$C )vzvf ,&vqv*Qvgv@ hv=vAv!
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fC &v +v "v gv * 9v | f} ,hv }v Gv yG ?v jv +v Zv < YG(v !}G #v f Ev *Ov Jv yG Qv Dv vC ~v F;v }v yG
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jPv yG {v +v Gv yG )v yE {v +v F #v | rv zv Av Mv * ;v FQ f(v wv @ fC hC ICQv |G f(v wv @
,?v +v "v *Ov yGh ?v +v "v C Gh ?v +v sQv gv yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG a;v Av L9v < rv zv Av Mv *h ,&v +v zv *
J:(vtv| fE .)11(?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vtv=vavyG rvzvAvMv| OGQvpC )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< xvyPvvh
Raewyn Connell, Gender and Power: Society, the Person, and Sexual )8 (
Politics (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press; Blackwell, 1993), pp. 170ff.
.179 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )9(
Richard C. Lewontin, Human Diversity (New York: Scientific )10(
American Books, 1982).
Gal, «Between Speech and Silence: The Problematics of Research :Qv dv !G )11(
= on Language and Gender,» in: Di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of
270
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?v tv *Qv av < y?v *O9v Zv Av sG(v +v S(v S IGh9v Tv | : )v yE U9v L ,v Mv *Q9v @ YhRv ! #v f
.)12(9+F(y(*O*C y?g=v a|o z
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&v< eRvAvzv* )#v+vqvy|v}vyG #v| ~v+vMvqvAvyG( yY(v"vy9v< e9v+vtvyGz ...9v+vGv%v"v|h GQQvwvAv|
?v =v vQv | ?v +v S9v +v ShQv wv +v |h ?v zv f9v qv Av | ?v av Wv !C #v }v ]v Av *h ,A9v Tv "v yGh d9v FQv yG
?v *Q(v vPv yG hv F9v =v av yG #v f Qv +v =v gv Av yG ?v *QGQv }v Av SG cQx v Jn v @ ,9v +v f9v }v Av FG ?v %v F(v |h
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J9v s9v +v S ,v p 9v f(v \(v | f(v wv * 9v | 9v =v y9v i j(v jv zv yG c(v zv Tv y9v p ,)14(b9v +v Tv y9v <
#v wv y .J9v s9v +v Tv yG gPv $ #v f d9v Zv qv !G ,v p &v +v yE Qv dv "v yG #v wv }v * :h ,?v "v +v gv |
b9v v+v v Tv vyG ,M(v v\(v v< ,Bv vzv vLOC J9v v+v v!9v vTv v y(v v+v vS(v vTv vyG fC hv v| ,rv vS~v vy
OvGv! ,)v"vgv}vyGh ?vjvzvyG d(vI ?v+vF9v"v=vyGh ?v+vS9vS}G 9v%v@9v\GQvAvpG ,vp ,vf9v}vAvF:G
Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, p. 178; V. Stolcke, «Is =

Sex to Gender as Race to Ethnicity?,» in: Teresa del Valle, ed., Gendered
Anthropology (London; New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 20, and Lorber and
Farrell, eds., The Social Construction of Gender, pp. 1ff.
Stolcke, Ibid., p. 19. )12(

C. West and D. H. Zimmerman, «Doing Gender,» in: Lorber and )13(
Farrell, eds., Ibid., pp. 13-14.
Ruth Wodak, «Critical Linguistics and the Study of Institutional )14(

Communication,» in: Patrick Stevenson, ed., Sociolinguistics in German-Speaking
Countries (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), and Duranti and Goodwin, eds., Rethinking
Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon.
271
k
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k
.?ShQO}yG J9+ag}yG b9+S h| )9@9A< {|9gA@
?+!9Ty(+S(TyG JGQ+jA}yG
zvF9vqv! : ,J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ,vp ?v*Ov+vzvtvAvyG J9v+vGv%v"v}vyG )vyE Qvdv"vy9v<
IQvDvwv< {v}vgvAvTv| rv*Qvgv@ (v$h( (Wardhaugh) )15(Z(v$OQGh rv*Qvgv@ fzv<
k
?v +v }v $C )v yE 9v @9v Av < Qv +v Wv * : yj(v jv zv yG Qv +v jv Av }v zv yz )?v +v }v *Ov tv Av yG ShQOv yG ,v p
,?v *(v vjv zv yG JGQv +v jv Av }v vyG #v | #v v+v f(v v! #v +v < Rv v+v }v * (v %v vpz :b9v +v Tv yG &v +v vF(v @
)Ø( singin’ ,v p [Z]h [Ø] {v Dv | ,IRv *9v }v Av | ,v $h ,JGQv +v jv Av }v yG )J9v }v S(
,?v+vyG(vAv| uvph 9v%v@9vp;vAvLG S9vtv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v}vwvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyGh ,[Z] singingh
k
,9v*Ov+vzvtv@ ,?v*(vjvzvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG gPv$ {vDv| bv=v@Qv@h .)16((e) ...)e( {vDv|
?v vtv v=v vav vyGh ,#v vTv vyGh ,)Y(v v"v vyG( Uv v"v vGv vyG {v vDv v| ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G J:(v vtv v}v vy9v v<
fhO #v|h ,9v%v@9vs9v+vS #vf Qvdv"vyG ^vjv< ,NvyE ...?v+v"vC Gh ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
Xvs9v"v"vSh .)17(d9vwvVE hv\(v| ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J:(vtv}vyG gPv$ )v"vgv| hv\h
.3 IQtqyG ,p hShC {wW< b9+TyG e(%q|
Ronald Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd ed. )15(

(Oxford; Cambridge, MA: B. Blackwell, 1992), pp. 139-140.
Richard A. Hudson, Sociolinguistics, 2nd ed.:,v v v v v v v vp #v v v v v v v vSO(v v v v v v v v$ eOv v v v v v v vtv v v v v v v v* )16(
(Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 167,
k k k
J9v SGQOv y ~v %v | {v |9v gv v b9v +v Tv yG ]E Qv +v Wv *h ,yj(v jv zv yG Qv +v jv Av }v zv yz 9v gv +v S(v @ Qv Dv vC 9v qv Yhh GQv +v Tv qv @
k
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{vgvpz v v vy 9v"v|(v%vqv| d9v}vgvAvSG #v| 9v"v"vwvE ,vAvyG J9v+vgv\(vyG ,vp &vF9v|OEh &vTvqv! {vLGOvAvyGh .~vzvwvACG
Holmes, An Introduction to :RC(v $ ^v f &v Tv qv ! A,v Wv yG bOv Zv *h .9v %v zv $9v : ~v @ Ov tv p yY(v "v yG
q
Sociolinguistics, pp. 151ff.
Norbert Dittmar and Peter Schlobinski, eds., The Sociolinguistics :Qv vdv v!G )17(
of Urban Vernaculars: Case Studies and Their Evaluation (Berlin; New York: W.
de Gruyter, 1988), p. 115; Gregory Guy: «Explanation in Variable Phonology: An
Exponential Model of Morphological Constraints,» Language Variation and
= Change, vol. 3 (1991), pp. 5ff., and 1988, pp. 40ff.; Otto Santa Ana, «Chicano
272
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#v|h ,[vtv"vyG LP(v}v! ?v*hGR #v| A9vTv"vzvy ,v<9vavMvyG hC ,v|;vwvyG c(vzvTvyGh
k k
,GR9v +v Av |G Qv Dv vCh ,i(v sC 9v v(v zv S d9v FQv zv y ,v |;v wv yG c(v zv Tv yG JQv =v Av fG ~q v C
k
?v |;v gv v &v +v yE Qv dv "v * jPv yG j(v Tv "v yG H(v zv S}9v p .)18(Qv Dv vC &v +v p 9v <(v iQv |h
k
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k
9v !9v +v IC ~v @h ,Qv Dv vzv p Qv Dv vC A9v Tv "v yG 9v %v zv }v gv Av Tv @ JCOv < ,v Av yG >v +v y9v S}G I(v s
,vF9vTv! H(vzvSC {v+v=vs #v| ~v+v$9vqv| JQv%vc .>v+vy9vS}G gPv%vy uv F9vp ~v+v}vgv@
n k
H(v vzv vS}G rv v Yp ho ;v v Dv v }v v p ,)19()rv v +v v S=( ,v v y9v v FQ H(v v zv v SCh )Ov v+v v F=(
Ovsh .QvDvvC ,vTvp9v"v@ d9vFQvyG H(vzvSC 9v}v"v+v< ,QvDvvC ,v!h9vgv@ &v!C )vzvf j(vTv"vyG
o
S9v v"v vF}G IGh9v vTv v| Bv v}v v@h ,Y(v v"v vyG Uv vqv v! {v vLGO J9v vp;v vAv vL:G Bv vzv v}v v$C
n o
Bv vzv v}v vgv vAv vSGh .)20(?v vSGQOv vzv vy S9v vSzv vv jO9v vIC Y(v v! Ov v}p v vAv vfGh ,YG(v v!}9v v<
~q v@ xvyPvy ?vGv+vAv"vvh .IOv*Ovf J9vSGQO ,vp a(vwv*;vy ?v+vSOvJvyG J9v+v\QvqvyG
q
J9vSGQOvyG &vAv}vfR 9v| {vv #vwv* ~vyh .)21(?vqvzvAvMv| ?v+vGv%v"v| J9v<Q9vtv| Y9v=v@G
English Evidence for the Exponential Hypothesis: A Variable Rule Pervades =

Lexical Phonology,» Language Variation and Change, vol. 4, no. 3 (1992), pp.
278ff., and John R. Rickford, «Sociolinguistic Variation in Cane Walk: A
Quantitative Case Study,» in: Jenny Cheshire, ed., English around the World:
Sociolinguistic Perspectives (Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1991), pp. 611ff.
Robin Tolmach Lakoff, Language and Woman’s Place (New York: )18(
Harper & Row, 1975).
Senta Trömel-Plötz, ed., Gewalt durch Sprache: Die Vergewaltigung von )19(
Frauen in Gesprächen (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1984).
.g;fC Qd!G )20(
k
Deborah Cameron, Feminism and Linguistic Theory (New :;v v v Dv v v | Qv v v dv v v !G )21(
= York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985); Ruth Wodak [et al.], Sprachliche Gleichbehandlung
273
k k
.)22(9qzAM| 9%]g< f9vh ,9+}y9f &+zf ?"$Q=yG #w}}yG #| ?t<9TyG
EvJv=vyG >vwv!G :j(vjvzvyG Y(v"vyG d(vI J9vSGQOvzvy ,v!9vDvyG OvtvgvyG ,vp

)vzvf {vYG(vAvyG e(vzvfh 9v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}Gh ,9v+vF(vy(v+vS(vTvyGh ,J9v+v!9vTvzvyG ,vp
k k
9v=v+v@Qv@ xvyPv< 9vGvAv"v| A9vTv"vyGh d9vFQvzvy ,v|;vwvyG c(vzvTvyG ,vp ?vtv+vsOvyG bhQvqvyG
k
,Ev *Ov Jv yG ,v p 9v }v %v | GQhO Y(v "v yG ?v y(v tv | JOC Ov sh .S9v "v F}G Y9v \h}
,iQv LC IQv | ,#v wv y .)23(Y9v \h}9v < U9v L b9v +v S ,v p ?v qv zv Av Mv | Bv !9v vh
J9vSGQO ,vp ~vF;v| Qv+vi {vwvWv< ?v+vs9v+vTvyG J9v+vY(vZvMvyG gPv$ ?vWvs9v"v| Bv}v@
~q v @ ~q v C #v |h ,I(v tv < IQv \9v I ~v wv Jv Av yGh I(v tv yG 9v *9v ]v s Bv !9v vh .IOOv gv Av |
(Dominance ~vwvJvAvyG ?v*Qvdv"v< (Deficit Theory) [vtv"vyG ?v*Qvdv! ^v*(vgv@
von Frau und Mann (Wien: Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 1987); N. =
M. Henley and Ch. Kramerae, «Gender, Power and Miscommunication,» in:
Nikolas Coupland, Howard Giles and John M. Wiemann, eds.,
«Miscommunication» and Problematic Talk (Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications, 1991); Coates and Cameron, eds., Women in Their Speech
Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex, and Trudgill, «Sex, Covert
Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban British English of Norwich».
Betty Dubois and Isabel Crouch, «The Question of Tag Questions in )22(
Women’s Speech: They Really Don’t Use More of Them,» Language in Society,
vol. 4, no. 3 (1975); Faye Crosby and Linda Nyquist, «The Female Register: An
Empirical Study of Lakoff’s Hypotheses,» Language in Society, vol. 6 (1977);
Holmes (1986), and Ulrike Grässel, Sprachverhalten und Geschlecht: Eine
empirische Studie zu geschlechtsspezifischem Sprachverhalten in Fernsehdiskussionen
(Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus, 1991).
Ruth Wodak and E. Andraschko: «Frauen führen anders?,» Erziehung )23(
heute, Heft 1 (1994), and «Frauen führen anders? 2. Teil,» Erziehung heute, Heft 2
(1994); Elinor Ochs, «Indexing Gender,» in: Duranti and Goodwin, eds.,
Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon, and Henley and
Kramerae, «Gender, Power and Miscommunication,» in: Coupland, Giles and
Wiemann, eds., «Miscommunication» and Problematic Talk.
274
LP(v }v ! )v zv f Rv wv @Qv @ dGRv @ : Bv !9v v J9v SGQOv yG gPv $ fC hv |h .Theory)
J9v+v"v< JPvLCh .b9v+vTvyG g9vGv@ QvDvvC ?vS9vTvI Bv!9vv 9v%v!{vp ,Y(v"vzvy jO9vIC
.Q9=Af:G #+g< h}AG}yG ,p I(tyG
Ov vgv v=v vyG )v vzv vf Ev vJv v=v vyG ,v vp Rv v+v vvQv vAv vyG f9v vv ,?v v+v vy9v vAv vyG ?v vzv vIQv v}v vyG ,v vp
J9v "v =v yGh O:h}G fC IOv *Ov f J9v +v <OC JQv %v cC Ov sh .Y(v "v zv y ,v f9v }v Av F:G
#v| 9v }v%v @9v f(v }v Gv| {v LGO ?v qv zv Av Mv| ?v +v zv gv p Qv +v ih ?v+v zvgv p JGQ9v %v | f(v }vzv gvAv *
#v+vjvy9v=vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< IQv\9vI JGQ9v%v}vyG gPv$ )vtv=v@h .)24(Uv"vGvyG Uvqv!
J9vp9vtvDvyG ,vp J9vp;vAvL:G )vzvf Rv+vvQvAvyG ~q v@ Ovsh .)25(IOv*Ovf J9v+vgv\h ,vp
k
.;v }v %v | ,v tv < ?v av zv Tv yG Qv %v dv | #v wv y ,?v +v f9v }v Av F:G O9v gv <}G )v zv fh ?v +v fQv qv yG
ya;v v Av v L:G ?v v *Qv v dv v !z ),v v }v v S 9v v |( ,v v p J9v v <Q9v v tv v }v v yG gPv v $ Bv v Zv v Mv v zv v @h
,v p ,?v 8v _9v L ?v qv Zv < ,T9v tv "v yG dGRv Av LG ~q v @ Ov sh .(Difference Theory)
A9vTv"vyG d9vFQvyG hv_9vtv* {v$ :{v+v=vs #v| ?vav+vTv< ?vzv8vSC ,vp ,Y(v"vyG J9vSGQO
{v $ ?Ev *Ov Jv yG hv +v \G(v | )v zv f d9v FQv yG Qv av +v Tv * {v $ ?Uv wv gv yG #v | Qv Dv vC
Ruth Wodak and Muriel Schulz, The Language of Love :,v v v p [v v v Mv v v zv v v | )24(
and Guilt: Mother-Daughter Relationships from a Cross-Cultural Perspective
(Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1986); Susanne Günthner and Helga
Kotthoff, eds., Von fremden Stimmen: Weibliches und männliches Sprechen im
Kulturvergleich (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1991), and Eckert, «The Whole
Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in Variation».
Ruth Wodak: Hilflose Nähe: Mütter und Töchter erzählen: Eine psycho- )25(
und soziolinguistische Untersuchung (Wien: F. Deuticke, 1984), and Language
Behavior in Therapy Groups = Das Wort in der Gruppe, Translated by Andrew
Smith (Berkeley, CA; London: University of California Press, 1986); D. Maltz and
Borker, «A Cultural Approach to Male-Female Miscommunication,» in: John
Joseph Gumperz, ed., Language and Social Identity (Cambridge, MA; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1982), and Deborah Tannen, You Just Don’t
Understand: Women and Men in Conversation (New York: Morrow, 1990).
275
q
{v v {v }v gv Av Tv @ {v $ )26(?uv F9v p {v wv Wv < )?v *(v jv zv yG( ?v Jv Zv yG #v +v L(v Av * A9v Tv "v yG
hv_9vtv* ,vAvyG J9vs9v+vTvyG fC 9v}v<h ?d9vFQvyG #v| QvDvvC Q9v+vgv}vyG ?vjvzvyG A9vTv"vyG
?v Zv Zv Mv | Qv +v i f(v wv @ O9v wv @ J9v s9v +v S ,v $ IO9v f A9v Tv "v yG d9v FQv yG 9v %v +v p
n o r k
e9v }v Av $:G V(v f ,?v |9v f ?v zv 8v SC ,v p ,dGR9v |h ,T9v tv "v yG dRp v Av LG )27(;v Dv |
.b9+Ty9< ?Y9MyG I(tyG J9s;f Q+aTA<
)28(
?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v +v F9v "v =v yG J9v <Q9v tv | JRQv < ?v +v "v $GQ Qv Dv vC IQv Av p ,v ph
&v !C )v zv f Y(v "v yG ~v %v qv *o ,?v <Q9v tv }v yG gPv $ ,v p .(Social Constructivism)
J:(v tv | {v +v wv Wv @ ,v p ?v Gv |Ov | ,Qv V9v =v | Qv +v i {v wv Wv < IQ(vv av |o ?v *(v $ ?v y(v tv |
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Jenny Cheshire and Penelope Gardner-Chloros, :Qv dv !G ,?v \Qv Av qCG ?v +v F9v vTv "v yG JGQOv tv zv y
Code-Switching and the Sociolinguistic Gender Pattern ([in Press]); Coates,
«Introduction,» in: Coates and Cameron, eds., Women in Their Speech
Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex.
West and D. H. Zimmerman, «Doing Gender,» in: Lorber and Farrell, )27(
eds., The Social Construction of Gender.
S. Fenstermaker, C. West and D. ;H9v v Av v wv v yG GPv v $ #v v | 273 v v 268 U Qv v dv v !G )28(
Zimmerman, «Gender Inequality,» in: Rae Lesser Blumberg, ed., Gender, Family,
and Economy: The Triple Overlap (Newbury Park, CA; London: Sage
Publications, 1991), p. 303.
Uchida, When «Difference» Is «Dominance»: A Critique of the «Anti- )29(
Power-Based» Cultural Approach to Sex Differences,» Langage in Society (1912)
p. 564.
276
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Labov, «Hypercorrection by the Lower Middle Class as a Factor in )30(

Sound Change,» in: Bright, ed., Sociolinguistics.
277
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Nichols, «Linguistic Options and Choices for Black Women in the )31(
Rural South,» in: Thorne, Kramarae and Henley, eds., Language, Gender, and
Society (1976).
.H9AwyG GP$ #| 272 v v 268 U Qd!G )32(
Nichols, Ibid. (1983), p. 54. )33(
Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1980; James Milroy, Regional )34(
Accents of English: Belfast (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1981); Milroy, «New
Perspectives in the Analysis of Sex Differentiation in Language,» in: Bolton and
Kwok, eds., Sociolinguistics Today: International Perspectives; Milroy and Milroy,
«Social Network and Social Class: Toward an Integrated Sociolinguistic Model».
278
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Labov: «The Social Motivation of a Sound Change,» [Reprinted in: )35(

Sociolinguistic Patterns].
Linguistic Change,» p. 224.
Labov: «The Social Motivation of a Sound Change»; Labov, )37(
«Hypercorrection by the Lower Middle Class as a Factor in Sound Change,» in:
Bright, ed., Sociolinguistics.
280
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Thomas D. Cravens and Luciano Giannelli, «Gender, Class, :9v]v*C Qv dv !G )44(
and Prestige in the Spread of an Allophonic Rule,» [in Press, 1993].
Linguistic Change,» p. 214.
Trudgill: «Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban )46(
British English of Norwich,» and On Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives.
Trudgill, «Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban )47(
British English of Norwich».
283
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Milroy: Language and Social Networks, 1980; Regional Accents of )50(

English: Belfast, and Language and Social Networks, 1987.
Milroy, Regional Accents of English: Belfast, p. 89. )51(
Dennis R. Preston, «Domain-, Role- or Network Specific Use of )53(
Language,» in: Ammon, Dittmar and Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics: An
International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, p. 89.
285
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Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1980. )54(

Milroy, Regional Accents of English: Belfast, p. 37. )55(
Trudgill, «Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in ;&v v Tv v qv v ! QOv v ZCG )56(
the Urban British English of Norwich,» and Smith, Language, the Sexes, and
Society.
286
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Sociolinguistics of English.
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Milroy, Language and Social Networks, 1987. :Og< )59(
Milroy, Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical )60(
Sociolinguistics of English, p. 120.
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?v p9v Dv wv yG {v Dv | JGQv V|v }v yG ^v gv < ?v wv =v Wv yG J9v SGQO Bv p9v \Ch .?v +v s9v +v Tv yG
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.?v +v p9v \E J9v *Qv dv !h ?v +v F(v y(v +v S(v S ~v +v $9v qv | {v }n v gr v Av Tr v @ ~v y e(v }v gv yG )v zv fh
Qv +v jv Av yG J9v +v yB Qv +v Tv qv @h rv Yh )v yE 9v |E ?v |9v f ?v qv Zv < J9v SGQOv yG aOv %v @h
O9v Gv *Eh ?v dv I;v }v yG Y(v \(v | j(v jv zv yG Y(v "v Av yG rv Yh )v yE hC ,j(v jv zv yG
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?v tv =v av yG >v !9v F )v yE ,Y(v "v yG/Uv "v Gv yG Qv =v Av gv *h .?v +v F(v y(v +v S(v Tv yG &v <9v =v SC
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9v v%v vAv vs;v vfh ,J9v v+v vzv vs}G J9v vjv vy Bv vy9v v! xv vyP Ov vgv v< ~q v vC ,)66(?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G
,)67(O(v Tv yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E ?v Y9v Lh ,e9v }v Av $:G ^v gv < Q9v +v gv }v yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! 9v <
,v@G(vY(v+vS(vTvyG EvJv=vyG )vyE ?vp9v\ 9v< )68(S(v!9vwv+vWvzvy j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvyGh
O(v! ,)vav S(vyG 9v vQv +v|Ch ,GOv "vyQv*Eh ,9v +v!9vav *Qv <h ,IOvJv Av}vyG J9v*:(vyG ,vp
k
?v tv +v sO GQ9v wv pC GhQ(v _ #v *Pv yG #v +v +v yGQv Av S}G #v +v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG )v yE IQ9v V G
OOvgvAvyG ?vSGQOvy b9v+vTvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vS9vTvI EvJv=vyG Hv$9v"v| U(vZvMv<
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k
HvF9vAv"vyG 9vtvI: JQvWv! ,vAvyG ?v+vqvY(vyG J9vSGQOvyG ~vdvgv| JOvvC Ovsh
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nn
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)vyE f(vzv+v}v* A:|v$h ,d9vFQvyG #v| ?v*Q9v+vgv| QvDvvC :9vwvVC 9v|(v}vf #vzv}vgvAvTv*
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Qv Dv vC J9v S9v Tv I A9v Tv "v yG fC 9v }v v ,?v *Q9v +v gv | {v s}G d9v wv V}G d9v }v gv Av SG
ro
.IO9vf j(vjvzvyG Qv+vjvAvyG fOvtv*n #v| #v$h ,jQ9v+vgv}vyG {vwvWvyG #vf aGQvJv!;vy
?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG J9vSGQOvyG ^vgv< 9v"vJv"v}v@ ,J9v$9vGv@:G gPv$ #v| ~viQvy9v<h
?v jv y f(v zv }v gv Av Tv * d9v FQv yG :JGA9v fO:G gPv $ hv | uv qv Av @ : ?v \Q9v gv | Hv F9v Av !
.)71(j(jzyG Q+jAyG ,p fhOOG}yG ~$ d9FQyGh ,?*Q9+g| QDvC
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EJ=zy iQLC O+y9t@ v v 4.2
j(v jv zv yG Y(v "v Av yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv yG ?v SGQO )v zv f IOv *Ov Gv yG JGQv +v Czv Av yG hv =v "v @
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Kv}vTv@h .)72(j(vjvzvyG d9vZv@:Gh J9v+vzvs}G d(vI EvJv=vyG GPvvh ,?v*(vjvzvyG
k
b9v +v Tv yG ?v SGQOv y ;v +v Zv qv @ Qv Dv vC ?v !Q9v tv }v < J9v jv zv yG IOOv gv Av }v yG ?v +v gv \(v yG
o
OOv gv Av yG d(v I J9v SGQOv yG Hv F9v Av ! jOp v =r v @h .j(v jv zv yG Q9v +v Av L:Gh ,v f9v }v Av F:G
Y(v"vyG :?vjvzvyG ?v*O9vI}G J9vSGQOvyG &v< JA9vF 9v}v< ?v%v+v=vV J:(v+v| j(vjvzvyG
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,v p J9v FO9v =v yG #v $ IO9v f A9v Tv "v yG f(v wv @h .?v *(v jv zv yG ?v *OOv gv Av yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <
.(Decreolization) )73(?z*QwyG ?yGRE ?+z}f
k
Y(v"vAvyG ?vSGQOv< 9vS9vSC ?v}vAv%v| ?v+vDvJv=vyG Ov+vy9vtvAvyG gPv$ >vzviC BvyGR9v|h
k
?v +v f9v }v Av FG ?v y(v tv }v v Y(v "v yG 9v !9v +v ICh Uv "v Gv y9v p ,bv }v "v yG GPv $ #v | j(v jv zv yG
k k
&vF(v}vyG EvJv=vyG (v$ A9v"vDvAvS:G( GQO9v! :E 9v$Q9v=vAvfG ~vAv* ~vy 9v+v=v*QvGv@ ?vzvZvAv|
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Y(v "v Av yG ,v p IQv C|v }v yG Qv $9v dv }v yG ^v gv < #v wv y .)J9v +v zv s}G d(v I 9v +v pGQv i(v "v CE
k
,vp 9v|(v}vf ?v"v}v]vAv| ,v$h ,e9v}vAv$:G #v| {v+vzvtvy9v< :E evJv@ ~vy j(vjvzvyG
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G. Escure, :,v p Q(v +v wv S ?v zv *Qv wv yG ?v yGRE ,v vp A9v Tv "v vyG QhOv vy 9v *Ov tv ! ;+zv ; Qv dv !G )73(
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?v vy9v vI ,U(v vZv vMv vy9v v< ,gPv v$h .?v vgv vS(v v| J9v vf;v vav vAv vS: jQv vdv v"v vyG Q9v v_ G
A9v Tv "v yGh d9v FQv y9v p .)74(Y(v "v y9v < ?v av =v @Qv }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG rv sG(v }v yG ,v p Ev Jv =v zv y
J9v*(vAvTv| ~v%vyh ,)75(?vqvzvAvMv| bQvav< ?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG Qv+vi ?vjvzvyG )vzvf #v}vwvJv*
xv yPv v Bv "v +v < 9v }v v( ?v *(v jv zv yG JGQv +v jv Av }v yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v qv zv Av Mv | ?v +v vGQOE
n v
~vwvJr v*o A9vTv"vyGh d9vFQvyG fC 9v}vv ,)76({v+vFOhQvAvy ,v@GPvyG ~v+v+vtvAvyG JGQ9v=vAvLG
j(v vjv vzv vyG Y(v v"v vyG Uv vqv v! f(v vzv v}v vgv vAv vTv v* 9v v|Ov v"v vf ?v vqv vzv vAv vMv v| ?v vtv v*Qv vav v< ~v v%v v+v vzv vf
.)?*h9T}"yG ?+!9}y}G ,p GP$ EJ=* ,(Moosmüller) )77(Qzy(}S(|(
fGOvtvgvyG Ov%v V ?v @G(vY(v +vS(v TvyG ,v p JGQ(vav AvyG gPv$ hv | IGRG(v}v y9v<h
k k
,iQvLC ?v+v!9vTvy J:9vGv| ,vp Y(v"vyG ,vp EvJv=vy9v< GOv*GRvAv| 9v|9v}vAv$G fGQv+vL}G
BvGvAv!h .e;vwvyG ?v+vpGQvi(v"vCEh Ev*OvJvyG {v+vzvJv@h ,H9vavMvyG {v+vzvJv@ {vDv|
,vp J9vp;vAvL;vy JGQv+vTvqvAvyG #v| ?vf(v"vAv| ?vf(v}vGv| J9vSGQOvyG gPv$ #vf
k
,vp ?v+vqv+vwvyG ?v+vpGQvi(v"vC G J9v<Q9vtv}vzvy IOv*GRvAv}vyG ?v+v}v$}G hv| 9v+vV9v}v@h .Y(v"vyG
k o
d9vGv}vyG GPv$ ,vp GQv+vCzv@ KOp vJr v@ JGQv+vTvqvAvyG gPv$ JCOv< ,?v@G(vY(v+vS(vTvyG
.xyPv
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,F9T"yG Ot"yGh ?*Qd"yG ?+\Q}G v v v 5.2
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g9vGv@ ,vF9vTv"vyG EvJv=vyG #v| )vI(vAvTv}vyG Ovtv"vyG #v+v<h ?v*Qvdv"vyG JGQ9v=vAvf:Gh
k
#vf ?v|9vf IQvdv! eOvtv! fC f6G O(v! .9vtv<9vS IQ(vvPv}vyG HvF9vAv"vyGh J9vSGQOvyG
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/Uv"vGvzvy 9v%v|(v%vqv| >vTvJv< ,J9vf(v}vGv| K;vC )vyE JGQv+vTvqvAvyG ~v+vTvtv@
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fhO #v | A9v Tv "v yGh d9v FQv zv y rv zv Av Mv }v yG ,v f9v }v Av F:G b9v +v Tv yG {v }v gv Av Tv @
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?vavzvTvyG ?v<Q9vtv|( A9vTv"vyGh d9vFQvyG #v+v< ?vavzvTvzvy jh9vTvAv}vyG Qv+vi hv*R(vAvy9v<
.)78()~wJAyGh
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k k k
,9v v|9v v@ 9v v+v vF(v vy(v v+v v< GOv v*Ov vJv v@ {v v}v vAv vJv v* Qv vY9v vgv v| Qv v+v vTv vqv v@ c9v v"v v$ Uv v+v vy
,v p bQv qv yG {v }v gv Av Tv @ ,v Av yG ?v +v @(v Zv yG JGOOQv Av yG ,v p a;v Av L:G JGQv +v Tv qv Av p
d(v Jv Av yG ?v +v }v $C )v zv f Ov v|v @ )d(v _C ,v @(v Y Qv }v | d9v FQv zv y( 9v +v F(v y(v *Rv +v qv yG
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A9vTv"vzvy fC OvtvAvgv* jPvyG( )80(?vdvI;v}vyG Y(v\(v| j(vjvzvyG Y(v"vAvzvy ?v+vF(vy(v+v<
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#v | hv pQv yG fOQv * #v %v !C 9v }v < ,?v +v gv \(v y9v < 9v +v fh Qv Dv v}G j(v jv zv yG #v %v v(v zv S
)vzvf gPv$h .)83(jQ9v+vgv}vyG Y(v"vyG #v%v}v+vzvgvAv< #v%vy9vqv_} ?v+vzv=vtvAvTv}vyG X(vdvJvyG
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#vzvjvAv Wv* ,v@G(vzvyG A9vTv "vyG )v zvfh .~v%v"v%v | #vf d9v FQvyG hv\h HvAv "v *h
RGQv< ,?vjvzvyG #v}v]vAv@ ,?v*Rv|Q ?v}vdv!C #vzv}vgvAvTv* fC Bv+v=vyG ,vp >vy9vjvyG ,vp
VQvgv@ )vyE A9vTv"vyGh d9vFQvzvy ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG J:9vjvWv!:G O(vtv@ .)85(#v%vgv\h
k
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295
k q
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J9v s;v f #v }v ]v Av @h ,9v %v +v yE #v +v }v Av "v * ,v Av yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG #v f IOv +v gv < f(v wv @
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eds., Women in Their Speech Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex,
and McConnell-Ginet, «Language and Gender,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics,
the Cambridge Survey, vol. 4: Language: The Socio-Cultural Context.
Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, «Communities of Practices: Where )90(

Language, Gender, and Power All Live,» in: Hall, Bucholtz and Moonwomon,
eds., Locating Power: Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language
Conference.
297
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Language, Gender, and Power All Live,» in: Hall, Bucholtz and Moonwomon,
eds., Locating Power: Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language
Conference, pp. 92ff.
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Deuchar, «A Pragmatic Account of Women’s Use of Standard )105(
Speech,» in: Coates and Cameron, eds., Women in Their Speech Communities: New
Perspectives on Language and Sex.
M. Burgoon, «Language and Social :Qvdv!G ,rv+vwvAvyG J9v*Qvdv! d(vI QvDvvC J9v|(vzvgC
Influence»; A. Furnham, «Language and Personality»; Ch. Kramerae, «Changing
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Bourhis, «Bilinguality and Multilinguality,» in: Howard Giles and W. Peter
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Lakoff, Language and Woman’s Place. )109(
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Tonhöhenverlaufs bei Frauen und Männern,» Klagenfurter Beiträge zur
Sprachwissenschaft, vols. 13-14 (1987-1988), and «Evaluation of Language Use in
Public Discourse: Language Attitudes in Austria,» in: Patrick Stevenson, ed.,
Sociolinguistics in German-Speaking Countries (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
= Moosmüller, «Evaluation of Language Use in Public Discourse: )114(
306
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«Language Attitudes in Austria,» in: Stevenson, ed., Sociolinguistics in German- =

Speaking Countries, p. 273.
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Wodak, Das Sprachverhalten von Angeklagten bei Gericht: Ansätze zu )116(
einer soziolinguistischen Theorie der Verbalisierung.
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Variation in Colloquial Viennese,» Michigan Working Papers in Germanic Studies,
vol. 4, no. 1 (1978); Wolfgang Dressler and Ruth Wodak-Leodolter,
«Sociophonological Methods in the Study of Sociolinguistic Variation in Viennese
German,» Language in Society, vol. 11, no. 3 (1982), and Moosmüller,
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(Wodak: Hilflose jOQv vqv vyG i(v vAv vTCG ,v vp J9v vs;v vgv vyG gPv v$ cGOhh 9v vChQ Bv vSQO )122(
Nähe: Mütter und Töchter erzählen: Eine psycho- und soziolinguistische
Untersuchung, and Language Behavior in Therapy Groups),
(Wodak and Schulz, :S(vzvGv!C S(vyh 9"+v+vp ?v*R+zvGv!E #+v< J9vp9vtvDvyG Qv=vf ?v!Q9vtv| U(vZvMv<
The Language of Love and Guilt: Mother-Daughter Relationships from a Cross-
Cultural Perspective, and «Meine Mutter ist meine beste Freundin,» in: Günthner
and Kotthoff, eds., Von fremden Stimmen: Weibliches und männliches Sprechen im
Kulturvergleich),
(Ruth Wodak: H9v vav vBG d(v vI J9v vSGQOv vyG Rv v*Rv vgv vAv vy ,OG(v vZv vyG Y(v v"v vAv vyG i(v vAv vTv v| ,v vph
«Beziehung zwischen Mutter und Tochter bei schwierigen Kindern: Erstellung
einer Typologie aus sozio- und psycholinguistischer Sicht,» Wiener Linguistische
Gazette, Beiheft 2 (1983), and Hilflose Nähe).
Kotthoff, «Unruhe im Tabellenbild? Zur Interpretation weiblichen )123(
Sprechens in der Soziolinguistik,» in: Günthner and Kotthoff, eds., Die
Geschlechter im Gespräch: Kommunikation in Institutionen, pp. 132ff.
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f9vv Y(v"vAvyG {v$ #vwvy .)125(#v%v@9v%v|C #v| #v%vTvqv!C Rv+v+v}vAvy ?v*(vjvzvyG #v%v=v+vy9vSC
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)126(
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?v tv =v av yG J9v "v < #v | Qv Dv vC ?v Gv %v zv yG #v zv }v gv Av Tv * )v av S(v yG 9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yG J9v "v <
GPv$ #v$Q9v+vAvLG >v=vS f{vp ~q vC #v|h ,#v%v@9v%v|C #v| #v%vTvqv!C Rv+v+v}vAvy ?vzv|9vgvyG
Wodak, Hilflose Nähe: Mütter und Töchter erzählen: Eine psycho- und )125(
soziolinguistische Untersuchung, and Language Behavior in Therapy Groups.
Ruth Wodak, «Aspekte des schicht-, geschlechts- und )126(
generationsspezifischen Lautwandels in Wien. Eine Untersuchung zum
Sprachverhalten von Müttern und Töchtern,» in: Marlis Hellinger, ed.,
Sprachwandel und feministische Sprachpolitik: internationale Perspektiven
(Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1985), p. 204.
311
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.H9AwyG GP$ #| 272 v v 268 U Qd!G )128(
312
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(Habitus Theory) O9v+vAvf:G ?v*Qvdv! LGQOE #v| Ov+vqvAvTvAvS ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
LGQOE #v v wv v }v v * &v v !C Ov v tv v Av v gv v !h .(Pierre Bourdieu) )130((v v *OQ(v v < Q9v v +v v =v v y
,iQvLC ?v%vF #v|h .?v*Qvdv"vyG gPv$ ,vp )131(?vwv=vWvyG d(vI IOvfGh J9v<Q9vtv|
?v "v +v gv | [v F9v Zv L 9v %v y J9v f(v }v Gv | {v wv V ,v p J9v "v +v gv yG Rv +v +v }v @ Kv }v Tv *
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Duranti and Goodwin, eds., Rethinking Context: Language as an )129(

Interactive Phenomenon.
Dittmar and Schlobinski, eds., The Sociolinguistics of Urban )130(
Vernaculars: Case Studies and Their Evaluation.
.{ZqyG GP$ ,p 288 v v 283 U Qd!G )131(
Pierre Bourdieu, Die feinen Unterschiede: Kritik der gesellschaftlichen )132(
Urteilskraft ([Frankfurt am Main]: Suhrkamp, 1987), p. 279.
313
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9v %v < Bv _9v IC Ov s Ev Jv =v yG Y(v \(v | Qv $9v dv }v yG 9v %v +v p f(v wv @ )134(Hv $9v "v }v yG
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.9%]g< ,Zt@
>vGv* )135(?v*Rv+vzvGv! G Qv+vi iQvLC J9vjvy f{vp ,xvyP )vyE ?vp9v\ 9v<
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J9vSGQOvyG ?v Y9vLh ,?v +v <hQh}G J9v+v <O}G f(vzv}v%v* #v+v +v vQv +v |}G #v+vDv I9v=vyG
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Kotthoff, «Unruhe im Tabellenbild? Zur Interpretation :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v !G )133(

weiblichen Sprechens in der Soziolinguistik,» in: Günthner and Kotthoff, eds., Die
Geschlechter im Gespräch: Kommunikation in Institutionen; Romaine, Language in
Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, p. 137.
Wodak, Language Behavior in Therapy Groups. :Qd!G )134(

Gal, «Language, Gender, and Power: An Anthropological :Qv v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v !G )135(
View,» in: Hall, Bucholtz and Moonwomon, eds., Locating Power: Proceedings of
the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference.
314
k
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9v"v@9v<9vFE fEz ?v|9vf ?vtv+vtvI )vzvf j(vAvJv* )137(a(v<: QGQvs{vp ,?v]vs9v"vAv}vyG
Qvdv"vy9vp ,xvyP hv|h .yJ9v"v+v}vMv@ 9v%v!(vv #vf hOvgv@ : Qv\9vJvyG Bvs(vyG ,vp
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.)138(QDvzp QDvC e9}A$:G )zf P(JAT@ IOOG}yGh ?z*O=yG
John M. Swales, Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research )136(

Settings (Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, 1991, p. 302. )137(
Hall, Bucholtz and Moonwomon, eds., Locating Power: Proceedings )138(
of the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference.
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W. Kemp and M. Yaeger-Dror, «Changing Realizations of A in (a)tion )1 (

in Relation to the Front a - Back a Opposition in Quebec French,» in: Eckert, ed.,
New Ways of Analyzing Sound Change.
Penelope Eckert, «The Structure of a Long-Term Phonological Process: )2 (
The Back Vowel Chain Shift in Soulatan Gascon,» in: Labov, ed., Locating
Language in Time and Space.
Labov: Language in the Inner City; Studies in the Black English )3 (
Vernacular, and The Social Stratification of English in New York City.
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Eduard Hermann, «Lautveränderungen in der Individualsprache einer )5 (

Mundart,» Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen.
Philologisch-Historische Klasse, vol. 9 (1929).
Henrietta Cedergren, «Panama Revisited: Sound Change in Real Time,» )6 (
Paper Presented at: The 13th Conference on New Ways of Analyzing Variation,
Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, 1984.
Joy Fowler, «The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City )7 (
Department Stores, 24 Years after Labov,» (MS, New York University, 1986).
Peter Trudgill, «Norwich Revisited: Recent Linguistic Changes in an )8 (
English Urban Dialect,» English World-Wide, vol. 9, no. 1 (1988).
L. Gauchat, «L’Unité phonétique dans le patois d’une commune,» in: )9 (
Aus romanischen Sprachen und Literaturen. Festschrift Heinrich Morf (Halle:
Niemeyer, 1905).
Hermann, «Lautveränderungen in der Individualsprache einer )10(
Mundart».
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Bailey [et al.], «The Apparent Time Construct». )11(

Lee Pederson, ed., Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (Athens, OH: )12(
University of Georgia Press, 1986-).
Trudgill, «Norwich Revisited: Recent Linguistic Changes in an English )13(
Urban Dialect».
Cedergren, «Panama Revisited: Sound Change in Real Time». )14(
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D. Guttman, «Parenthood: A Key to the Comparative Study of the )24(

Life Cycle,» in: Nancy Datan and Leon H. Ginsberg, eds., Life-Span
Developmental Psychology: Normative Life Crises: [Papers] (New York: Academic
Press, 1975).
329
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.#v +v jv y9v =v yG &v =v Wv y ,v f9v }v Av F:G ,v f(v yG Q(v av Av y hv ]v Mv @h ,Qv wv =v }v yG j(v jv zv yG
P. B. Baltes, H. W. Reese and L. P. Lipsitt, «Life-Span :d9v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v | )25(

Developmental Psychology,» Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 31 (1980).
Nikolas :Qvdv!G ,P9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG b9v+vTvyG {vLGO (Ageism) ?v+v"vTvyG O9vtvAv!G ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v< )26(
Coupland, Justine Coupland and Howard Giles, Language, Society and the
Elderly: Discourse, Identity and Ageing (Oxford; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell,
1991).
330
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Elinor Ochs, Culture and Language Development: Language :{v v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v v| )27(

Acquisition and Language Socialization in a Samoan Village (Cambridge, MA; New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and B. B. Schieffelin and E. Ochs,
«Language Socialization,» Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 15 (1986).
William Labov, «The Child as Linguistic Historian,» Language )28(
Variation and Change, vol. 1, no. 1 (1989).
331
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Penelope Eckert, Identities of Subordination as a Developmental )29(

Imperative, Working Papers on Learning and Identity; no. 2 (Palo Alto, CA:
Institute for Research on Learning, 1994).
Elaine S. Andersen, Speaking with Style: The Sociolinguistic Skills of )30(
Children (London; New York: Routledge, 1990); Charles A. Ferguson, «Baby
Talk as a Simplified Register,» in: Catherine E. Snow and Charles A. Ferguson,
eds., Talking to Children: Language Input and Acquisition (Cambridge, MA; New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), and J. Berko Gleason, «Code Switching
in Children’s Language,» in: Timothy E. Moore, ed., Cognitive Development and
the Acquisition of Language (New York; London: Academic Press, 1973).
332
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Acquisition of Communicative Competence (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984), p. 102.
333
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William Labov, «Stages in the Acquisition of Standard English,» in: )32(

Shuy, ed., Social Dialects and Language Learning.
334
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D. Sankoff and S. Laberge, «The Linguistic Market and the Statistical )33(
Explanation of Variability,» in: David Sankoff, ed., Linguistic Variation: Models
and Methods (New York: Academic Press, 1978).
335
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J. Roberts, «The Acquisition of New and Vigorous Sound Changes by )34(

Philadelphia Children,» Paper Presented at: The Twenty Second Conference on
New Ways of Analyzing Variation in English, University of Ottawa, Ottawa,
Ontario, October 1993, and J. Roberts and W. Labov, «Acquisition of a Dialect,»
Paper Presented at: The Twenty First Annual Conference on New Ways of
Analyzing Variation, Ann Arbor, October 1992.
Labov, «The Child as Linguistic Historian». )35(
336
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Arvilla Payne, «Factors Controlling the Acquisition of the Philadelphia )36(

Dialect by Out-of-State Children,» in: Labov, ed., Locating Language in Time and
Space.
J. K. Chambers, «Dialect Acquisition,» Language, vol. 68 (1992). )37(
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337
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C. M. Staley, «Sex-Related Differences in the Style of Children’s :{v v vDv v v| )39(

Language,» Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, vol. 11 (1982).
C. Edelsky, «Acquisition of an Aspect of Communicative Competence: )40(
Learning What It Means to Talk Like a Lady,» in: Susan Ervin-Tripp and
Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, eds., Child Discourse (New York: Academic Press,
1977).
Susan H. Houston, «A Sociolinguistic Consideration of the Black- )41(
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338
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Romaine, The Language of Children and Adolescents: The Acquisition of )42(

Communicative Competence.
Lawrence Biondi, The Italian-American Child, His Sociolinguistic )43(
Acculturation (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1975).
339
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Labov, «The Child as Linguistic Historian». )45(
E. Reid, «Social and Stylistic Variation in the Speech of Children: )46(
Some Evidence from Edinburgh,» in: Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in
British English.
Ronald K. S. Macaulay, Language, Social Class, and Education: A )47(
Glasgow Study, with the Assistance of G. D. Trevelyan ([Edinburgh]: Edinburgh
Biondi, The Italian-American Child, His Sociolinguistic Acculturation. )48(
= Wolfram, A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech; Biondi, )49(
340
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?v+vf9v}vAvFG rvF9vch 9v%vy f(vwv@ fC #vwv}v* ?vGv%vy {vLGO ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG
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Kv FQ}G )v zv f 9v %v y f(v wv @ ,v Av yG ?v *Q9v Gv yG ?v +v @(v Zv yG JGQv +v jv Av yG {v =v s )ing
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(New Ov !;v Gv !E (v +v ! ?v SQOv | d9v qv _C hv | (Fischer) Qv Wv +v p {v}v f Ov gv *h
)50(
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Ibid., and Romaine, The Language of Children and Adolescents: The Acquisition of =
Communicative Competence.
John L. Fischer, «Social Influence on the Choice of a Linguistic )50(
Variant,» Word, vol. 14 (1958).
341
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Charles Francis Hockett, «Age-Grading and Linguistic Continuity,» )51(

Language, vol. 26, no. 4 (1950).
Penelope Eckert, Jocks and Burnouts: Social Categories and Identity in )52(
the High School (New York: Teachers College Press, 1989).
342
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Eckert, Identities of Subordination as a Developmental Imperative. )53(
343
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Eckert, Jocks and Burnouts: Social Categories and Identity in the High )54(
School.
344
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jPvyG #vwvyh ?vtv=vavyG OvTvGv* jPvyG ?vpQvZvyG ?vtv$GQv}vy9v< bv=v@Qv}vyG (Burnout)
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Wolfram, A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech. )55(

Macaulay, Language, Social Class, and Education: A Glasgow Study.)56(
Penelope Eckert, «Sound Change and Adolescent Social Structure,» )57(
T. Habick, «Burnouts versus Rednecks: Effects of Group Membersgip )58(
on the Phonemic System,» in: Eckert, ed., New Ways of Analyzing Sound Change.
Eckert, Jocks and Burnouts: Social Categories and Identity in the High )59(
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Labov, The Social Stratification of English in New York City; Wolfram, )62(
A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech; Trodgill, The Social
Differentiation of English in Norwich; Macaulay, Language, Social Class, and
Education: A Glasgow Study, and Horvath, Variation in Australian English: The
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Society, 1983.
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«Sociolinguistic Behavior in a Detroit Inner City Neighborhood».
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J. Keith, «Old Age and Community Creation,» in: Christine L. Fry, )70(
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York: Praeger, 1980).
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Neighborhood».
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?vY9vMvyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG ,vp JGQv+vjvAvyG gPv$ QvC|v@ fCh ,?v*(vjvzvyG bG(vS}9v<
J. Clermont and H. Cedergren, «Les «R» de ma mère sont perdus dans )73(
l’air,» in: Pierrette Thibault, dir., Le Français parle´: Etudes sociolinguistiques
(Edmonton, Alberta: Linguistic Research, [1979?]); W. Kemp, «L’Histoire récente
de ce que, qu’est-ce que et qu’osque à Montréal,» in: Thibault, dir., Ibid., and
Kemp and Yaeger-Dror, «Changing Realizations of A in (a)tion in Relation to the
Front a - Back a Opposition in Quebec French,» in: Eckert, ed., New Ways of
Analyzing Sound Change.
351
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?v +v @(v Zv yG J9v }v Tv zv y ,?v f(v }v Gv }v v ,#v *9v =v Av }v yG ~v %v y9v }v gv Av SG Qv +v Tv qv @ #v |
#vwvyh #vTvyG Uvqv! #v| f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG {vDv}v* xvyPv<h .#vavS(v=vy ?vY9vMvyG
k
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.?+"C G ~%Af(}G}y ,f9}AF:G
Uv v!9v v*(v vjv vyG rv vsG(v v| ,v vp JGQv v+v vjv vAv vyG fC )v vyE )75( OQ(v vqv vwv v*Q Q9v vVCh
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k
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Martha Laferriere, «Ethnicity in Phonological Variation and Change,» )74(

John R. Rickford, «Linguistic Variation and the Social Order: A )75(

Creole Community Case Study,» (Unpublished Manuscript), pp. 105-107.
352
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353
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9v%v!C )vzvf #v+vyOvAvTv| ,J9v+v<O}G gPv$ f(v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGh f(v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}G
9v %v !(v v dOv < ,aQv Y ,v "v tv @ Q9v _E ,v p ?v <9v Av wv yGh IAGQv tv y9v < ?v pQv gv }v yG Hv y9v gv @
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Jack Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional Societies (Cambridge, MA: )1 (

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355
?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG #v+v< ?v}vF9vtvyG J9vp;vAvL:G Ov*OvJv@ J:h9vJv| BvfGQ
Rv +v +v }v Av zv y ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG J:(v tv }v yG Q9v _E ,v p ?v tv Tv Av | f(v wv @ fC ?v s(v av "v }v yGh
9v %v I(v \hh ?v <(v Av wv}v yG ?vjv zv y Qv JvyG b9v +v Tv yG IRv+v | )3(a9v V {v <9vtv *h .9v }v%v "v +v<
Qv=v+v<h )4(Qv=v+v< fQ9vtv*h .9v%v\(v}vih ?v$9vqvWvyG ?vjvzvy Ov+vtv}vyG b9v+vTvyG ?vgv+v=vav<
(Informational) jQ9v=vLE L(vAv"v| :v v < ?vs(vav"v| {v<9vtv| ?v<(vAvwv| f9vjv+v"v+vph
)5(
IOv+vtv| ?vy9vIE {v<9vtv| ?vzvZvqv| ?vy9vIEh ,(Involved) ,vF9v]vAvsG L(vAv"v| {v<9vtv|

Q(v dv "v | #v |h .OQv Gv | Qv +v i H(v zv SC {v <9v tv | OQv Gv | H(v zv SCh ,?v +v gv \(v y9v <
JGOv +v tv gv Av yGh ?v +v \hQv gv yG J9v }v Tv yG )6(jGOv +v y9v $ {v <9v tv * ,,v qv +v c(v yG (v Jv "v yG
.?v<9vAvwvzvy ?v*(vJv"vyG IQ9vgvAvS:Gh 9v+vzvgvyG ?v+v}vGvgv}vyG ?vp9vDvwvy9v< e;vwvzvy ?v*(vJv"vyG
IOv*GRvAv| ?v+vqv+vwv< e;vwvyGh ?v<9vAvwvyG #v+v< yQv+v=vwvyG ~v+vTvtvAvyGz OvGv! ,xvyP ~viQh
q k
?v +v y9v Jv yG ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J:9v }v gv Av S:Gh b9v +v Tv yG 9v !Pv LC 9v }v zv v 9v f9v "v sE {v sC
k
.)7(9|9}@ ,$ 9}v Q9=Af:G #+g< JG("tzy
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W. Chafe, «Integration and Involvment in Speaking, Writing and Oral )3 (
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f(v wv @ Ev +v I rv zv Av Mv | jQv dv ! Q(v dv "v | )v zv f {v *Ov < rv s(v | Ov }v Av gv *
dOv < J9v <9v av Mv yGh ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v SQ9v }v }v yG ,v p {v Jv Av y IP(v Lzv | ,v !9v gv }v yG
)v vzv vf Q(v vdv v"v v}v vyG GPv v$ uv v+v v=v vav v@ d(v vJv v*h .)8(?v vjv vzv vy ?v v*Q(v vZv vyG [v vF9v vZv vMv vyG
k
GOv+vgv< g9v=vAv!:G ?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vyG J9vSQ9v}v|h ?v$9vqvWvyG J9vSQ9v}v|
,vAvyG bQvavyG ,vph ,JG(v"vtvyG #v+v< J9vp;vAvLG hv| jOv+vzvtvAvyG e9v}vAv$:G #vf
k
)vyE xvyPvv Qv+vWv*h .?vY9vL J9vs9v+vS {vLGO 9v+vzvJv| ,v!9vgv}vyG 9v%v=vF(v}v< )v"v=v@
,v$ ?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vyG ?vCO9vJv|h ?v+v%vqvWvyG ?vCO9vJv}vyG ,vp ,v!9vgv}vyG fC
.?vgvSG(vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J;v+vwvWvAvyG jPvjv@ (Structuring) ?v"n v+n v"r v<n JGQhQv+vS
IAGQv tv y9v < ?v pQv gv }v yGh e;v wv yG KOv I Q9v wv pC )v zv f Q(v dv "v }v yG GPv $ Ov }v Av gv *h
e(v %v qv }v yG )v zv fh ,)10(J9v SQ9v }v }v yGh J9v CO9v Jv }v yG )v zv fh ,)9(?v <9v Av wv yGh
)v zv vfh ,)11(?v +v <9v vAv wv yGh ?v v+v v%v qv vWv vyG ?v vSQ9v v}v v}v yG ,v vp (Dialogic) jQG(v Jv vyG
)v zv fh ,(Contextualization) )12(b9v +v Tv y9v < fGQv Av s:Gh b9v +v Tv yG J9v *Qv dv !
James Paul Gee, :Qvdv!G ,?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgC9v< ?vav=v@Qv| ?+y9vI ?vWvs9v"v| {vFC #v| )8(
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357
?v v+v vpGQv vi(v v"v vCEh ,(Socialization) )13(
?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vFG ?v vjv vzv vyG {v vgv vF J9v v*Qv vdv v!
.)14(?+<QAyG
?v <9v Av wv yGh IAGQv tv y9v < ,?v pQv gv }v yG jC ,IOv Gv <}G ?v SGQO uv zv gv Av @ xv yPv y
O(vF(vyG bQv_z ^vgv< #v| ?vY9vMvyG H9vavMvyG W9v}v!zv< (Oracy) ?v$9vqvWvyGh
J9v s;v fh ,?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v pQv gv }v yG A9v "v < 9v *9v ]v s Ov }v Av gv @ ,v Av yG y~v y9v gv yG ,v p
A9v ]v f}9v < ?v }v Av %v | ?v jv zv yGh )v "v gv }v yG ?v SGQO #v wv @ ~v y .J9v *(v %v yGh ,I(v tv yG
J9v <9v av Mv yG ,v p ?v Mv SQv Av }v yG J9v *(v %v y9v < #v wv yh ?v f(v }v Gv }v yG ,v p #v +v *OQv qv yG
?v$9vqvWvyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG J9vSQ9v}v}vyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvyG rvzvAvMv@h )15(9v%vzv}vf ?v+vqv+vvh
QO9v v Zv v }v v yG #v v +v v < ?v v s;v v gv v yG fzv v V xv v yP ,v v p 9v v %v v !zv v V Qv v L6 b9v v +v v S #v v |
J9v s9v +v Tv yG ,v p QO9v Zv }v yG gPv $ d9v }v gv Av SGh ?v |Ov tv }v yG ?v +v Mv *Q9v @(v +v S(v Tv yG
v v ?vAv=vDv| QO9vZv}vyG gPv$ ^vgv< f(vwv@ ,Y9v\h}G ^vgv< ,vph .)16(?v+vzvJv}vyG
,vp 9v}v"v+v< ,>vy9vavyGh SQOv}vyG #v+v< ~vTvtvyG ,vp J;vf9vqvAvyG ~vdvgv| ,vp 9v}vv
9v %v +v zv f hv \G(v Av }v yG J9v SQ9v }v }v yG #v | Qv +v Dv wv yG c9v "v $ f(v wv @ iQv LC Y9v \hC
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?v v+v vqv v+v vwv v< ?v v*QG(v vI J;v vf9v vqv vAv vyG f(v vwv v@ ?v v}v vC #v v|h ,(Conventionalized)
q
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k
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O9v gv < G J9v }v S )v yE ?v s(v av "v }v yG ?v jv zv yG {v +v }v @ 9v }v "v +v < v v jRv vQv }v yG HPv Gv yG
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?vjvzvyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvyG d(vI (Reified) jO9v}vyG dOvGvyG ^vgv< 9v%v+vzvf #v}v+v%v*
~v fOv y ?v *Q(v av @ ?v +v qv +v ch ?v yOC )18(jGOv +v y9v $ {v }v gv Av Tv *h .e;v wv yGh ?v *(v Av wv }v yG
.?v*Qv$(vF J9v+vqv+vwv< f9vqvzvAvMv@ ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG fC gO9vqv| Q(vZv@
?v jv zv yG d;v L #v v| rv zv vAv Mv | {v wv Wv < Jzv Wv ! ?v v<9v Av wv vyG fC )v zv f dOv Av Tv v*h
,vp jGOv+vy9v$ hv| b9vqv@:G OOvZv<h .?vqvzvAvMv| rvF9vch jO|v@ 9v%v!} ?vs(vav"v}vyG
V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, Translated )17(

by Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York; London: Seminar Press, 1973).
Halliday, Spoken and Written Language. )18(
359
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,vp ,?v*Ovtv"vyG J9v+v!9vTvzvyGh 9v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}G ,vp ?vY9vLh ,f(vCOvJv| A9v}vzvf
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,v\9v}vyG ,vp ,vtv+vtvJvyG ,vMv*Q9vAvyG #v|RvyG #vf ?vy(vZvqv|h ?v+vF9v]vAvsG 9v%v!(vwvy
?vjvzvyG J:9v}vgvAvSG d(vI ?vY9vLh v v {v+vzvtvyG :E &v"vf aQvgv! : jPvyG Ov+vgv=vyG
(Universal ?v +v zv wv yG (v Jv ! d(v +v | Q(v av Av yG IQv wv qv yh .?v s(v av "v }v yGh ?v <(v Av wv }v yG
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Jzv v Wv v ! rv v +v v vh GP9v v }v v y Qv v +v v Tv v qv v @ )v v zv v f 9v v !Ov v f9v v Tv v @ : 9v v %v v !E :Tendency)
,v p 9v %v F9v Av !E Ov +v fCh ,?v s(v av "v }v yGh ?v <(v Av wv }v yG ?v jv zv yG #v +v < ?v "v +v gv |o J9v p;v Av LG
JQv%vc ?v<9vAvwvyG f(vv IQvwvp JOvtvAv!G ,?v%v<9vWv| ?v+vqv+vwv<h .?v+v"vgv}vyG J9vs9v+vTvyG
: 9v%v!C :S9vSC )vzvf xvyPh ,e;vwvyG d;vL #v| ?vqvzvAvMv| rvF9vch jO|vAvy
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J9vp9vtvDvyG #v+v< ~vF9vtvyG Y(v"vAvzvy IOv*GRvAv}vyG ?v+v=v*QvGvAvyG ?v$GOv=vyG hv| GOv+vF eA;vAv@
.)21(?+M*Q9AyG JGQAqyGh
?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vp;vAvL;vy IO(vF QvDvvC Q(vZv@ Qv*(vav@ )22(#v!9v@ Bvyh9vI

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.?v+vqv+vc(vyG ?v<Q9vtv}vyG &v|Ovtv@ jPvyG xvyP #v| ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG #v+v<
Michael T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England, :Qv v v vdv v v v!G )19(
1066-1307 (London: E. Arnold, 1979); Graff, The Legacies of Literacy:
Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society, and M. A. K.
Halliday and J. R. Martin, Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive Power
(London: Falmer Press, 1993).
Street, Literacy in Theory and Practice, and Besnier, «The Linguistic )20(
Relationships of Spoken and Written Nukulaelae Registers».
Heath, Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and )21(
Classrooms; Graff, The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in
Western Culture and Society, and Barton, Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology
of Written Language.
Deborah Tannen, «The Myth of Orality and Literacy,» in: William )22(
Frawley, ed., Linguistics and Literacy (New York: Plenum Press, 1982).
360
q
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,v p O(v F(v }v yG (Detachment) yd9v Zv qv !:Gz v v v y {v <9v tv }v v ?v +v %v qv Wv yG ?v jv zv yG
v v >v !9v Gv yG JG(v "v tv yG )v yE Qv tv Av qv @ ?v <9v Av wv yG Bv |GO9v |h .H(v Av wv }v yG bv +v S(v yG
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,&v F(v y 9v %v Fh e;v wv yG J;v f9v qv @ ,v p ?v I9v Av }v yG (Paralinguistic) ?v +v !9v Tv y
k k k o
,GPE ,)v"vgv}vyG GPv$ ,vp .bvtvp 9v+v=v+vvQv@h 9v+v}vGvgv| )v"vgv}vyG Rv+v|Qv@ )vzvf ~viQv!
y?v $9v qv Wv zv y ?v %v <9v Wv |z y#v }v ]v Av yGz ?v av SG(v < IRv +v }v }v yG ?v <(v Av wv }v yG ?v jv zv yG f(v wv @
d9v Zv qv !:G ?v av SG(v < IRv +v }v }v yG ?v $9v qv Wv yG ?v jv zv yG fC #v +v I ,v p ,(Oral-Like)
)24(
f9v v|(v vWv vv f(v v+v vpGQv vi(v v"v vCE Q9v vVC Ov vsh .)23(y?v v<(v vAv vwv v}v vy9v v< ?v v%v v+v v=v vVz ,v v$
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Qv +v =v gv Av yGh ,A9v }v *5v y 9v | J9v +v qv +v wv < ?v *h9v Tv }v yG ,?v +v !9v Tv y v v >v !9v Gv yG J9v }v Tv yG
f(vyh ,(Script) bvMvyG bv}v! Q9v+vAvLG v v ?vs(vav"v}vyG ?vjvzvyG ~v+vjv"v@h ,,v%vF(vyG
)v "v gv | Ov +vqv @ 9v %v zv vh ,Nv yE ...?v =v zv Zv yG ?v qv zv i}9v v J9v |;v f Qv Wv !h ,Qv =v Jv yG
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?v +v qv +v wv < )26(j:(v v9v | eOv sh .?v +v =v +v vQv Av yGh ?v +v }v Gv gv }v yG ,v !9v gv }v yG #v f GOv +v gv <
q k
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9vI(v\h QvDvvC IQhQv]vy9v< BvTv+vy ?v<9vAvwvyG fC )vzvf Qq vZv@ 9v%v!E .#v!9v@ Q(vZv@
W9v=v@Q:9v< f9vtvzvgvAv* : e9vJvAvy:Gh xvS9v}vAvyG fC )vzvf ?vyOvAvTv| ,e;vwvyG #v|
Chafe, «Integration and Involvment in Speaking, Writing and Oral )23(

Literature,» in: Tannen, ed., Spoken and Written Language: Exploring Orality and
Literacy.
Amy Shuman, Storytelling Rights: The Uses of Oral and Written Texts )24(
by Urban Adolescents (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge
Besnier, «The Linguistic Relationships of Spoken and Written )25(
Nukulaelae Registers».
Marcia I. Macaulay, Processing Varieties in English: An Examination of )26(
Oral and Written Speech across Genres (Vancouver: University of British
Columbia Press, 1990).
361
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,ye9v Jv Av y:Gz U(v Zv Mv < K(v zv vQv +v p IQv wv qv < xv yPv v Qv |}G GPv $ bv =v @Qv * fC
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J9v vJv vzv vav vZv v| ,v v$ ,J9v v+v v!9v vTv vzv vy ,v vF(v viGOv v+v v=v vyG uv v+v v=v vav vAv vyG ,v vp IQQv vwv vAv v|
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.I(tyG J9s;fh
OvtvAvfG ,vAvyG J9vp;vAvL;vy {v|9vWvyG &vJvTv| ,vp ,)27(&v+v+v"vTv< [vzvMv*
q
JGQ(vZvAvyG {v+vzvJv@ ~q v@ 9v}vzvv &v!C )vyE ,e;vwvyGh ?v<9vAvwvyG #v+v< IO(vF(v| 9v%v!C
.?v |9v gv yG J9v p;v Av L:G #v | Qv +v Dv wv yG c9v "v $ )v tv =v * ,?v tv zv jv "v }v yG ?v +v pGQv i(v "v C G
,>v Tv Jv p IQPv gv Av | e;v wv yGh ?v <9v Av wv yG #v +v < yQv +v =v v ~v +v Tv tv @z IQv wv p Bv Tv +v yh
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k
Qv +v i Ov gv =v yG jO9v IC (Continuum) {v Zv Av | f(v vz IQv wv p 9v ]v *C ,?v <9v Av wv yGh
J9vs9v+vS Qv=vf j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvyG ,vp IO(vF(v}vyG J9vf(v"vAvyG #v+v< uv+vp(vAvzvy a9vv
{vGvS j} ?v*(v+v"v=vyG JGRv+v}v}vyG Ov+vtvAv@ :zh y,v%vqvWvyGh H(vAvwv}vyG {vYG(vAvyG
BvTv+vy ?vs(vav"v}vyG ?vjvzvyG .b(vav"v}vyG hC H(vAvwv}vyG {vwvWvyG ,vp ?vGvAv"v| 9v%v!(vwv<
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?v vjv vzv vyG #v v| GOv v+v vtv vgv v@ {v vsCh ,?v v+v vzv vf9v vqv v@ Qv vDv vvCh ,9v v"v v}v v]v v@ Qv vDv vvC IQhQv v]v vy9v v<
?vqvs(vAv| 9v%v!C )vzvf ,xvyP dOv< ,JGRv+v}v}vyG gPv$ )vyE Qvdv"v*o h .)29(y?v<(vAvwv}vyG
o
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,vf9v}vAvF:G b9v+vTvyG Q9v_E ,vp ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvy ?v"v+n v"r v=n v}o vyG J9vs;vgvyG
aGQv fC rv zv Av Mv | ,v p ?v <9v Av wv yGh IAGQv tv y9v < ?v pQv gv }v yGh (Orality) ?v $9v qv Wv zv y
hC j(vjvzvyG L9vAv!5vy ?v+vpQvgv}vyG J9v=vzvavAv}vyG dOv< ,?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vyG
Besnier, Ibid. )27(

Biber, Variation across Speech and Writing. )28(
.710 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )29(
362
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?v v$GOv v=v vyG #v v| ~v viQv vyG )v vzv vf ,I9v v"v vtv vyG ,v vp ?v v+v vzv vv J9v vp;v vAv vLG c9v v"v v$ Bv v!9v vv
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9v"v\QvAvpG GPE 9v"v!E xvyP ,v"vgv*h .dh}G e9vtv}vyG ,vp &vzv}vgvAvTv! jPvyG j(vjvzvyG
?v %v <9v Wv |z 9v %v +v }v Tv ! e;v wv yG ,v p ,,v y9v Av y9v < ,9v $9v !Ov Fhh y?v <9v Av wv yGz J9v }v S
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Street, Literacy in Theory and Practice, and Besnier, «The Linguistic )30(
Relationships of Spoken and Written Nukulaelae Registers».
Goody, ed., Literacy in Traditional Societies, p. 40. )31(
363
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: ,?v <9v Av wv yG )v zv f ?v zv }v Av Wv }v yG ,?v +v zv YG(v Av yG (Media) e;v f G {v F9v Shz fC
&v +v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h .)35(y9v $Qv +v jv @ {v < ,IO(v F(v }v yG ?v pQv gv }v yG )v "v < ?v _9v Tv =v < hv S(v @
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?v+v%vqvWvyG IQvvGPvyGh ?v+v%vqvWvyG ?vjvzvyG J:9v}vgvAvSGh ?v+v"v< ?v_9vTv=v< ?v<9vAvwvyG hvS(v@
)32(
Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, p. 132.
David R. Olson, «From Utterance to Text: The Bias of Language in )33(
Speech and Writing,» Harvard Educational Review, vol. 47, no. 3 (1977), p. 258.
Jack Goody: The Logic of Writing and the Organization of :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v v v v !G )34(
Society (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1986), and The Interface between the Written and the Oral (Cambridge
[Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), Especially the
Preface.
Olson, «Mind and Media: The Epistemic Functions of Literacy,» p. 28; )35(
k
David R. Olson, The World on Paper: The Conceptual and :9v v v v v v ]v v v v v v *C Qv v v v v v dv v v v v v !G
Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading (Cambridge, MA; New York:
364
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Olson, «Mind and Media: The Epistemic Functions of Literacy,» p. 28. )36(
Scribner and Cole, The Psychology of Literacy. )37(
Ruth H. Finnegan, Literacy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of )38(
Communication (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988).
Jean Lave, Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in )39(

Everyday Life (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Finnegan, Ibid. )40(
365
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(Parry)
)42(
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q
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?vavzvTvyG #v+v< Qv@(vAvyG hv\(v| ,v$ ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*}G Ev+vI ,?v+vp9vtvDvyG J9vSGQOvyGh
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D. Baker, «Democracy and Education: The Cultural Nature of )41(

Numeracy,» Proceedings of International Conference on Value in Education
(Moscow, 1994).
Clifford Hill and Kate Parry, eds., From Testing to Assessment: English )42(
as an International Language (London; New York: Longman, 1994).
Street, Literacy in Theory and Practice. )43(
Brian V. Street, «Culture is a Verb: Anthropological Aspects of Language )44(
and Cultural Process,» in: David Graddol, Linda Thompson and Mike Byram, eds.,
Language and Culture (Clevedon, Avon; Philadelphia, PA: British Association for
Applied Linguistics in Association with Multilingual Matters, 1993).
Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice; Jane Mace, Working with )45(
= Words: Literacy beyond School (London: Chameleon, 1979); The Ann Arbor
366
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q k
)46(
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k
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k
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k
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.?+f9}AF:G J9TS|}yGh ,f9}AF:G d(JAyG
,EvJv=vyG aGOv$C )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+vzv}vf ?v*Qvdv"vyG JGQ(vZvAvyG gPv$ {vgvGvy
Decision: Memorandum Opinion and Order and the Educational Plan; Talal Asad, =
«Anthropology and the Analysis of Ideology,» Man, vol. 14, no. 4 (1979); John B.
Thompson, Studies in the Theory of Ideology (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Polity
Press, 1984); Ralph David Grillo: Dominant Languages: Language and Hierarchy
in Britain and France (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1989), and «Anthropology, Language, Politics,» Introduction to: Grillo, ed.,
Social Anthropology and the Politics of Language (London; New York: Routledge,
1989); Norman Fairclough, Language and Power (London; New York: Longman,
1989), and Terry Eagleton, Ideology: An Introduction (London: Verso, 1991).
Colin Lankshear with Moira Lawler, Literacy, Schooling and )46(

Revolution (New York; London: Falmer, 1987); Peter L. McLaren, «Culture or
Canon? Critical Pedagogy and the Politics of Literacy,» Harvard Educational
Review, vol. 58, no. 2 (May 1988); Gee, Social Linguistics and Literacies: Ideology
in Discourses; Peter Freebody and Anthony R. Welch, eds., Knowledge, Culture,
and Power: International Perspectives on Literacy as Policy and Practice (London:
Falmer, 1993), and Allan Luke, Literacy, Textbooks, and Ideology: Postwar
Literacy Instruction and the Mythology of Dick and Jane (London; New York:
Falmer Press, 1988).
Paulo Freire, The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and Liberation, )47(
Introduction by Henry A. Giroux; Translated by Donaldo Macedo (London:
Macmillan, 1985).
367
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)50(
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Shirley Brice Heath, «What No Bedtime Story Means: Narrative Skills )48(
at Home and School,» Language in Society, vol. 11, no. 1 (April 1982).
Street, «Culture is a Verb: Anthropological Aspects of Language and )49(
Cultural Process,» in: Graddol, Thompson and Byram, eds., Language and
Culture, and Barton, Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written
Language.
David Barton, «The Social Nature of Writing,» in: David Barton and )51(
Roz Ivanic, eds., Writing in the Community (Newbury Park, CA; London: Sage,
1991), p. 5.
368
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Grillo, Dominant Languages: Language and Hierarchy in Britain and )52(

France, p. 8.
Dell H. Hymes, Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic :Qv v vdv v v !G )53(

Approach (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974).
369
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M. Baynham, «Code-Switching and Mode-Switching: Community )54(

Interpreters and Mediators,» in: Brian Street, ed., Cross-Cultural Approaches to
Literacy (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
G. Weinstein-Shr, «Literacy and Social Process: A Community in )55(

Transition,» in: Street, ed., Ibid., and «Adult Literacies,» TESOL Quarterly,
special issue, vol. 27, no. 3 (Spring 1993).
370
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,?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v jv zv y9v < IOv Gv <}G ,?v SQOv }o v yG IOv Gv <}G ,(Stigma of Illiteracy)
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J. Maybin and G. Moss, «Talk About Texts: Reading as a Social )56(

Event,» Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 16, no. 2 (1993).
Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of )57(
Experience (New York: Harper & Row, 1974).
Ursula Giere and Jean-Paul Hautcoeur, A Selective Bibliography :Qv v dv v !G )58(
on Literacy in Industrialised Countries = Une Bibliographie selective sur
l’alphabétisation dans les pays industrialisés (Hamburg: Unesco Institute for
Education, 1990).
371
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)vyE #v+vjvy9v=vyG ?v+v<QvAvy ,v"v_(vyG Ov%vgv}vyG EvJv< YhQvWv| Qv+vWv*h .)60(y?v+v|}Gzh
y?vtvDvyGz v v < uvzvgvAv@ Bv!9vv ?v=vzvavyG {v=vs #v| ?vIhQvav}vyG ?v+vS9vS}G ?v+v]vtvyG fC
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GhOv Fh fhQv +v Dv v :9v %v @GP Ov I ,v p IOv Gv <}G JGQ9v %v | dOv < (Confidence)
,?v zv tv "v Av | SQGOv | ,?v Jv Zv yG( ?v qv zv Av Mv | H9v =v S} ?v SQOv }v yG ,v p ?v <(v gv Y
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?v av =v @Qv }v yG ?v |9v gv yG J9v *Qv dv ! #v | Ov *Ov gv yG Bv !9v v Ov tv y .9v *(v <Qv @ IQv +v tv p ?v +v @GP
#vf #v*RvF9vgvzvy cQvAvWv}vyG ,vv(vzvTvyG jCQvyG ~vS9vtvAv@ 9v%v!C ,v"vgv@ IOvGv<}9v<
hv v| hC JGQ9v v}v vAv vS:G A{v v| hv v| {v vv9v vWv v| #v v| #v v+v v!9v vgv v}v vyG hC ,?v v+v vGv v%v vAv vyG
,vp ,v$ cQvAvWv}vyG M;vavY:G ,vp y?v+v|}Gzh .NvyE ...?v+v}vSQvyG {vF9vSQvyG
.NvyE ...,vpQvgv}vyG RvGvgvyGh ,A9v=vjvyGh ,{v%vGvzvy aOGQv| f9v+vI}G ~vdvgv|
Mace, Working with Words. )59(

David Hargreaves, Adult Literacy and Broadcasting: The ;&v v Tv v qv v ! QOv v ZCG )60(
BBC’s Experience: A Report to the Ford Foundation (London: F. Pinter; New
York: Nichols, 1980), and Street, ed., Cross-Cultural Approaches to Literacy.
372
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rvZv@ Ev+vI ,IOvGv<}G d(vI GOvF Q(vav| {v}vf ,vp &v<9vWv| LP(v}v! )vzvf
,1970 ?v"vS ,vp ?v+vwv+vTvwv}vyG IOvGv<}G ?vzv}vI fC rv+vv (King) )61(kv"v+vv
k
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gPv v$ Rv v*Rv vgv v@ )v vzv vf ,)64(?v v+v vpQv vgv v}v vyG JGQ9v v%v v}v vyGh {v vYG(v vAv vyG JG(v v"v vs #v v+v v<
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,v F(v y(v *Ov *C H9v av L #v | ARv F (v $ Q9v f ?v }v Yh y?v +v |}Gz {v gv F fE

(Non IQv+vgv}v}vyG Qv+vi J9vf(v"vAvyGh ?v+vGv%vzvyG IOvGv<}G ?v}v+vs #v| {vzvtv* hvSGh
Linda King, Roots of Identity: Language and Literacy in Mexico )61(

(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994).
Ludo Verhoeven, ed., Functional Literacy: Theoretical Issues and :Qv v vdv v v!G )62(
Educational Implications (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, 1994).
John Oxenham, Literacy: Writing, Reading, and Social :Qv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v!G )63(
Organization (London; Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980).
John Clammer, Literacy and Social Change: A Case Study of Fiji )64(
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976).
373
gPv$ )65(yQ9v+vgv}vyGz Q9vwvpC KOvJv@h .?v$9vqvWvyG J9vSQ9v}v}vy Standardized)
q
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k k
)67(
y?vjvzvyG SGQvIz {v=vs #v| 9v!9vZv| ,vy9vAvy9v<h )66(9v\hQvqv| Q9v+vgv}vyG f(vwv*h
O9v v Zv v Av v s:G d9v v Gv v | ,v v p >v v gv v zv v yG Ov v fG(v v s f(v v \Qv v qv v *h f(v v =v v sGQv v * #v v *Pv v yG
,vp #v+v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvzvy IOv+vGvyG J:h9vJv}vyG #v| ~viQvyG )vzvfh .)68(,vS9v+vTvyG
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J9v+v<O}G JQv=vAvLG Ovtvy .)69(e9vf {vwvWv< IQv}vAvTv| e;vwvyGh ?v<9vAvwvyG d(vIh
?v}vYh ?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG Qv+vi J9vf(v"vAvyG {vgvF ?vAv<9vC ?v+vqv+vwv< ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vTvqv"vyG
,e;v vwv vyG Q(v vav v@h ,?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG rv vsG(v v}v vyG d(v vI J9v vSGQOv vyG Bv v"v v+v v<h .Q9v vf
Y(v "v Av yG ,v }v zv wv Av | fC IQQv wv Av | ?v +v qv +v wv < e;v wv zv y ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v }v SG(v yGh
#v| QvDvvC f(vfQ9v<h QvDvvC f(vzv$|v| ~v%v!C )vzvf ~v%v+vzvf ~vwvJvyG ~vAv* Q9v+vgv}vyG
Einar Ingvald Haugen, «Dialect, Language, Nation,» American )65(

Anthropologist, vol. 68 (August 1966). [Reprinted in: J. B. Pride and Janet
Holmes, eds., Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1972)], and Dick Leith, A Social History of English (London; Boston, MA:
Routledge & K. Paul, 1983).
Howard Giles, Richard Y. Bourhis and Douglas M. Taylor, «Prestige )66(
Styles: The Imposed Norm and Inherent Value Hypothesis,» in: William C.
McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm, eds., Language in Many Ways (The Hague:
Mouton, 1975), and Leith, Ibid.
Prescription and Standardization (1985).
Bourdieu: Outline of a Theory of Practice, and Language and Symbolic )68(
Power, and Susan Gal, «Language and Political Economy,» Annual Review of
Anthropology, vol. 18 (1989).
Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and :Qv v vdv v v!G )69(
Society, Rev. ed. (Harmondsworth; New York: Penguin, 1983).
374
.)70(jQ9+g}yG Q+i Y("AyG f(z}gAT* #*PyG #+}zwA}yG Uq!
?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG J9v +v <O}G ,v p ?v tv *Qv av yG Uv qv "v < ,d:Ov Av S:G ~v @h
Qv+vi ?v*(vjvzvyG J9vf(v"vAvyG fC )vzvf ~q v@ ,,vp9vtvDv+v=vyG {vYG(vAvyG d(vI ?v+vzvf9vqvAvyG
Qv+v+vjvAvzvy ?v+vpGQvi(v"vC G J9vSGQOvyG ,vph .,vsQvgvyG Rv+v+v}vAvzvy Ovgv< ,v$ ,?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG
?v v"v v+v vGv v%v vyG J9v vjv vzv vyG f(v vwv v@ ,)71(QOv vZv v}v vv j(v vjv vzv vyG Y(v v"v vAv vyGh jQv vqv vWv vyG
IOOQvAv| ?v+vqv+vwv< ?vzvDv}v| iQvLC J9vf(v"v@h ,(Patois) J9v+v|9vgvyGh ,(Creoles)
GPv vh (Broken Languages) yIQ(v vTv vwv v|z J9v vjv vzv vv 9v v%v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v| ?v vav vSG(v v<
9v%vAv*(v$ Bv|GO9v|h .IQvav+vTv}vyG J9vSQ9v}v}vyG ?v|h9vtv|h ?v*(v%vyG ?v!9v+vZvy QOvZv|
k
hv\h #vJvWvy {v}vgvAvTv@ fC ?v+vzvYG(vAvyG QO9vZv}vzvy #vwv}v* ,9v+vzvYG(v@ ?vGvAv"v|
Ov +v y(v @ ~v Av * rv +v v )72(Bv *(v +v $ Xv s9v "v *h .?v *(v %v y9v < ?v av =v @Qv | ,v !9v gv }v < U9v L
9v}v$OvIC :fOv"vy H(v"vF ,vp #v+vgv!9v+vyG O(vTvyG f9vwvTvyG #v+v< ?v+v"vC5vy #v+v%vF(v|
#v | uv tv Jv |h W(v jv ]v | Qv +v i Qv L6Gh ,,v y9v ]v !h ,,v S9v +v Sh ,W(v jv ]v |
(Heller)
)73(
Qv zv +v $ Xv s9v "v *h .?v +v "v C G IOOv gv Av }v yG ?v +v zv Jv }v yG ?v Gv %v zv yG d;v L
xv +v =v +v wv yG ,v p ,v !9v Tv zv yG O9v Zv Av s:G #v | ARv Gv v jQv qv Wv yG Qv +v +v jv Av yG d9v }v gv Av SG
?v vzv v}v vgv vAv vTv v| ?v vjv vzv vyG ?v v+v vF9v v"v vDv vyG QO9v vZv v}v vyG Ev v+v vI ,(Ontario) (v v*Q9v vAv v!h}Gh
f9v |(v V VQ9v gv * ?v %v <9v Wv | ?v +v qv +v wv <h .?v +v "v C G ?v 8v =v gv Av yG ,v p ?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av S{v v
W. Lambert, «A Social Psychology of Bilingualism,» in: Pride :{v v v v v vDv v v v v v | )70(

and Holmes, eds., Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings; Giles, Bourhis and Taylor,
«Prestige Styles: The Imposed Norm and Inherent Value Hypothesis,» in:
McCormack and Wurm, eds., Language in Many Ways, and Giles and St. Clair,
eds., Language and Social Psychology.
Hewitt, White Talk Black Talk: Inter-Racial Friendship and )71(
Communication amongst Adolescents, and Ben Rampton, Crossing: Language and
Ethnicity among Adolescents (London; New York: Longman, 1995).
Hewitt, Ibid. )72(
Monica Heller, «The Politics of Code-Switching and Language )73(
Choice,» Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol. 13 (1992).
375
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.?+G%zyGh ?*QF9WgyG
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?SQO}o yG IOG<}G :?SQ9}}yG ,p IOG<}G v v 5

q x o
?v<(v Av wv }vyG ?vjv zv y9v < ?v tv zvgv Av}v yG ?v *Qv dv "v yG JGQ(vZvAv yG ~vdv gv | Bvtv =v_ Ov tv y
~v fOv y Bv zv }v gv Av SGh ,?v *(v <Qv @ J9v s9v +v S ,v p 9v "v $ 9v %v +v yE Q9v Wv }v yG ?v $9v qv Wv yGh
Bv }v @ Ev +v I J:9v Gv }v yG Ov IC f9v vh .,v F(v iGOv +v =v yGh ,v Gv %v "v }v yG ~v +v }v Zv Av yG
.&zqSC Qd!G )74(

Halliday, Spoken and Written Language. )75(
Finnegan, Literacy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of )77(
Communication.
Lave, Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in )78(
Everyday Life.
Halliday, Spoken and Written Language, p. 47. )79(
376
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Ana Maria Villegas, Culturally Responsive Teaching, Edited by Jean )80(

Baur (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1992), p. 4.
Susan Urmston Philips, The Invisible Culture: Communication in )81(
Classroom and Community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation (New York:
Longman, 1983).
= Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics: The )82(
377
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Ethnography of Communication, and Courtney B. Cazden, Classroom Discourse: =

The Language of Teaching and Learning (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1988).
Classrooms.
M. Camitta, «Vernacular Writing: Varieties of Literacy among )84(
Philadelphia High School Students,» in: Street, ed., Cross-Cultural Approaches to
Literacy.
378
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hv| ?v%v<9vWv| ?v+vqv+vwv< (Amy Shuman) )86(f9v|(vV ,v|C Bvzv}vf Ovtvy

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.229-228 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )85(

Shuman, Storytelling Rights: The Uses of Oral and Written Texts by )86(
Urban Adolescents.
379
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Jenny Cook-Gumperz, ed., The Social Construction of Literacy )87(

(Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); B.
Street and J. Street, «The Schooling of Literacy,» in: Barton and Ivanic, eds.,
Writing in the Community, and Gee, The Social Mind: Language, Ideology, and
Social Practice.
380
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Bloome, Puro and Theodourou, «Procedural Display and Classroom )88(

Lessons».
Barton and Ivanic, eds., Ibid. )89(
Gordon Taylor [et al.], Literacy by Degrees (Milton Keynes :Qv v v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v !G )90(
[England]; Philadelphia, PA: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open
University Press, 1988); Mary Lea, «I Thought I Could Write Until I Came Here:
Student Writing in Higher Education,» in: Graham Gibbs, ed., Improving Student
Learning: Theory and Practice (Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff Development,
1994), and Roz Ivanic, Writing and Identity: The Discoursal Construction of
Identity in Academic Writing (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins,
[Forthcoming]).
Lea, Ibid. )91(
381
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Cohen (1991), and Ivanic, Ibid. )92(

Lea, Ibid. )93(
Ivanic, Ibid. )94(
Street, ed., Cross-Cultural Approaches to Literacy. )95(
382
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)98(
f9v <hO Bv yOv Av SG Ov tv p ,?v +v zv YG(v Av yG IQOv tv yGh H9v av Mv yG {v +v zv Jv @ Q9v wv p}
LQ9v vL )99(Rv v}v v*9v v$ {v v=v vs #v v| Q(v vav v}v vyG Qv v+v vL}G e(v v%v vqv v}v vyG )v vzv vf (Dubin)
J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG ,v p ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ?v jv zv yG d(v Jv @ ?v +v qv +v wv < uv zv gv Av }v yG uv +v tv Jv Av yG
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S9v"vyG &vzvgvqv* 9v}v< uvzvgvAv@ yIQOvtvyGz fC iQv* Rv}v*9v$ f9vv GPEh .?v+v!9vDvyG ?vjvzvyG
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,f9v <hO >v Tv I ,?v jv zv yG ~v +v zv gv @ J9v +v <OC f{v p ,(v Jv "v zv y ?v *Q(v Zv yG bv <G(v ]v yG
#v | ?v Y9v L ?v f(v }v Gv | v v yJGQOv sz #v f IQ9v =v f yIQOv tv yGz {v gv F Bv yh9v I
,vp ?vf(v=vav| f(vwv@ fC #vwv}v* ,vAvyG ?vjvzvy ?v+v"vtvAvyG J:9v}vgvAvS:Gh JGQ9v%v}vyG
.R9vGv! G J9v*(vAvTv| rvzvAvMv| ,vp S9v+vtvzvy ?vzv<9vs ,vy9vAvy9v<h ,#v+v}vzvgvAv}vyG #v$P
,v p Qv dv "v yG MQv Av tv @ ,Q(q v Zv Av yG ,v p J9v v9v =v @Q:Gh J:(v Jv Av yG gPv $ LGQO h
9v %v !C )vzvf IOv Gv<}G f(v COv Jv}vyG A9v}vzvgv yG 9v %vy;vL #v | Rv+v| ,v AvyG J9v +v qv +v wvyG
J. Kelly Hall, «The Role of Oral Practices in the Accomplishment of )96(

Our Everyday Lives: The Sociocultural Dimension of Interaction with
Implications for the Learning of Another Language,» Applied Linguistics, vol. 14
(1993).
Cummins, Bilingualism and Special Education: :d9v v DCG {v v +v v =v v S ^v v f ,Qv v dv v !G )97(
Issues in Assessment and Pedagogy.
Fraida Dubin, «Situating Literacy within Traditions of Communicative )98(
Competence,» Applied Linguistics, vol. 10, no. 2 (1989).
Hymes, «Introduction: Toward Ethnographies of Communication». )99(
383
.?+t+=aAyG J9+!9TzyG ,p ?%<9W| J:9G| )zf IPp9! KAq@
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rv*Q9vgv@ Bvgv]vLh ,?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ?vjvzvyG ?v+v<Qv@ )vzvf {v+vJv@ ,vAvyG xvzv@ #v|
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?v jv zv yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv zv y 9v +v =v Tv ! uv +v \ Q(v Zv Av y H9v av Mv yG {v +v zv Jv @h H9v av Mv zv y
?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v jv zv yG ~v zv gv @ d(v I ?v Dv *Ov I JGQv c9v "v | JCOv <h .Qv V9v =v }v yG 9v %v s9v +v Sh
hC jOv vtv v! Q(v vdv v"v v| )v vzv f Bv vyOv vAv vSGh ,#v v}v v+v v%v v}v vyG Q(v vZv vAv yG GPv v$ rv vy9v vMv v@
,v vp Qv vdv v"v vyG )v vyE ?v vF9v vJv vyG )v vzv vf c(v vwv v+v v"v v< dOv vAv vSGh .)100(,v vF(v vy(v v*Ov v*C
e;vwvyGh ?v<9vAvwvyG L9vAv!E ,vp ?v}vwvJvAv}vyG O(v+vtvyG PvLCh ?v+v|;vwvyG J9vSQ9v}v}vyG
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.9%"+< ?}F9tyG J9p;AL:G )zf e9}A$:G R+vQ@h
Qv +v Wv * ,?v +v !9v C ?v jv zv v ?v <(v Av wv }v yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! 9v < U9v Mv yG d9v Gv }v yG ,v p
Y(v"vzvy ?v+vS9v+vTvyGh ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*}G O9vgv<~vy ?vWvs9v"v| H9v+vi )vyE )101(S(vAv!9vS
q
~v %v | d9v tv | ,v p ,)102(c(v wv +v "v < Ov v|v *h .IOv Gv <}G {v tv I ,v p f6G Ov +v v}G
a9v qv ]v yG )v yE ?v F9v Jv yG )v zv f ,?v +v tv +v =v av Av yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG ,v p H9v av Mv yG d(v I
?vS9v+vTvzvy jOvtv"vyG ~v+v+vtvAvyGh )103(#v+v*Ovtv"vyG #v+v+v!9vTvzvyG {v}vf fC ~viQh .?vzv*Ov=vyG
Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism (Oxford [England]; New )100(

York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Terry Santos, «Ideology in Composition:
L1 and ESL,» Journal of Second Language Writing, vol. 1, no. 1 (1992), and
Alastair Pennycook, «Incommensurable Discourses,» Applied Linguistics, vol. 15,
no. 2 (1994).
Santos, Ibid. )101(
Pennycook, Ibid. )102(
Roger Fowler [et al.], Language and Control (London; Boston, MA: )103(
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979); Norman Fairclough: «Critical and Descriptive
Goals in Discourse Analysis,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 9 (1985), and Language
and Power (London; New York: Longman, 1989), and Gunther Kress, Linguistic
Processes in Sociocultural Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
384
hC jOv vtv v"v vyG Q(v vdv v"v v}v vyG Kv v}v vTv v* #v vwv v* ~v vy ,)104(#v v+v v*(v vjv vzv vyG bv v+v vav vMv vAv vyGh
c(vwv+v"v< dOvAvSGh .?v+v!9vC ?vjvy ?v<9vAvvh KOvJv@ J9v+v<OC O(vF(v< ,vF(vy(v*Ov*}G
#v +v gv < Pv L}Gh ,?v +v <9v av Mp v yG J9v SQ9v }v }v yG ,v p Qv dv "v yG )v yE ?v F9v Jv yG )v zv f
k
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k
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hv <QC )v zv f Uv S|v }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F(v iGOv +v =v zv y (Modularized) >v y(v tv }v yG
q
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I(vtvyG Bv<G(vC hv\hh #v+v}vzvgvAv}vyG (Positioning) ?vgv\(v| ,vp ?v+v=v"vF}Gh
.?*(jzyG
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?v v+v v |(v vtv vyG b9v vDv v=v v!: ?v vDv v *Ov vJv vyG J9v vSGQOv vyG #v v| OOv vf JOv v"v vSC Ov vtv vy
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k
hv| {v|9vgvAvyG )vzvf GhOv}vAvfG )105(9v+v=vTv! ?vDv*OvI IQv$9vc ,v$ ?v+v|(vtvyG fC )vzvf
)106(
Qv "v zv F Qv dv "v *h .IOv Gv <~v y ?v \Qv Av qv }v yG ?v gv +v =v av y9v < uv zv gv Av * 9v | ,v p ~v %v Av y9v I
k
&v!C )vzvf ?vDv*OvJvyG ?vyhOvyG &v+v]vAvtv@ jPvyG Uv!9vGvAvyG )vyE ,;vDv| ,(Gellner)
,v p ?v I9v Av }v yG Qv +v i ,?v vQv Av Wv }v yG ?v +v |(v tv yG IOv Gv <}G d;v L #v | bv tv p #v wv }v |
Q(v v av v Av v zv v y ?v v tv v <9v v Tv v yG (Agro-Literate) y?v v +v v fGQRv v yG IOv v Gv v <}Gz {v v IGQv v |
IAGQv tv y9v < ?v pQ9v gv yG J9v gv }v Av Gv }v yG gPv %v < ?v Y9v Mv yG IOv Gv <}9v p ,,v f9v }v Av F:G
Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, and Pennycook, «Incommensurable )104(

Discourses».
Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil )105(
Blackwell, 1986).
Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983). )106(
385
?v yhOv yG ,v p .yOv +v tv }v yGz Y(v "v yG )107(jO(v i &v +v }v Tv * 9v }v | Bv !9v v ?v <9v Av wv yGh
?v"vv9vTvyG #v| Q(v%v}vGvy ?vI9vAv| IOvGv<}G Bv!9vv ,iQvLC ?v%vF #v| IOv*OvGvyG
(v$ ?v*Qv$9v}vGvyG IOvGv<}G gPv$ Q(vavAvp ,{vgvqvy9v<h :?v_9vTv=v< ?v=vMv"vzvy Uv+vyh
?v f9v "v Zv yG >v zv av Av @hz .&v Tv qv ! ?v Dv *Ov Jv yG ?v |}G v v ?v yhOv yG ZhRv < Qv Tv qv * jPv yG
k
9v+vF(vy(v"vwv@ IRv%vGv|h ,?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQ9vfh ,?vav+vWv! ?v"vv9vS ?vDv*OvJvyG
{v }v f I(v s Qv +v p(v @ )v zv f IQO9v tv yG IOv +v I(v yG ?v Jv zv Zv }v yG ,v $ ?v |}G v v ?v yhOv yGh
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.)108(yjQ*9gAyGh
q
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f(vwv@ ,vAvyG IOv+vI(vyG y?v+v|(vtvyGz v v ?vyhOvzvy S9vS}G dOv=vyG uvzvMv@h ?vyhOvyG
k k
,vp (v$ ,Qv"vzvF >vTvI ,?v+v<QvAvyG e9vdv! .9v+vS9v+vS IOvIq (v|h 9v+vp9vtvC ?vTv!9vGvAv|
q
?v+vqv+vwv< ?vAv=vDv}vyG ?vpQvgv}vzvy IOv*9vJv| ,v!9vgv| >vzvavAv* &v!E :IQhQv+vTvyG gPv$ >vzvs
)v zv fz Ov $G(v Wv yG QOv Zv @ ,v Av yG ?v %v *Rv "v yG ~v +v zv gv Av yG Rv vGQv | d;v L #v | ?v y(v tv gv |
GhRv vvQ #v v*Pv vyG A9v v}v vzv vgv vy9v vp ,)109(y?v v$GRv v"v v< Qv v<v Ov v| bO9v vY [v vJv vp S9v vSC
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?v zv tv Av Tv }v yG IOv Gv <}G #v | :Ov < ,IOv Gv <}G OOv gv @ e(v %v qv | )v zv f ~v %v |9v }v Av $G
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.?v+v%vF(vyG ?v}v+vtvyG (vJv! JGO9vtvAvf:G gPv$ PvL} ;v+v| {vsC G(v!9vv ,IOv+vI(vyG
>v S9v "v Av @ : 9v %v !{v p ,?v +v |(v tv yG ?v i;v < #v | ARv F Ov +v vC {v wv Wv < 9v %v !C ~v iQh
Y(v v"v v@ O9v vGv v*E O9v vAv vgv v}v vyG #v v| Ev v+v vI ,,v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G hv vsG(v vyG hv v| IQhQv v]v vy9v v<
Qv+v=vgvAvzvy IOvGv<}G J:9v}vgvAvSG JGQ(vZv@ .?vqvzvAvMv}vyG IOvGv<}G J9vSQ9v}v}vy
Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge )107(

[Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
Gellner, Ibid., p. 29. )108(
.&Tq! QOZCG )109(
386
,)110(?v *Qv ]v Jv yG J9v +v gv \(v yG ,v p ?v gv !9v +v yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG #v +v < ?v *(v %v yG #v f
,v p ?v +v <Qv jv }v yG IQv +v Wv gv yG ,v p jQv qv Wv yG Qv +v +v jv Av yG GPv vh ,v %v F(v yG Qv +v +v jv Av zv yh
jQvF9v%v| #v+v< e}G ?vjvzvy9v< ?vY9vMvyG ?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vzvyh ,)111(fOv"vy
?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vzvyh (Toronto) )112((vAv!hQ(v@ ,vp ?v+v"v+v@;vyG 9vvQv+v|C
,)113(GQv vAv vzv vGv v!E ,(Lancaster) Qv vAv vS9v vwv v!: ,v vp yIQv v+v vWv vgv vyGz v v v < ?v vY9v vMv vyG
hv| ?vTv!9vGvAv| J9v+v|(vs #v| rvyzvAv* &v!C )vzvf Ov*OvGvyG ~vy9vgvyG Q(vZv@ VQ9vgv@
.?v Tv !9v Gv Av |h IOv IGh IOv Gv <C 9v %v "v | IOv IGh {v v xv zv Av }v @h ,^v gv =v yG 9v %v ]v gv <
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O9v gv <}G )v zv f e9v }v Av $:G GhRv vQ #v *Pv yG A9v }v zv gv yG Ov v|v * ,?v %v <9v Wv | ?v +v qv +v wv <h
)v yE bQv av yG Y(v "v @ )v zv f ?v +v "v C G bv <GhQv yGh J9v +v |(v tv zv y ?v *Rv |Qv yGh ?v +v p9v tv Dv yG
,v p IOv Gv <}G d(v I ?v |9v tv }v yG JGQ(v Zv Av zv y {v sC ?v +v }v $C f(v Jv "v }v *h ?v +v |(v tv yG
>vzvavAv* ?vDv*OvJvyG ?v+v|(vtvyG QGQv}vAvSGh (v}v! Q(vZv@ fC f(vIQvAvtv*h .)114(9v%v@zvWv!
k
#vwvyh #v+vDv*OvJvyG 9v+vF(vy(v"vwvAvyGh O9vZvAvs:G J9v=vzvavAv}vy bvtvp Uv+vy ;v+vzvJv@
Bv I9v @Ch .IOv Gv <}G J9v SQ9v }v }v y ?v +v F(v y(v *Ov *}G ?v +v p9v tv Dv yG Qv $9v dv }v zv y xv yPv v
?v+v|(vtvzvy Ev*OvJvyGh ,vMv*Q9vAvyG Q(vavAvyG ,vp 9v$QhOh IOvGv<}Gh ?vjvzvyG 9v*9v]vs
,vp ~v%vTvAvSh ,VQ9vgv@ IOv*OvF ?v+vpGQvi(v"vCEh ?v+vMv*Q9v@ JGQ(vZvAvy ?vYQvqvyG
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9v*Ov+vzvtv@ ?vzv}vgvAvTv}vyG (Insights) IQv+vZv=vyG P9vqv!h Hv$9v"v}vyG Q(vav@ ,vp ,?v*9v%v"vyG
Shuman, Storytelling Rights: The Uses of Oral and Written Texts by )110(
Urban Adolescents; Weinstein-Shr, «Literacy and Social Process: A Community in
Transition,» and Camitta, «Vernacular Writing: Varieties of Literacy among
Philadelphia High School Students,» in: Street, ed., Cross-Cultural Approaches to
Literacy.
Baynham, «Code-Switching and Mode-Switching: Community )111(
Interpreters and Mediators,» in: Street, ed., Ibid.
Klassen, «Bilingual Written Language Use of Low-Education Latin )112(
American Newcomers,» in: Barton and Ivanic, eds., Writing in the Community.
Barton and Ivanic, eds., Ibid. )113(
Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations. )114(
387
IQv =v Mv yG xv zv @ f(v wv @ Ev +v I GPv %v v d9v Gv |h .#v +v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG {v =v s #v |
{vLGO f(vwv * IQvV9v=v}vyG ?vS9v +vTv yG 9v*9v]vsh JGQvc9v"v| hv| {vgvqvy9v< ?v qvy9v Jv Av|
,v$h ,NvyE ...~vv9vJv}vyGh ,{v}vgvyG f9vwv}vv ,?vY9vL ?v+v@9vTvS|v| Y9v\hC
.?+y9AyG IQtqyG ,p 9%g| {|9gAyG ~A* ,AyG J:9G}yG
?+@9TS|}yG Y9\h}G ,p IOG<}G KGOIC v v 8

e;vwvyGh ?v<9vAvwvyG #v+v< J9vs;vgvyG )vzvf >vZv!G Ovs e9v}vAv$:G fC ~viQ
o
?v yO9v =v Av }v yG J9v s;v gv yGh J9v +v |9v "v *Ov yG {v wv Wv @ )115(?v *(v <Qv Av yG J9v s9v +v Tv yG ,v p
q
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?v+v@9vTvS|v}vyG Y9v\h}G ,vp ?v$9vqvWvyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG J:9v}vgvAvSG Kv\(v@h
.Ov *9v Jv | ,v "v tv @ R9v Gv !E 9v %v !C )v zv f IOv Gv <}G )v zv f VGQv Av f:G Ov *Ov F #v |
k
#v| GOvF ?vgvSGh J9vf(v}vGv| #v| ARvF ,v$ ?v$9vqvWvyG /IOvGv<}G J9vSQ9v}v|
{v vwv Wv v< ?v vfR(v v| ?v v+v vzv vYG(v vAv vyG I(v vtv vy9v v f(v vwv v@ ,v vAv vyG JGQ9v v%v v}v yGh ?v vpQv vgv v}v vyG
Qv +v <Ov @ fC rv +v v ,d9v Dv }v yG {v +v =v S )v zv f ,)116({v +v %v vhQ Xv s9v "v *h .rv zv Av Mv |
q
gPv$ Ov*|v@ ,vAvyG IOvtvgv}vyG bv<G(v]vyG {vv ~v%vp ,v"vgv* ?v+v_GQvshQv+v=vyG d9vwvV}G
.J9v|(vzvgv}v< OhRv@ ?v=vzvf jC ?vpQvgv}vy ?v+v"vtvAvyG IQ9v%v}vyG bvtvp Uv+vyh ,d9vwvV}G
)117(
y>v v v*(v v v=v v vAv v vyGz IQhQv v v+v v vS #v v v| ARv v vF (v v v$ d9v v vwv v vV}G gPv v v$ Qv v v+v v v<Ov v v@
bv zv Mv y9v v<h I(v vtv yG )v v"v v< ,v p IOv Gv v<}G Ov vYQv v< e(v vtv v@ ,v Av yG (Gatekeeping)
?v+v@9vTvS|v}vyG >vy9vav}vzvy ?v<9vGvAvS;vy ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG #v+v< Qv+v+vjvAvyGh
.g;fC Qd!G )115(

Kathleen Rockhill, «Gender, Language, and the Politics of Literacy,» )116(
British Journal of Sociology of Education, vol. 8, no. 2 (1987).
Frederick Erickson and Jeffrey Shultz, The Counselor as Gatekeeper: )117(

Social Interaction in Interviews (New York; London: Academic Press, 1982), and
Gumperz, Discourse Strategies.
388
x
.)118(yJ9v Tv S|v }v yG Qv +v wv qv @ ?v +v qv +v vz L9v Av !E Ov +v gv @h f(v wv @ ,v Av yGh ,?v Y9v Mv yG
q
?vjvzvyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvyG ,vp ?v*RvvQv}vyG ,?v<9vAvwvyGh ~vzvwvAvzvy ?v+v@9vTvS|v}vyG bQvavyG
#v| {v+vzvtvAvyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vfQvWvyG hvsG(v| ,v$ ,)119(,vS9v+vTvyG O9vZvAvs:Gh
~v wv Jv zv y ?v tv }v gv }v yG J9v dv Jv zv yG xv zv @ {v Dv }v @ >v *(v =v Av yG J9v |GOv av YG .?v }v +v tv yG
#v+v=vy9vavyGh #vF9v<RvyG ~v+v+vtv@ ~vAv* 9v|Ov"vf (Record-Keeping) {v+vGvTvAvyG evqvIh
k
.)120(9+s;LC f(y(=t|h ,f(z$||h ,f(p9v ~%!C )zf
?v v +v v F(v v y(v v +v v S(v v Tv v yGh ?v v+v vpGQv v i(v v "v v CE v v hQv v wv v +v v }v v yG J9v vSGQOv v yG Qv v %v v dv v @
f(v <G(v =v yG 9v %v y;v L #v | {v }v gv Av Tv * ,v Av yG {v F9v S(v yG >v *(v =v Av yG J9v |GOv av Y:
?v *9v qv vh IO(v F )v zv f ~v wv Jv zv y ?v Y9v Mv yG ?v +v zv YG(v Av yG ~v %v @9v gv \G(v |h ~v %v Av <G(v C
?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGh ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v \GQv Av p:G #v }v ]v Av @ ,v $h .JGQG(v Jv yG
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,v p VGQv f}G Q9v %v cE ,;v Dv | ,?v Y9v Mv yG ?v Tv S|v }v yG ?v _9v av L hC ?v +v zv =v tv yG
J9vFQOvyG hv| #v+vqvc(v}vyG HQ9vGv@ ?v|A;v| dh9vJv@ ,)121(?v+v=q vavyG JGQG(vJvyG
q
A9v v=v v!C JGQG(v vI ,v vp J;v v$|v v}v vyGh JGQ9v v%v v}v vy9v v< ?v vtv vzv vgv vAv v}v vyG ?v v+v v_GQv vshQv v+v v=v vyG
Mary Douglas, How Institutions Think (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse )118(

Gal, «Language and Political Economy». )119(

David Silverman and Jill Jones, Organizational Work: The Language )120(
of Grading, the Grading of Language (London: Collier Macmillan, 1976); H. Flett,
«Notions of Eligibility to Public Housing,» in: Sandra Wallman, ed., Ethnicity at
Work (London: Macmillan, 1979); Gumperz: Discourse Strategies, and
«Contextualization and Understanding,» in: Duranti and Goodwin, eds.,
Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon, and Erickson and
Shultz, The Counselor as Gatekeeper: Social Interaction in Interviews.
Sue Fisher and Alexandra Dundas Todd, eds., The Social )121(
Organization of Doctor-Patient Communication (Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics, 1983).
389
?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*}G O9v=v}vyG hv| 9v| OvI} ?v+v@GPvyG IQv+vTvyG ?v"v+v"v< hC ,)122({v}vgvyG
.)123(iQ9v vwv vTv vzv vy ?v vy(v v%v vGv v}v vyG JGA9v vtv vzv vyG ,v vp (Personhood) [v vMv vWv vzv vy
k
,vzvYG(vAvyG H(vzvS~vy ?v+v|;vwvyG Qv+vih ?v+v|;vwvyG QO9vZv}vyG 9v]v*C #v}v]vAv@h
,vp ?v<9vAvwvyGh ?v$9vqvWvyG ?vjvzvy U9vMvyG W;vAvL:G ,vp ~vwvJvAvyG .)124(>v*(v=vAvzvy
k
,;v Dv | ,)125(Ev +v %v p ,I(v tv zv y QOv Zv | f9v +v I}G >v zv iC ,v p (v $ JGQG(v Jv yG
d;v L #v | Uv +v y ,xv "v =v yG Qv *Ov | 9v %v }v iQC 9v %v =v F(v }v < ,v Av yG ?v tv *Qv av yG rv Zv @
o
9v%v@9v<9vFE ,vp >vAvv 9v| ,vp ?v+v!9vC #v}vMv@ fC )vzvf ,f(v<Rvy d9vwvV}G Q9v%vcE
.?+\Q| ?G+A! )zf d(ZJzy ?+%qWyG
A9v "v < ~v Av * )126(

?v zv Zv Av | JGR9v Gv !E ,v $ J9v |GOv av Y:G gPv $ Bv |GO9v |h
Celia Roberts, Evelyn Davies and Tom Jupp, Language and )122(
Discrimination: A Study of Communication in Multi-Ethnic Workplaces (London;
New York: Longman, 1992), and Katharina Bremer [et al.], The Making of
Understanding in Extended Interactions (London: Longman, 1996).
Gerald Michael Erchak, The Anthropology of Self and Behavior (New )123(
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992).
Ronald Scollon and Suzanne B. K. Scollon, Narrative, Literacy, and )124(
Face in Interethnic Communication (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981); Gumperz, ed.,
Language and Social Identity, and Susan Philips, «The Routinization of Repair in
Courtroom Discourse,» in: Duranti and Goodwin, eds., Rethinking Context:
Language as an Interactive Phenomenon.
Heath, Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities )125(
and Classrooms.
Harvey Sacks, «An Initial Investigation of the Usability of )126(
Conversational Data for Doing Sociology,» in: David Sudnow, ed., Studies in Social
Interaction (New York: Free Press; London: Collier-Macmillan, 1972); Harvey
Sacks, Emanuel A. Schegloff and Gail Jefferson, «A Simplest Systematics for the
Organisation of Turn-Taking for Conversation,» Language, vol. 50, no. 4 (1974), and
J. Maxwell Atkinson and John Heritage, eds., Structures of Social Action: Studies in
Conversation Analysis (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
390
d:Ov Av S:Gh dD9v Tv Av yG hv | 9v %v |9v Gv Tv !G d;v L #v | #v +v <G(v =v yG J;v +v Gv Tv @
{v vGv vTv v}v vyG ev vqv vJv vyG ?v vav vSG(v v< QOv vtv vyG Uv vqv v"v v< {v vf9v vqv vAv vyG ,v vp (Inference)
J9v v FQOv v yGh d9v v wv v V}G hv v| ?v v |(v v zv v gv v}v v yG ?v v}v v F;v v|h jOv v gv v =v vyG ~v v $QG(v v Jv v y
J9vqvzv}vyG hC ,?v+v=q vavyG Xv|G(v%vy9vv ,J;v+vGvTvAvyG gPv$ Bv=vDv@h .?v+v_GQvshQv+v=vyG
k k k
e9vf f9v+v=vv 9vY9vL 9v+vzvJv| 9v|GOvavYG ,{v}vgvyG QG(vI Qv*Q9vtv@ hC ,?v*Q9vWvAvS:G
)127(
{v*Q(vwv+vS Xvs9v"v*h .NvyE ...rvs(v}vyGh ,IQOvtvyGh ,J9vpQvZvAvyG d(vI
,#v +v pQv Jv "v }v yG #v +v gv p9v +v yG #v | ?v f(v }v Gv }v y J;v +v Gv Tv Av yG hv +v }v Gv @ ~v Av * rv +v v
IO9vf (Buckholdt) Ovy(vL(v<h (Gubrium) )128(e(v*Qv<(vi ?vSGQO Qv%vdv@h
?vy9vI 9v< Qv*Q9vtvAvyG yA9v"v<z ~vAv* rv+vv IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG J9v+vqvWvAvTv| {v+v$zv@
q
f(v <G(v =v yG uv zv Mv * ,J9v s9v +v Tv yG gPv $ {v v ,v p .?v Y9v L Y9v }v Av SG ?v Tv zv F )v zv f
k
?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vSQ9v}v}vyG )vzvf ?vy9vI 9v< ~v%vy9v}vfC Qv+vTvqv@ f9vwv|E )vzvf GO(v+vs
,vp ~vwvJvAvyGh ,vMv*Q9v@(v+vS(vTvyG {vwvWvAvyG #v| ARvGvv ~v%v@9vTvS|v}vy IQv+vDvwvyG
.?+%qWyGh ?<(Aw}yG ?jzy ?f("A}yG J:9}gAS:G d;L #| h}AG}yG
,?v jv zv yG IOOv gv Av | Y9v \hC #v | IP(v Lzv | 9v %v zv v ,?v Y9v L ?v zv Dv |C ?v C;v C
Y9v\h}G ,vp &v@(vs Ovtvqv* IOvGv<}G/?v$9vqvWvyG KOvI fC )vzvf xvyPvv #v+v=vAvS
,v v p )129(?v v }v v wv v Jv v }v v yG J9v v f9v v s J9v v SGQO Bv v zv v Zv v p Ov v sh .?v v +v v @9v v Tv v S|v v }v v yG
Cicourel (1968). )127(

Jaber F. Gubrium and David R. Buckholdt, Describing Care: Image )128(
and Practice in Rehabilitation (Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain,
1982).
J. Maxwell Atkinson and Paul Drew, Order in Court: The )129(
Organisation of Verbal Interaction in Judicial Settings (Atlantic Highlands, NJ:
Humanities Press, 1979); Philips, The Invisible Culture: Communication in
Classroom and Community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation; Roger W.
Shuy, «Language and Law,» Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, vol. 7 (1986),
and John Gibbons, ed., Language and the Law (London; New York: Longman,
1994).
391
KvzvZv@h ,YhQvWv| &v!C )vzvf KOvJvyG Q(vZvAv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v"v+v@hQvyG J9vSQ9v}v}vyG
o k
iQvLC rvF9vch U(vZv! Qv%vdv@ 9v}vv 9v|9v}v@ ,?vfhQvWv}vyG ?vqv+vc(vyG #v*(vwvAvy
k k
9v +v pQv I ?v !hOv | hv F9v s(v yG ,9v +v av }v ! .)130(?v <9v Av wv yG ,v p 9v %v Tv qv ! {v wv Wv @ rv +v v
?v}vwvJv}vyG ?vjvy Ev+vI ,?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v}vwvJv}vyG ?vf9vs ,vp #vwvyh .{v+vGvTvAvv
GPv%vv {v+vGvTv@ ~vAv* ,?v+v!9v=vS G ,v$ &v+vzvf )vfOv}vyG ?vjvy 9v}v"v+v< ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ,v$
Q9v=vAvf:G #v+vgv< PvL|v* ?v*Rv+vzvGv! 9v< {v+vs 9v| bvtvp .,v!9v=vSE ~vFQvAv| ?vavSG(v<
.)131(?<9AwyG ,p btp ?zGT}yG ,$ ?*R+zG! G fC )"g}<
k
J9v+vGv+v@GQvAvS G #v| GOOvf {v}vgvAvTv* fC ,v!9v=vS G ~vFQvAv}vzvy #vwv}v*
k
I(vtvyG Qv+vjv* fC &v"vwv}v* ,;vDv| .,v<9vGv*E Qv+v=vgvAv< Ov$9vWvyG/&v+vzvf )vfOv}vyG ~v*OvtvAvy
?v +v yh|v Tv | hC e(v y {v YG(v Av * fC #v wv }v * ?v }v C #v |h ,?v +v !9v =v S5v y ?v +v gv *QPv yG
o
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.?v *9v wv Jv yG iQv Gv | ,v p d(v Jv Av }v yG ARv Gv }v yG e;v wv yG H(v zv SC hC ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G
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Bv|GO9v| #v+vqvzvJv}vyG ?v8v+v$ U(vZvMv< Ov$9vWvyG/&v+vzvf )vfOv}vyG &v}v+vtv* jPvyG
.)132( hF9s(zy W(=]| {+GTAv 9$R*Rg@ ~q @ ,AyG ,$ ~%@AGQs
JGO9vgvyGh JGQG(vJvyGh ,?v_QvWvyG hvF9vs(vy ?v+vpQvJvyG J;v+vGvTvAvyG f(vwv@h

?v+vqv+vwv< Qv*Q9vtvAvyG gPv$ BvWvs(v! Ovsh .xvyPvv ?vc(vqvJv| IQvGv%vyGh #v*Qv}vAvyGh
L. Newman, «Writing in the Legal Community: Constraints :Qv v v v v v dv v v v v v !G )130(

upon the Writing Processes of Lawyers,» (PhD Dissertation, University of
Pennsylvania, 1989).
Susan Berk-Seligson, The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in )131(
the Judicial Process (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
.g;fC e9%"*9< ]E ?y9I G Qd!G )132(
392
.)133(#v +v +v F9v ]v tv yG #v +v *(v jv zv yG fOv y #v | {v +v zv Jv Av zv y Y(v \(v | ,v $h ,IOv *GRv Av |
HvAv"v* ,vAvyG J:9vJvyG )vzvf A(v]vyG Qv*Q9vtvAvyG gPv%vy ?vAv<9vDvyG Qv+vi ?vgv+v=vavyG BvtvyCh
9v%vF9vAv!E ~vAv* ?v*Q9v+vgv| Qv+vi ?v+v%vqvV J9v*9vwvI ?vjvzvyG (v+vF9v"vDvyG f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG 9v%v+vp
k k
{v}vgvAvSGh .bvtv"vyG fhOv| ?vavSG(v< Q9v+vgv| H(vAvwv| {vwvV ,vp ,9vf9v=v@ ,9v]v*C
k
hOv=v@ 9v|Ov"vf ~v%vAv}vzvy ?v*(vjvzvyG IQOvtvyG )vzvf d:OvAvS;vy GQvL|v| {v+vGvTvAvyG GPv$
xv yPv v Bv Wv s(v ! Ov tv y .eQv Gv }v v &v _Q(v @ HG(v Gv Av S:G A9v "v CC ,v p &v @9v <9v FE fC
OQ(v qv +v zv v MQv Av sGh .)134(,v pGQv i(v "v C G Ev Jv =v yG J9v +v <OC ,v p Nv Tv "v yG 9v *9v ]v s
#v+v< (Informant) Qv=p vMv}vzvy ?vY9vMvyG J9v}vzvwvyG {v+vDv}v@ ,vp ,e(vAvJv}vyG Ov%vGvyG
?v_9vTv =v< Qv =p vMv }vyG J9v }vzv v L9vAv !E O9v gv * fC #v wv}v * :h .?v +vFhQvtv}v yGh ?v y9v Y}G
?v<9vAvwvyG J9vgv\G(v| d;vL #v| ?vzvDv}v| f(vwv@ fC 9v%v+vzvf {v< ,?vJvqvZvyG )vzvf
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:>v @9v wv yG f(v +v f d;v L #v | ~v %v y ;v +v Dv }v @ &v zv gv Gv @ ?v tv *Qv av < 9v +v <9v Av v 9v i9v Zv |
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#v +v zv f9v qv v U9v Mv V}G {v +v Dv }v @ d(v I Q9v +v Av LG (v $ J9v gv \G(v }v yG Q9v +v Av LGh
Ovs gPv$ {v+vDv}vAvyG 9v*9v]vs fC ~viQh .)135(y[ q v"vyG ,vp #v+v+vs;vLCh #v+v+vf9v}vAvFG
q
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?v}vF9vtvyG ?v+vzvJv}vyG ?vtv*QvavyG ,vp )136(A9v]v+v=vyG ?v+v!9vav*Qv=vyGh ?v+v<(v"vGvyG ?v*(v+vS}G
Gibbons, ed., Language and the Law. )133(

J. Clifford, «Notes on Field Notes,» in: Roger Sanjek, ed., Fieldnotes: )134(
The Makings of Anthropology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), and
Paul Atkinson, Understanding Ethnographic Texts (Newbury Park, CA; London:
Sage Publications, 1992).
Atkinson, Ibid., p. 24. )135(
= J. Gumperz and C. Roberts, «Understanding in Intercultural )136(
393
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{v wv Wv < ?v tv *Qv av < ~v %v Tv qv !C f(v +v <(v "v Gv yG f(v *(v +v S}G #v F9v <Rv yG eOv s ,9v %v gv }v F
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#v +v }v Mv @ ,v <(v "v Gv yG j(v +v S}G Q9v Wv Av Tv }v yG #v | GhQv dv Av !Gh IQv wv qv | hC ,Q9v gv |
f(v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG #vF9v<RvyG eOvs #v+vI ,vp ,?vtv+vC(vyG d;vL #v| ~v%v=vzv_h ~v%vzvv9vWv|
uv+vzvgvAvyGh ?vtv+vtvJvyG #v+v< G(vFRv|h ?v+vdvqvy ?vtv*Qvav< ~v%vzvv9vWv|h ~v%vTvqv!C ^v+v=vyG
QO9vZv}vyG f(vwv@ Ev+vI ?vtv*QvavyG Ov*OvF #v| Kv\(v* Qv|}G GPv$ .,v}v+v+vtvAvyG
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?vGvy9vgv}vyGz BvzvgvFh .9v%v"v+v< ?v}vF9vtvyG ?vs;vgvyGh b9v+vTvyGh H9vavMvyG ~v+v$9vqv|
{v}vgvAvTv}vyG KvzvavZv}vyG GPv$ ?vWvs9v"v| Y9v}vAvF:G ~vzvf J9vZvZvMvAvy y?v+v<9vavMvyG
IQv +v Wv gv yG Y9v =v VE #v | ~v iQv yG )v zv f #v wv yh .hv SGh {v wv Wv < Ov *Ov Jv Av yG ?v =v gv Y
Kv \Gh {v }v f c9v "v $ f9v v ,Kv zv av Zv }v yG GPv %v < )9v %v Av av SG(v < hC( ?v +v }v *O9v v}G
H9vavMvyG .?vY9vL Y9v\hC ,vp IOvGv<}G/,v%vqvWvyG W;vAvL:9v< ~vAv$G Qv+vjvY
#v | ?v "v +v "v =v }v yG J9v SQ9v }v }v yGh J9v |;v gv yG #v | >v vQv }v v (v v(v p Q(v dv "v | #v |
,vp9vtvC d9v}vSCQvv H9vavMvyG hC ,9v"v@9v+vI ,vp ~vwvJvAvzvy I(vtvyG J9vs;vf d;vL
k
{v%vGv* Ov*QvGvAvyG #v| i(vAvTv| ,vp ;vDv}v| f(vwv* ,)137(b(vTvyG O9vZvAvsG {vLGO
Encounters,» in: Jan Blommaert and Jef Verschueren, eds., The Pragmatics of =
Intercultural and International Communication (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J.
Benjamins, 1991).
Bourdieu: Outline of a Theory of Practice, and Language and Symbolic )137(
Power.
394
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?v*O9vZvAvs:Gh ?v+vMv*Q9v@(v+vS(vTvyG O(v+vtvyGh ?v+v|(v+vyG J9vSQ9v}v}vyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvy9v<
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?vy(vtvgv}vyG ?v+vzv}vgvyG IQOvtvzvy {vDv}v@ ,vAvyG ?vCO9vJv}vyG J9v+vy5v< hC )138(H9vavMvzvy
{v +v zv Jv @ Qv Zv Jv * )jQG(v Jv yG {v +v zv Jv Av yG ,v p 9v }v v( #v +v +v f9v }v Av F:G #v +v zv f9v qv zv y
Ev*OvJvyG )vzvf >vZv"v*h ,?vdvI;v}vyG IQv$9vdvyG ,vp ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G KGOvI}G
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John McHardy Sinclair and R. M. Coulthard, Towards an Analysis of )138(

Discourse: The English Used by Teachers and Pupils (London: Oxford University
Press, 1975), and Michael Stubbs, Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistic Analysis
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Fowler [et al.], Language and Control, and Fairclough, Language and )139(
Power.
395
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d(vI Ev*OvI {v}vf ~vAv$Gh .?vY9vMvyG ?v+vzvJv}vyG J9vs9v+vTvyG LQ9vL ~v%vzv+vDv}v@h
yH(vzvGv|z (v$ 9v|h yKOvJv|z (v$ 9v| #v+v< bv<GQvAvy9v< )143(b9v+vTvy9v< fGQvAvs:G
{v=vs #v| e9vtv}vyG ,vs9v+vTvyG {v}vgvyG c9v"v$ iQvLC ?v%vF #v| .)144(KOvI ,vp
Kerstin Severinson Eklundh, Dialogue Processes in Computer- )140(

Mediated Communication: A Study of Letters in the COM System, Linkfping
Studies in Arts and Science; 6 ([Linkfping: Linkfping University], 1986).
M. Cole, «The Zone of Proximal Development: Where Culture and )141(
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Karamjit S. Gill, ed., Artificial Intelligence for Society (Chichester )142(
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Gumperz, Discourse Strategies; Gumperz, ed., Language and Social )143(
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Interactive Phenomenon, and Auer and di Luzio, eds., The Contextualization of
Language.
Anthony Giddens, New Rules of Sociological Method: A Positive )144(
Critique of Interpretative Sociologies (London: Hutchinson, 1976), and Volker
= Hinnenkamp, Interaktionale Soziolinguistik und interkulturelle Kommunikation:
396
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IQvwvp {vY(v@ ,?vY9vL ?v+vqv+vwv<h .)146(?v\h9vqv| Y(v\(v| #vwvyh y?v<(vzvGv|z
fQv tv @ ?v zv +v SQv < ?v +v y:O ?v |(v zv gv | yb9v +v Tv y9v < ?v !hQv tv }v yG J9v Jv +v }v zv Av zv yz RQv =v |9v i
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Q(vdv"v| {vLGO ?v}vF9vtvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyGh H9vAvwvyG JGQhQv+vS hv]v*h ,b9v+vTvzvy
I9vavgv|h ?vGvAv"v| ?v}v+vs J9vSQ9v}v}vyG gPv$ f(vwv@ rv+vv dzvTv*h ,hvSGh jOvtv!
.): hC(
Gesprächsmanagement zwischen Deutschen und Türken (Tübingen: M. Niemeyer, =

1989).
McDermott (1974), and Frederick Erickson, «Gatekeeping and the )145(
Melting Pot,» Harvard Educational Review, vol. 45 (1975).
Auer, «Introduction: John Gumperz’s Approach to )146(
Contextualisation,» in: Auer and di Luzio, eds., The Contextualization of
Language.
M. Silverstein, «The Interdeterminacy of Contextualisation: When Is )147(
Enough Enough?,» in: Auer and di Luzio, eds., The Contextualization of
Language.
397
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James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power without Responsibility: The Press )1 (
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Allan Bell, The Language of News Media :Qv dv !G ,?v |9v f J9v |Ov tv | ]E ?v =v Tv "v y9v < )2(
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), and Harald Burger, Sprache der Massenmedien [=
Language of Mass Media], 2., durchgesehene und erw. Aufl. (Berlin; New York:
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Wilbur Schramm, ed., Mass Communications: A Book of Readings, )3 (

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of Illinois, 2nd ed. (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1975), and Curran and
Seaton, Power without Responsibility: The Press and Broadcasting in Britain.
= Fishman, The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary Social Science )4(
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f(v v ?v tv +v tv I ,,v "v gv * ,?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v av tv "v yG (v $ ?v +v "v tv @ 9v *9v ]v s hv | bv <GQv Av yG
Approach to Language in Society [Reprinted in: Sebeok, ed., Current Trends in =

Linguistics: Volume 12: Linguistics and Adjacent Arts and Sciences].
k
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i(v Av I #v }v ]v Av * {v wv yG fC Q9v =v Av f9v <h ,#v wv yh .?v vQv Av Wv | IQ(v Y Q(v av @ 9v 8C hC ?v +v S9v +v Tv yG HGRv I}G
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Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, Winfried Schulz and Jürgen Wilke, eds., )6(
Publizistik, Massenkommunikation [= Fischer’s Dictionary of Journalism - Mass
Communication], Das Fischer Lexikon, Aktualisierte, vollständig überarbeitete
Neuausg (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994), p. 142.
403
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g9v Gv @:G jO9v I}G {v tv "v Av yG (v $ ?v +v S9v S}G Qh9v Jv }v yG Ov IC .IQv +v Dv v Qh9v Jv |h
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#vwvy .Y(v\(v}vyG ~v+v}vY ,vp {vLOv@ J:9vI ~v$ ~v%v*Ov$9vWv| )vyE IQvV9v=v|
,>v gv zv yG Hv |GQv < hC ,Ev *Ov Jv yG hC ,J;v <9v tv }v yG ,v p RQv =v @ iQv LC Qh9v Jv |
,vAvyG ,v$h ,?v+v|;vv ?v%vFG(v| ,vp {vs}G )vzvf #v+v}vzvwvAv| hv}vGv@ J;v<9vtv}vy9vp
,IQvV9v=v}vyG (Talkback) ?v<(vF}G Hv|GQv=vy #vwv}v*h .,v!9vDvyG Q(vJv}vyG OOvJv@
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#v v*Qv v\9v vJv vyG Qv v+v vi hC )?v vvQ9v vWv v}v vyG( #v v*Qv v\9v vJv vyG #v v*Ov v$9v vWv v}v vyG e9v v|C ~v vAv v@
?v av SG(v < 9v %v +v yE Q9v Wv | Qv LB )v yE Q(v Jv | #v | J:(v Jv Av yG fE .)IOv $9v Wv }v yG(
q
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,vp uvJvyG &vy #v| )vzvf f(vyOvAvTv* #v*PvyG #v+vvQ9vWv}vyG ?vy9vI #vwvyh .e;vf G
.{gqy9< MQa@ ,$h MQa@ fC #w}* )7(#+"=}yG H9aMyG
Bv |GO9v |h .,v zv YG(v Av yG i(v Av Jv }v yG QOv Zv }v < Ev y9v Dv yG Qv %v dv }v yG uv zv gv Av *h

yhvsG(vyGz v v v< e;vf G ?vs;vf ?vgv+v=vavp ,y,vFQ9vMvyGz ~vy9vgvy9v< {vZvAv@ {vF9vSQvyG
Uv wv gv * e;v f G fC #v +v Dv I9v =v yG ^v gv < Ov tv vAv vgv *h .)8(a;v L 9v %v +v p Ov F(v *
JGOv tv Av gv }v yG ycQv Av Wv | {v wv Wv < Qv v*Ov v@z 9v %v !C fhQv LB Ov tv Av gv *h ,yhv sG(v yGz
q q
9v}v"v+v< ,f9vwv| {vv ,vp IO(vF(v| d9vI {vv )vzvf ,v$ ,vAvyG .NvyE ...IOvF9vTvyG
Gerhard Leitner, Gesprächsanalyse und Rundfunkkommunikation: Die )7 (

Struktur englischer phone-ins [= Discourse Analysis and Radio Communication:
The Structure of British Phone-ins] (Hildesheim; New York: G. Olms, 1983).
]E ?v =v Tv "v y9v v< .&v Av |Qv < e;v f5v y ,v vFQ9v BG D9v gv yG rv v+v v_ ,v vav jv v* Kv zv av vZv v| c9v "v $ U+y )8(
(Philip Schlesinger, Putting «Reality» Together: BBC {v}vgvAvTv| hvsG(vyG .NvyE ...Q9v=vL}G
News (London: Constable, 1978); Roger Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse
and Ideology in the Press (London; New York: Routledge, 1991), and Bell, The
Language of News Media).
.&zqSC y,qJZyG u+zgAyG Y(\(| d9GCGz KzaZ| MQAszSh
404
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?vphQvgv}vyG ~v+v$9vqv}vyG f(vfQ9v=vyG f(vGvy9vgv}vyGh ,fhQv+vTv}vyGh ,(Gatekeepers)
q k
&v !C d(v tv yG cQv Av Wv }v yG Uv Jv yG {v +v =v s #v | &v !C hOv =v * ,Rv +v Jv @ fhO #v |h .GOv +v F
k k
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?vtv=vTv}vyG ?vavS(v}vyG 9v%v@Q(vY ,vp ?v|(vzvgv}vyG PvL|v@ fC ,v$ ?v+v"v+v@hQvyG ?vy9vJvyG
k q
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fE .xv yPv v ?v |(v zv gv }v yG 9v %v Tv qv ! ,v $ ?v +v |;v f G ?v 8v +v %v yG hv }v Gv @h .?v +v qv Jv Zv yG
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)#v| Qv+vDvv( fhO #v| ?v+vFQ9vMvyG ?v|(vzvgv}vyG d9v}vgvAvSG ,v$ i(vZvtvyG J:9vJvyG
?vy9vSQvyG ,vp 9v%vF9v|OEh ,yOQvGv|z i(vAvJv| ,vp 9v%vZv+vzvtv@ iQvL}Gh ,?v_9vSh
Qv+v=vMvyG eOvtv* 9v|Ov"vgvp ,i(vZvtvyG J:9vJvyG gPv%vy {v+vDv}vAvzvy .O9v"vSE fhO #v|
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,?v+vwvzv}vzvy #vwv}v*h .LQ9vMvyG #v| 9v%vzv}vgv< {vZvAv@ hC d9vGv}vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<
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e;v v f G ?v v +v v "v v < #v v +v v gv v @h .{v v F9v v SQv v yG L9v v Av v !E Q(v v av v @ fC xv v yPv v v ,v v |;v v f G
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f(v wv * OQG(v yG i(v Av Jv }v yG fC Ov I )v yE ?v qv zv Av Mv }v yG ~v y;v Tv zv y J9v +v yh|v Tv |
Steven E. Clayman, «From Talk to Text: Newspaper Accounts of )9 (

Reporter-Source Interactions,» Media, Culture, and Society, vol. 12, no. 1 (1990),
and Bell, Ibid.
405
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{v =v s #v | JG(v av Mv yG gPv $ Bv qv Yh Ov sh .H9v av Mv zv y #v +v 8v Wv "v | f(v !(v wv *
#v| )11({v+v<h e;vf5vy ,vf9v}vAvFG Q(vdv"v| #v| (Schlesinger) )10(Qvjv"v*RvzvV
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o
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{vF9vSQvyG fh(vtv*o h ,&v}v%vp f(v8v+vTv* hC ,vqvwv* 9v}v< i(vAvJv}vyG IQvqvV f(vwvqv*h
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9v%v+vp H(viQv}vyG hC ?vzv}vAvJv}vyG #v*Ov$9vWv}vyG d9vgvpC OhOQvyh #v+vtvzvAv}vzvy RGQvavyG
)v v yE ?v v =v v Tv v "v v y9v v < {v v F9v v SQ y~v v }v v Zv v @z e;v v f G {v v F9v v Sh fE .&v v zv v F9v v SQ ,v v p
jPv yG xv yP #v f ,v |(v }v gv yG H9v av Mv yG bQv qv @ ?v tv +v tv I ,v $h ,#v *Ov $9v Wv }v yG
.f(!9ty9v ,iQLC J:9G}y
)v "v < JGP ?v +v zv YG(v @ J:9v Gv | e;v f G {v F9v Sh Ov gv @ :[v +v Mv zv Av zv y
Schlesinger, Ibid. )10(

Bell, Ibid. )11(
406
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k k
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o
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k q
?v p9v \ G .xv yPv v f(v wv * fC #v wv }v * :h 9v Tv !9v Gv Av | Uv +v y &v !E .)12(?v +v |(v }v f
#v| S9v=vAvs:G )vzvf Ov*OvWvAvzvy .?vY9vMvyG &v@AGQvs uvzvMv* bv+vSh jC fC ,v$
?v jv zv y IOv *Qv Gv zv y ?v Y9v L IAGQv s xv yPv < ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ?v jv zv yG f(v wv Av Sz :{v +v $
k
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k k
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.?+|;f G {F9SQyG ,p OQG(yG i(AJ}yG
e;f G {F9SQh e;f G H9aL v v 2

,)v "v =v yGh ,d9v wv V}G )v zv f y,v |;v f G H9v av Mv yGz Kv zv av Zv | {v +v Jv *o
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k
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k k
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hC J:9v tv }v y9v v ,yeRQv yGz {v wv Vh i(v Av Jv | rv Zv @ ,v Av yG IQv wv qv yG ,9v %v zv tv "v *
.)14(H|GQ=yG
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uv tv Jv Av yGh Qv +v Czv Av yG ?v Wv s9v "v | 9v %v +v zv Av Sh .?v s;v gv yG gPv $ Ov *Ov Jv Av < f6G e(v tv "v Sh
S. Hall, «The Social Production of News,» in: Stuart Hall [et al.], )12(
Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order (London: Macmillan,
1978).
.48 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )13(
Qvdv!G ,&vzvtv"v* jPvyG i(vAvJCG #vf H9vavBG Rv+v+vE {vwvWv| ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v< fzvWvyG (v$ 9v}vvh )14(
.3.1h 4.2 #+@QtqyG
407
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o
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q
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.?qzAM| ?+!9w|R R9+IC
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q k
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n
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o
J9vshC ,vp YGPv@ ,vAvyG J9vf(v"vAvy9v< J9v}v+v}vZvAvyG Kv}vTv@h .>vgvzvyG Hv|GQv<h
,?v *Q9v %v V G Q9v =v L}G .hv =v av yG ,v p ?v qv zv Av Mv | f9v vQC ,v p Qv %v dv @ hC ?v qv zv Av Mv |
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o
408
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k k
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Curran and Seaton, Power without Responsibility: The Press and )16(
Broadcasting in Britain, and Noelle-Neumann, Schulz and Wilke, eds., Publizistik,
Massenkommunikation.
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David Cardiff, «The Serious and the Popular: Aspects of the Evolution )17(
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.&zqSC Qd!G )20(
Tuija Virtanen, «Temporal Adverbials in Text Structuring: On )21(
Temporal Text Strategy,» in: Ann-Charlotte Lindeberg, Nils Erik Enkvist and
Kay Wikberg, eds., Nordic Research on Text and Discourse: NORDTEXT
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411
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.)23(#*h9"gy9v ?Y9MyG ?*(+"=yG J9!(w}yG J9SGQO )yE ,xyPv
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)25(
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IOOvgvAv| {vF9vSQ ,jC ,J9vV9vtv"vyGh ,?vp9v]vAvS:G Hv|GQv<h ,rv@9v%vyGh ,)iQvLC
,)28(L9v v Av v *QEh ,)27(Qv v "v v Av v +v v yh ,(Scannel) )26({v v !9v v wv v S ,v v p ,Qh9v v Jv v }v v yG
,J9+v!9vTv!5vy N(vS9vAG RvvQCG ,(ICAME) e9vwv*E 9v7QvWv! ,vAvyG J9v+vpGQvi(+zv=v+v=vyG Qvdv!G )22(
.H*hQ"yG ,(Bergen) #FQ< ?g|9F
Bell, The Language of News Media. :d9D| )23(
Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News (London: )24(
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englischer phone-ins.
J. Heritage, «Analysing News Interviews: Aspects of the Production to )28(
Talk for an Overhearing Audience,» in: Teun Adrianus van Dijk, ed., Handbook
of Discourse Analysis, 4 vols. (London; Orlando: Academic Press, 1985), vol. 3:
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412
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(Graustein and Thiele)
)32(
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.(Werlich) )33(X+yQhh
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{v+vzvJv@ #v| >v*QvtvyG ,?vSGQOvzvy QQvwvAv}vyGh ,v!9vDvyG bv}v"vyG (v$ ?vzvIQv| A9v"vCC
,e9v dv "v yGh f(v !9v tv yGh ,?v Jv Zv y9v < e9v }v Av $;v y )34(Qv yh(v p {v +v y9v Jv @ .i(v Av Jv }v yG
Michael Tr?sser, «Rundfunkmoderation bei Beteiligungssendungen im )29(

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413
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H. Davis and P. Walton, «Death of a Premier: Consensus and Closure )35(

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the Press.
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414
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G. Leitner, «International Corpus of English. Corpus Design - )41(
Problems and Suggested Solutions,» in: Gerhard Leitner, ed., New Directions in
English Language Corpora: Methodology, Results, Software Developments (Berlin;
New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992), p. 56.
415
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hC hv+vS(vAvyG ,,v"vgv* ,rv+v+vwvAvyG )vzvf {v+vJv@ fC 9v%v+vqvwv* .,vqvJvZvyG uv+vtvJvAvyG
&v +v zv f Ov }v Av gv * jPv yG ,v F(v y(v *Ov *}G yY9v v}v F Gz v v v < U9v Mv yG ,uv +v +v ]v Av yG
Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News. )42(

Bell, The Language of News Media. )44(
Teun Adrianus van Dijk, News as Discourse (Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum )45(
Associates, 1988).
416
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{v+vy9vJv@h )50(?v+v\9v*QvyG ?v+vp9vJvZvyG Qv*Q9vtvAvy9v< ?v+v\9v*QvyG #v*O9v+v}vyG ?vs;vgvy Qvzv}v+vS
uv vzv vgv vAv v}v vyG Y(v v=v vav v}v vyG ,v v!9v v}v vy}G e;v vf5v vy (Hess-Lüttich) Xv v+v v@(v vy v v Uv v$
bv =v @Qv | {v Gv Tv yG Ev Jv < fE .eGQv Av I:9v < IQv *Ov F IQ9v VE ,v $ )51(#v +v tv $GQv }v y9v <
.)52(?+"tAyG J;GTzy (Hoffmann) f9}p($ ?SGQOv ,e9wI{<
John Hartley, Understanding News (London; New York: Methuen, )47(

1982), and Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press.
John J. Staczek, «The English Language and the Gulf War: Corpus )48(
Linguistics, Variation, and Word-Formation,» World Englishes, vol. 12 (1993).
K. H. Siehr, «Abwickeln: Brisantes Wort - brisanter Diskurs,» Sprache )49(
und Literatur, vol. 72 (1993).
Franz Simmler: «Die Textsorten «Regelwerk» und «Lehrbuch» aus dem )50(
Kommunikationsbereich des Sports bei Mannschaftsspielen und ihre Funktionen
[= The Text Type Rule Book and ’Teaching Manual’ in the Communicational
Sphere of Team Sports and Its Functions],» Sprachwissenschaft, vol. 16 (1991),
and «Zeitungssprachliche Textsorten und ihre Varianten. Untersuchungen anhand
von regionalen und überregionalen Tageszeitungen zum Kommunikationsbereich
des Sports,» in: Simmler, ed., Probleme der funktionellen Grammatik.
Ernest Hess-Lüttich, «Jugendpresse und Sprachwandel [=Print Media )51(
for Adolescents and Language Change],» International Journal of the Sociology of
Lothar Hoffmann, Vom Fachwort zum Fachtext: Beiträge zur )52(
angewandten Lingusitik (Tübingen: Narr, 1988).
417
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Noelle-Neumann, Schulz and Wilke, eds., Publizistik, )54(
Massenkommunikation.
418
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hv| RvGvgvyG hC ,bQvgvyG hC ,Y(v"vyG d;vL #v| ?vtv=vTv}vyG e9vwvI}G {v+vwvWv@
Bell: «Language Style as Audience Design,» and The Language of News )55(
Media.
R. W. Burchfield, Denis Donoghue and Andrew Timothy, The Quality )56(
of Spoken English on BBC Radio: A Report for the BBC (London: British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1979).
419
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Gunther Kress, «Linguistic Processes and the Mediation of «Reality»: )58(

The Politics of Newspaper Language in Language and Mass Media,» International
Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 40 (1983), p. 44.
Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press, )59(
p. 23.
Leitner, Gesprächsanalyse und Rundfunkkommunikation: Die Struktur )60(
englischer phone-ins.
.H9AwyG GP$ #| 415 v v 407 U Qd!G )61(
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T. Fox, ed., «The Challenge of Information Technology and Mass )65(

Media for Small Linguistic Societies,» Educational Media International, vol. 28,
no. 3 (1991).
423
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Fishman, The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary Social Science )67(

Approach to Language in Society [Reprinted in: Sebeok, ed., Current Trends in
Linguistics: Volume 12: Linguistics and Adjacent Arts and Sciences], p. 1644.
Leitner, «BBC English and Deutsche Rundfunksprache. A )68(
Comparative and Historical Analysis of the Language on the Radio».
Allan Bell, «Broadcast News as a Language Standard,» International )69(
Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 40 (1983).
= Gerhard Leitner, «Australian English or English in Australia - )70(
424
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Linguistic Identity or Dependence in Broadcast Language,» English World-Wide, =

vol. 5, no. 1 (1984).
E. Simpson, «Translating in the Nigerian Mass Media: A )71(
Sociolinguistic Study,» in: Frank Okwu Ugboajah, ed., Mass Communication,
Culture, and Society in West Africa (München; New York: Hans Zell Publishers,
1985).
425
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Burchfield, Donoghue and Timothy, The Quality of Spoken English on )72(

BBC Radio: A Report for the BBC.
Leitner, «BBC English and Deutsche Rundfunksprache. A )73(

Comparative and Historical Analysis of the Language on the Radio,» and R.
Quirk, «Speaking into the Air,» in: Richard Hoggart and Janet Morgan, eds., The
Future of Broadcasting: Essays on Authority, Style, and Choice (London:
Macmillan, 1982).
426
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Paroo Nihalani, R. K. Tongue and Priya Hosali, Indian and British )74(
English: A Handbook of Usage and Pronunciation (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1979), and R. K. Bansal and J. B. Harrison, Spoken English for India: A Manual
of Speech and Phonetics, 2nd ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1983).
Riyad Fayez Hussein and Muhammad Raji Zughoul, «Lexical )75(
Interference in Journalistic Arabic in Jordan,» Language Sciences, vol. 153 (1993).
427
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Bell, The Language of News Media, pp. 130ff., and Andreas H. Jucker, )76(
Social Stylistics: Syntactic Variation in British Newspapers (Berlin; New York:
Mouton de Gruyter, 1992).
Dijk, News Analysis: Case Studies of International and National News in )78(
the Press.
Simmler, «Zeitungssprachliche Textsorten und ihre Varianten. )79(
Untersuchungen anhand von regionalen und überregionalen Tageszeitungen zum
Kommunikationsbereich des Sports,» in: Simmler, ed., Probleme der funktionellen
Grammatik.
428
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.)80(S9S}G
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.)81(xvyPvv ?vgvSG(vyG ?v+v|;vf G aGOv$}Gh ,?v|Ovtv}vyG Bv<G(vDvyGh ,?v+v<9vavMvyG
e;v f G {v F9v Sh )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v jv zv yG Ev *Ov Jv Av v ,IQv +v Dv v 9v *9v ]v s )v tv =v @h
(Krishnamurti) ,v v@Q(v v|9v v"v vWv v*Qv vv 9v v%v vgv v| {v v|9v vgv v@ ,?v v*Ov v"v v%v vyG ?v v*Q9v v=v vL G
.(Mukherjee) )82(,FQL(|h
{ + D}AyG
o
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?vy(v=vtv}vyG ,#v+vAv"vwv}v}vyG #v+v@AGQvtvyG #v| ?vqv+vgv]vyG IAGQvtvyG d(vtv@ .(Whorfian)
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QvLB dOv< 9v| Qv+v=vgv@ d9v}vgvAvSG #vwvyh .J9v}vzvwvyG gPv$ #v+v< IQv$9vdvyG ?v+vy:OvyG
k k r k k
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f{v p ,?v *Q9v =v L G e;v f G {v F9v Sh )v yE Qv dv "v y9v <h .?v *OGQ G ?v +v F(v y(v *Ov *}G
Werlich, A Text Grammar of English. )80(

Burger, Sprache der Massenmedien, and :h ,g;v v v v fC 1.2 IQv v v v vtv v v v qv v v v vyG Qv v v v vdv v v v !G )81(
Scannell, ed., Broadcast Talk.
Bhadriraju Krishnamurti and Aditi Mukherjee, eds., Modernization of )82(
Indian Languages in News Media (Hyderabad: Dept. of Linguistics, Osmania
University, 1984).
429
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[q v"vyG {vwvVh bv}v!h ,(vJv"vyGh ,~vGvgv}vyG ,vp ?v_9vS(vyG uv+vtvJv@ fE
Bell, The Language of News Media, pp. 155-160. :Qd!G )83(

p. 19.
Fowler [et al.], Language and Control; Glasgow University Media )85(
Group, More Bad News, and Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and
Ideology in the Press.
Glasgow University Media Group, Ibid. )86(
p. 12.
430
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o r q o
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)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ),vwvJvyG( KOvJvyGh ,?v+vqvzvMvyGh ,~v+v+vtvAvy9vv ?v*(v+v"v=vyG ?vy:OvyG
#v f Ev v*Ov Jv vyG ~q v v@ ,H(v zv S}G d9v Gv v| ,v vqv vp ,U(v Zv "v vyG ?v v+v "v v< v v hQv v9v |
Fowler [et al.], Language and Control, and Glasgow University Media )88(
Group, More Bad News.
Davis and Walton, «Death of a Premier: Consensus and Closure in )89(
International News,» in: Davis and Walton, eds., Language, Image, Media.
Glasgow University Media Group, Ibid. )90(
Schlesinger, Putting «Reality» Together: BBC News. )91(
Dijk: News as Discourse, and News Analysis: Case Studies of )93(
International and National News in the Press.
431
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)94(
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.)95(JGQG(JyG ,p .NyE ...Taking)
{+D}AyGh ~*OtAyG :?+q+c(yG ?+FGhORG

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k k
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OvY9vtv| CQv tv @ fC #vwv }v* ,9v+v !9v Ch .{v+v Dv}vAv yG )v yE ~v*Ov tv AvyG #v | Qv +v qvWv Av yG OvI
.rzAM| {wW< #+tzA}yG {=s #| ?fhQW| ?+q+w< #*QqW}yG
Fowler, Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press, p. )94(
57.
S. Harris, «Evasive Action: How Politicians Respond to Questions in )95(
Political Interviews,» in: Scannell, ed., Broadcast Talk.
Leitner: «BBC English and Deutsche Rundfunksprache. A )96(
Comparative and Historical Analysis of the Language on the Radio,» and
«Australian English or English in Australia - Linguistic Identity or Dependence in
Broadcast Language».
432
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Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Thoughts That Glow and Words )98(

That Burn: An ABC Guide to Non-Discriminatory Language, [Prepared by Shirley
Morris] (Sydney: ABC, 1989).
fE Bv v y9v v sh OhOv v gv v | ~v v SG ,v v $h aboriginal ?v v }v v zv v v 1973 ?v v "v v S S H C Bv v zv v =v v s Ov v tv v y
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.){+D}AyG( R9+J!:G Q9_E ,p T9t"yG {*hz@ S H C JO9fC
Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Thoughts That Glow and Words )99(
That Burn: An ABC Guide to Non-Discriminatory Language, p. 25.
433
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Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Non-Sexist Language Guidelines )100(

(Sydney: ABC, 1984).
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Curran and Seaton, Power without Responsibility: The Press and )102(
Broadcasting in Britain.
Glasgow University Media Group, More Bad News. )104(
Hans-Jürgen Bucher and Erich Strassner, Mediensprache, )105(
Medienkommunikation, Medienkritik [= Media Languages, Media Communication,
Critiques of the Media] (Tübingen: Narr, 1991).
435
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Prescription and Standardization.
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Leitner, «Australian English or English in Australia - Linguistic )109(

Identity or Dependence in Broadcast Language».
Allan Bell and Janet Holmes, eds., New Zealand Ways of Speaking )110(
English (Clevedon, GB: Multilingual Matters, 1990).
J. Reeve, «Community Attitudes to Australian English,» in: Peter )111(
Collins and David Blair, eds., Australian English: The Language of a New Society
(St. Lucia, Queensland; New York: University of Queensland Press, 1989).
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A Sociolinguistic Study,» in: Okwu Ugboajah, ed., Mass Communication, Culture,
and Society in West Africa, and Hussein and Zughoul, «Lexical Interference in
Journalistic Arabic in Jordan»).
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Krishnamurti and Mukherjee, eds., Modernization of Indian Languages in :,v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vp =

News Media,
S. V. Shastri, «Code- :Ov v "v v %v v yG ,v v p jQv v qv v Wv v yG LRv v }v v zv v y (Shastri) jQv v Av v S9v v V ?v v SGQOh
Mixing in the Process of Indianization of English: A Corpus Based Study,» Indian
Linguistics [Forthcoming].
B. W. Andrzejewski, «The Role of Broadcasting in the Adaptation of )113(
the Somali Language to Modern Needs,» in: W. H. Whiteley, ed., Language Use
and Social Change: Problems of Multilingualism with Special Reference to Eastern
Africa, Foreword by Daryll Forde (London: Oxford University Press, 1971).
438
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Robert J. Baumgardner, «Utilizing Pakistani Newspaper English to )114(

Teach Grammar,» World Englishes, vol. 6, no. 3 (1987).
Gerhard Leitner, BBC English und Englisch lernen mit der BBC )115(
(München: Langenscheidt, 1989).
Priya Hosali and Ray Tongue, A Dictionary of Collocations for Indian )116(
Users of English (Hyderabad, India: Central Institute of English & Foreign
Languages, 1989).
439
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Diglossia with and without Bilingualism,» Journal of Social Issues, vol. 23, no. 2 =
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in: Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, [1970])),
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Francis Britto, Diglossia: A Study of the Theory with Application to Tamil,
Foreword Charles A. Ferguson (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,
1986)).
Alan Hudson, ed., «Studies in Diglossia,» #v SO(v $ J9v SGQO ^v f Q9v tv yG {v +v Jv !h
Southwest Journal of Linguistics, special issue, vol. 10, no. 1 (1991),
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Language in Society, vol. 21 (1992), and Mauro Fernandez, Diglossia: A
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(Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1993).
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Reprinted in: Hymes, ed., Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in
Linguistics and Anthropology, and M. B. Emeneau, Ritual Structure and Language
Structure of the Todas (Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society, 1974).
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Diglossia».
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Hans Nelde, ed., Sprachkontakt und Sprachkonflikt = Languages in Contact and
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.)iQLC( QLB {J| {J+y &GA* ?+f9}AF:G i(tzy 9qzS OF9TyG g9G@:9<
?gS(}yGh ?+w+S;wyG ?*(jzyG ?+FGhOR:G v v 5.1

J9v +v FGhOR:G rv +v "v Zv Av y J9v Jv zv av Zv | A9v }v zv gv yG #v | Qv +v Dv wv yG MQv Av sG
?v v*(v vjv vy ?v v+v vFGhOR9v vv 9v v"v v$ &v v+v vzv vf d9v vJv v| (v v$ 9v v| )v vyE ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v<h .?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG
{vLGOz KvzvavZv| (Kloss) S(vzvv MQvAvsG ,)14(y?vgvS(v|zh )13(y?v+vwv+vS;vvz
without Bilingualism,» p. 36.
Ferguson, «Diglossia». )13(
Fishman, Ibid. )14(
452
f(vwv* jPvyG bv}v"vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<( (In-Diglossia) y?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G v v
(Out- y?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G v v LQ9vLzh )e9vwvI{v< #v+vtvy9vgvAv| f9vf(v"vAvyG &v+vp
#v+vAvtvy9vgvAv| Qv+vi f9vAvjvzvyG f(vwv@ Ev+vI J9v+vgv\(vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<( Diglossia)
f9v v Ov sh .)15()Ov f9v =v Av | (v Jv ! )v zv f #v +v Av tv y9v gv Av | dG(v I}G #v Tv IC ,v p hC
k
(Endo- y?v+vzvLGOvyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:Gz {vDv| 9v| 9v8v+vV {v]vqv* ,vwv+vS;vwvyG
,,v"vgv* ,(Exo-Diglossia) y?v+vFQ9vMvyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:Gzh Diglossia)
k
.J9vJvzvavZv}vzvy ?v+vzvY}G ?v+v!9v!(v+vyG QhPvGvyG hv| GOv+vF uvpG(vAv@ ,vAvyG uv<G(vTvyG
?v|9v$ J9vp;vAvLG c9v"v$ fC #v+vDvI9v=vyG ^vgv< )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< Kv\G(vyG #v| #vwvyh
#v+vf(v"vyG ){vs}G )vzvf( #v*Pv$ ?vavSG(v< IRv+v}v}vyG J9vgv}vAvGv}vyG J9v+v|9v"v*O ,vp
k
#v+v< Ov+vqv}vyG Rv+v+v}vAvyG ,9v]v*C ,f9v}vWv+vp MQvAvsG Ovsh .?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G #v|
eGO9v| y9v%v+vzvf uvqvAv}vyG J9vGv%vzvyGzh y&v+vzvf uvqvAv| {vwvWv< ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG J9vjvzvyGz
)vzvf( ?v+v=v*GQvwvyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G Bv!9vv GPE 9v| d(vI e(vTvJv| Qv+vi dOvF c9v"v$
,vp ,v$ )9v%vy9v}vgvAvSG #vwv}v* d(v*Qvv ?vGv%vy/?vjvy jC #vwvyh ,d9vDv}vyG {v+v=vS
k
&v +v zv f uv qv Av | {v wv Wv < ,v $ ,jC ,?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G #v | 9v +v "v +v F IQOv Jv "v | ?v tv +v tv Jv yG
?vqv"vZv| f(vwv@ fC uvqvAv|( &v+vzvf uvqvAv| {vwvWv< ,v$ hC ,?v*Rv+vzvGv!5vy ?vGv%vy
k
J9v +v gv \(v yG ,v p GOv +v qv | Qv |}G GPv $ f(v wv * fC #v wv }v *h .?v zv Zv qv "v | ?v jv y )c
?vav=v@Qv| f(vwv@ OC J9vf(v"vAvyG ^vgv< Ev+vI ,?v+v<(v"vGvyG 9v+vSB ,vp IO(vF(v}vyG
k
,;vDv| ,uv+vsOvyG ,v"v+vGvyG 9v%vqvzvS ?vtv+vtvJvyG ,vp BvTv+vy ,vAvyG YC J9vf(v"vAvy9v<
,vAvyG )NvyE ... (Bihari) jQ9v%v+v=vyG J9vGv%vy( ?v*Ov"v%vzvy ?v+vsQvWvyG J9vf(v"vAvyG
k o
?v+vsQvWvyG (Apabhramsas) S9vTv|GQv<9v<C #v| IQOvJv"v| 9v%v!C )vyE ;v*(v_ Qv+vVC
?v *Ov "v %v zv y J9v Gv %v y 9v %v !C )v zv f 9v %v +v }v zv wv Av | {v =v s #v | 9v %v Av Gv y9v gv | ~v Av @ #v wv yh
#vwv}v* (Sri Lankan) ?v+vwv!;v*QvTvyG ?v+vzv+v|9vAvyG fE d(vtvyG #vwv}v*h ,Q9v+vgv}vyG
k
Qv Dv vC (Malayalam) ?v +v |:9v *:9v }v y9v < ?v |GQv Zv < ?v av =v @Qv | ,9v ]v *C ,f(v wv @ fC
Heinz Kloss, «Types of Multilingual Communities: A Discussion of )15(

Ten Variables,» Sociological Inquiry, vol. 36, no. 2 (1966), p. 138.
453
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fC Y9v }v F{v < IQv | JGP uv qv @G Ov s ?v +v SQv Tv *(v Tv yG ?v +v !9v }v y}G f(v v ?v y9v I 9v %v !C
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.f6G {ag| Y9}F G
1959 f(v vTv viQv vp ?v vjv v+v vZv vy yuv v+v v\z Kv vzv vav vZv v}v vyG )16(#v v@(v vwv vS MQv vAv vtv v*
)vzvf ?vy9vI5vy )y?vgvS(v}vyG ?v+vFGhOR:Gz hC( yhvSGhzh ,?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR;vy
?vFhORv}vyG QvF9vWvgvyG #v| {v+vzvtvyG ,#v@(vwvS >vTvIh .?vWvs9v"v}vzvy f9v}vWv+vp hv+vS(v@
k
,S9v +v tv }v yG eGQv Av IG >v =v Tv < ,9v +v y9v I IO(v F(v | )1959 )v "v gv }v <( {v gv qv y9v < ?v jv zv yG
?vjvzvv )v!O}G Y(v"vAvyG ~vzvwvAv* .OvIGh jC )1(z :fGOv+vs c9v"v$ f(vwv* fC >vGv*
k
.y?v +v |9v gv yG J9v CO9v Jv }v yG ,v p .;v }v gv Av Tv | f(v wv * : )v zv f}G Y(v "v Av yG )2(zh yeC
Xv v +v v iQ(v v =v v Tv v Av v +v v zv v yGh ,?v v +v v zv v +v v |9v v Av v yG ,v v $ gPv v %v v y ?v v Tv v =v v Av v zv v }v v yG Qv v +v v i ?v v zv v Dv v |}G
(Britto)
)17(
(v Av *Qv < MQv Av tv *h .?v *Qv Tv *(v Tv yG ?v +v !9v }v y}Gh ,(Letzebuergesch)
?vFhORv}vyG ?vGv%vzvyG hC( yd9v}vgvAvS:G ?v%vF(v}vyGz ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G KvzvavZv|
k
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k
.)18(9]*C gO*OJ@ fhQLB dh9I jPyG R++}AyG Uq! )zf
yOCh YC #v+v< ?v+v!9vTvzvyG J9vs;vgvyG YG(v!Cz v v vy )19(f9v}vWv+vp rv+v"vZv@ fE
k
:9|9}@ eGQAI:9< Q*OF K*QZ@ ($
Carol Myers-Scotton, «Diglossia and Code-Switching,» in: Fishman [et )16(

al.], eds., The Fergusonian Impact: In Honor of Charles A. Ferguson on the
Occasion of His 65th Birthday, vol. 2: Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of
Language.
Britto, Diglossia: A Study of the Theory with Application to Tamil. )17(
k v o k
,&vTvqv! QOvZCG( ?+v!9vTvzvyG J9vJvzvavZv}vzvy GOv+vqv| )vWvI (Glossary) GOQvTv| (vAv*Qv< eOvtv* )18(
k
?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v}vzvv 9v]v*C j(vtv* #vwv* D GPE a;vBG ^vgv< ,vp Qvdv"vyG IO9vfE ]E ?vp9v\E ,)333-295 U
k
Ferguson, «Diglossia». :f(TiQqy f9}W+p h+S(@ 9+WI ,&+yE
Fishman, «Prefatory Notes,» in: Nelde, ed., Sprachkontakt und )19(
Sprachkonflikt = Languages in Contact and Conflict.
454
f9v Av "v C:Gh ,?v +v Gv %v y 9v $Q9v =v Av f9v < OCh ,?v +v wv +v S;v v 9v $Q9v =v Av f9v < YC )C(
k k
?v +v !9v !(v +v yGh ,?v +v Gv %v zv yGh ?v +v wv +v S;v wv yG ?v +v <Qv gv yG ,;v Dv | ,9v +v "v +v F f9v Av tv y9v gv Av |
9v v S(v v pQ9v v @9v v v( ,v v wv v +v v S;v v wv v yG H(v v zv v S}G hv v =v v Av v @ ,v v Av v yG hC ?v v +v v wv v +v v S;v v wv v yG
#v +v < ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yGh ?v +v "v +v @;v yGh ,)(Demotiki) ?v +v wv +v @(v }v *Ov yGh (Katarevusa)
?v+vzv+v|9vAvyGh ,?vtv<9vTvyG fhQvtvyG ,vp #v+v+v!(vp(vwv!QvqvyG #v*OvyG d9vFQh #v+vDvI9v=vyG
,?v+vGv%vzvyGh ?v+vwv+vS;vwvyG (Sinhalese) ?v*Rvy9v%v"v+vTvyGh ,?v+vGv%vzvyGh ?v+vwv+vS;vwvyG
?v v+v vwv v+v vS;v vwv vyG (Mandarin) ?v v+v v"v v*QOv v"v v}v vyGh ,?v v*Ov v"v v%v vyGh ?v v+v vAv v*Qv vwv vTv v!9v vTv vyGh
.)20(NyE ...?D*OJyG (Pekines) ?*R"+w=yGh
Qv+vi f9vAv"vC:Gh ,?v+vGv%vy 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< OCh ,?v+vwv+vS;vv 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< YC )H(
k k
/?v *Qv =v gv yG( (Loshn Koydesh) TOv *(v v #v V(v y ,;v Dv | ,9v +v "v +v F #v +v Av tv y9v gv Av |
IQv v|Rv vyG #v v| IOv vIGh jC hC( (Yiddish) )21(Xv v*Ov v+v v+v vyGh )?v v+v vZv v"v vyG ?v v+v v|GQ6Gh
,vp {v}vgv@ IQv+vL}G Bv|GO9v| iQvL}G ?v+v|9vTvyG Qv+vi ?v*O(v%v+vyG OC d ?v+vS9vS}G
k
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,?v +v Gv %v y 9v $Q9v =v Av f9v < OCh ?v +v }v SQ v v ?v s(v av "v |/?v <(v Av wv | 9v $Q9v =v Av f9v < YC )L(
k k
,v!GQG(vjvyGh ?v+v!9v=vS G ,;vDv| ,^vgv=vyG 9v}v%v]vgv=v< 9v+v"v+vF #v+vAvtvy9vgvAv| Qv+vi f9vAv"vC:Gh
rv zv vAv Mv v|h )?v +v Tv !Qv vqv yG hC( ?v v*Rv +v zv vGv ! Gh ,)23(jG(v iGQ9v v=v yG ,v p (Guarani)
.~y9gyG Q=f ?t<9TyG ?*Q9}gAS:G J:9G}yG ,p J9G%zyG
?v+"+vZvyG ,v$ J9vJvzvavZCG gPv$ ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?vDv*OvAG ?v+"+vZvyG ?v*(vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvS:G ?vtv*Qv_ )20(
.Q9+gCG ?+"+Zzy (Peijing) _w=yG hC (Putonghua) G(j!(@(=yG ?G%yh ?+w+S;wyG
Joshua A. Fishman, Bilingual Education: An International Sociological )21(
Perspective, with an Appendix by E. Glyn Lewis (Rowley, MA: Newbury House,
1976).
Weinreich (1980). )22(
Joan Rubin, «Bilingual Usage in Paraguay,» in: Joshua A. Fishman, )23(
ed., Advances in the Sociology of Language. 2, Selected Studies and Applications
(The Hague; Paris: Mouton, 1972).
455
,?v+vGv%vy 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< OCh ?v+v}vSQ v v ?vs(vav"v|/?v<(vAvwv| 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< YC )O(
k
J9v f(v "v Av yG ,bv tv p ,9v "v $ .^v gv =v yG 9v }v %v ]v gv =v < 9v +v "v +v F f9v Av tv y9v gv Av | f9v Av "v C:Gh
#v|h ,?vy(v=vtv| f(vwvAvS ?v+v|9vgvyG v v ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v+v}vSQvyG v v ?vs(vav"v}vyG/?v<(vAvwv}vyG
v q
f(vwv@ fC )vAvI ?v+v}vSQvyG v v ?vs(vav"v}vyG/?v<(vAvwv}vzvy #vwv}v* : SQOv}v@ fhO
~v y9v gv yG ,v p ?v +v gv \(v yG IQv +v gv }v < e(v tv @ ?v Gv %v y jC iQv LC ?v tv *Qv av <h( ?v |(v %v qv |
k
?v +v !9v }v y}Gh 9v +v zv gv yG ?v +v !9v }v y}G ,;v Dv | ,)?v !9v Mv yG gPv $ {v LGO ?vzv $|v | f(v wv Av S
(Putonghua) )G(v jv !(v @(v <( ?v s(v av "v }v yG Q9v +v gv }v yG ?v *Rv "v +v wv =v yGh ,?v *Qv Tv *(v Tv yG
.)24(,=*GQwyG d(*Qvh Q9+g}yG ?*R+zG! Gh ,(Cantones) ?*R+!(A!9wyGh
?v s;v gv zv y ?v Jv \G(v yG J9v p;v Av L:G b(v p rv "v Zv @ J9v p;v Av L:G gPv $
J9v s;v gv < dhC e9v tv | ,v p uv zv gv Av @ hv sG(v yG ,v ph ,?v +v "v +v F Qv +v i {v <9v tv | ?v +v "v +v F
fC A9v}vzvgvyG #v| Ov*OvgvyG VQvAvpG Ovsh .9v%v< IRv+v}v}vyG J9vgv}vAvGv}vyG ,vp I(vtvyG
f(v v )v yE Qv dv "v y9v < ,?v Av <9v C Qv +v i IO9v f ,v $ ?v gv S(v }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v FGhOR:G
q
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?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v FGhOR:G #v | Qv Dv vC ?v Av <9v C 9v %v !C #v | ~v iQv yG )v zv f ,?v +v wv +v S;v wv yG
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fhO #v| hvSG(vyG {vwvWvyG ?vavSG(v< V(vgv* fC #vwv}v* ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G
.?*(jzyG IQ+WgyG #| ARGy K\Gh cGQOE

Sprachkonflikt = Languages in Contact and Conflict, p. 4.
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f9v@QOvJv"v| f9vAv"vC:G ,)O( ,vp 9v}v"+v< ,YC Bv"v< ,v$ ,YC #v| IQOvJv"v| OC ,)v"vgv}v< ,)C( ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v<
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?v+vzv+v|9vAvyG hv\h Ovtvy .?v+v}vSQvyG v v ?vs(vav"v}vyG/?v<(vAvwv}vyGh ?vtvy9vgvAv}vyGh ?v*Ov+vzvtvAvyG
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,vp 9v%v!{vp ,9v|Eh 9v|C v v v ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR;vy ?v*(vjvzvyG J9vp9vtvDvyG Q(vZv@ ~viQh
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Y9v v\h}G #v v| ARv vF ,v v$ JGOv vtv vAv vgv v}v vyG gPv v$ .9v v$Qv v+v vih ,(Shibboleths)
?vjvzvyG fC ?vtv+vtvJvp GPvy .?vjvzvyG xvzv@ {vtv!h ?v*9v}vI ,vp QvC|v@ ,vAvyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
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.?Y9L ?jz< ?a=@QCG ?+MQ9AyG
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uv +v sO Qv +v i Ev *Ov I dG(v I}G #v Tv IC ,v p (v $ : hC ?v FhORv | 9v %v !C )v zv f
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Harold Schiffman, «Swiss-German Diglossia,» in: A. Hudson, ed., )36(
«Studies in Diglossia,» Southwest Journal of Linguistics, special issue, vol. 10, no.
1 (1991).
Brown and Gilman, «The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity,» in: )37(
Sebeok, ed., Style in Language. [Reprinted in: Roger Brown, [et al.],
Psycholinguistics: Selected Papers (New York: Free Press, [1970])].
Rubin, «Bilingual Usage in Paraguay,» in: Fishman, ed., Advances in )38(
the Sociology of Language. 2, Selected Studies and Applications.
463
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Ovtvp ,)6(IQv+vWvgvyG ?vqv"vZv| ,vp J9vf(v"vAvy9v< ?vav=v@Qv}vyG Qv+v*9vgv}vyGh ?vf(v}vGv}vyG
Bell, «Language Style as Audience Design»; Nikolas Coupland, )2 (

«Accommodation at Work: Some Phonological Data and Their Implications,»
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 46 (1984), and Carol
Myers Scotton, «Self-Enhancing Code-Switching as Interactional Power,»
Language and Communication, vol. 8, nos. 3-4 (1988).
Blom and Gumperz, «Social Meaning in Linguistic Structures: :{v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v | )3(
Code-Switching in Norway,» in: Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in
Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, and Carol Myers-Scotton
and William Ury, «Bilingual Strategies: The Social Function of Code-Switching,’’
Gumperz, Discourse Strategies. )4 (
J. C. P. Auer, «On the Meaning of Conversational Code-Switching,» in: )5 (
Peter Auer and Aldo di Luzio, eds., Interpretive Sociolinguistics: Migrants,
Children, Migrant Children (Tübingen: Narr, 1984).
= Monica Heller, ed., Codeswitching: Anthropological and :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vs )6(
469
k
)T .J( Y(v\(v| ?vqvzvAvMv| JGQ(vWv"v| ,vp ;vDv| f(v@(vwvS v v RQv*9v| JQ(v_
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?v|9vtv}vyG JGQ9v+vAvL;vy ?v!RG(vyG J9v8vp9vwv}vyGh rv+vy9vwvAvyG ,y,vtvav"v}vyG {vf9vqvyGz v v y
q o
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Sociolinguistic Perspectives (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988); P. =

McConvell, ««Mix-im-up»: Aboriginal Codeswitching, Old and New,» in: Heller,
ed., Ibid.; M. Heller, «Strategic Ambiguity: Codeswitching in the Management of
Conflict,» in: Heller, ed., Ibid.; Tej K. Bhatia and William C. Ritchie, «Code-
Mixing: English across Languages,» World Englishes, vol. 8, no. 3 (Winter 1989);
Rodolfo Jacobson, ed., Codeswitching as a Worldwide Phenomenon (New York: P.
Lang, 1990), and Carol M. Eastman, ed., «Codeswitching,» Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, special issue, vol. 13, nos. 1-2 (1992).
k
Carol Myers-Scotton: Social Motivations for Codeswitching::;v v v v v v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v | )7 (
Evidence from Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), and «Language
Processing and the Mental Lexicon in Bilinguals,» in: René Dirven and Johan
Vanparys, eds., Current Approaches to the Lexicon (Frankfurt am Main; New
York: P. Lang, 1995).
Carol Myers-Scotton, «Strategies of Neutrality: Language Choice in )8 (
Uncertain Situations,» Language, vol. 52, no. 4 (1976).
Heller: «Strategic Ambiguity: Codeswitching in the Management of )9 (
Conflict,» in: Heller, ed., Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic
Perspectives, and «Code-Switching, Social Institutions and Symbolic
Domination,» in: ESF Network on Codeswitching and Language Contact:
Codeswitching Summer School, Pavia, September 1992 (Strasbourg, France:
European Science Foundation, 1992).
470
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)T .J( v v v< ~v %v v v|9v }v Av $G QOv tv < ?v +v Zv Mv Wv +v =v yG J9v s;v gv yG ,v p GRv |Q gQ9v v v=v Av f9v <
#v +v < Uv p9v "v Av yG J9v +v |9v "v *O Uv wv gv @ ,v Av yG ?v +v !9v Tv zv yG JGQ9v +v Av L:G #v | Q9v +v Av L9v v
.)10(hSG(yG ,S9+TyG b9+TyG ,p ?+"C G J9f(}G}yG
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v v hQv v9v }v yG ,v p J9v SGQO G(v |Ov s ,bv tv p ,#v +v Dv I9v =v yG #v | ;v +v zv s #v wv y
?v f(v }v Gv }v yG J9v *(v $ hv | )T .J( d9v }v gv Av SG f(v !Qv tv * Ev +v I i(v Av Tv |
9v}v<Q Qv|}G GPv$ d(vZvI H9v=vSC OvIC #v}vwv*h .#v+v"v}v]vAv}vyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vzvy
?vtv*Qv_ jzv< )T .J( d9v}vgvAvSG Uv+v+vtv@ ,vp J9v<(vgvZvyG cGQOE ~q v@ &v!C ,vp
d9v }v gv Av SG )v zv f ?v +v @GPv yG uv +v y9v gv Av yG ,v p H9v +v @Q:G )v yE ?v p9v \E ,)v "v gv | JGP
jO9v vqv vAv vy ?v v+v v}v v$C Qv vDv vv}G H9v v=v vS}G Ov vIC f(v vwv v* fC #v vwv v}v v*h .)T .J(
#v +v }v Av %v }v yG )T .J( ,v p #v +v Dv I9v =v yG fC (v $ i(v Av Tv | v v hQv v9v }v yG J9v SGQO
i(v vAv vTv v}v vyG )v vzv vf )T .J( )v vyE ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v< ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G JGRv v+v vqv vJv vAv vy9v v<
#v|z v v y ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v*(v%vyG J9v}vTvy ?v+v}vwvyG ?vSGQOvyG fhQv* : ,vZvMvWv+v=vyG
d9v}vgvAvSG hvpGhOvy Qv+vTvqvAvv y#v}vyh )vAv|h #v*Ch ?v*(vjvy J9vf(v"v@ jC {v}vgvAvTv*
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)vzvf IQOvtvyG 9v| [vMvWvy Bv!9vv GPE 9v| fC Kv+vJvY .9v+vZvMvWv+v< )T .J(
?v*(vjvzvyG ?vqv"vZv}vyG )vzvf rvs(vAv@ )T .J( >vzvavAv@ ?vCO9vJv| ,vp ?vvQ9vWv}vyG
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J9v}vTvyG ^vgv=v< 9v+v<9vGv *E ?vqv "vZv}vyG bv =v @Qv@ fC #vwv }v *h ,[v Mv WvyG xvyPvy
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KOvJvAvyG 9v| [vMvV hv+vavAvTv* fC {v}vAvJv}vyG Qv+vi #v| ;vDv|( ?v+vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG
IQv+vWvgvyG ,vp ?v*O9vZvAvsG(v+vS(vTvyGh ?v+vS9v+vTvyG I(vtvy9v< bv=v@Qv}vyG j(vjvzvyG Y(v"vAvy9v<
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K. Woolard, «Linkages of Language and Ethnic Identity: :;v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v| )10(
Changes in Barcelona, 1980-1987,» in: James R. Dow, ed., Language and Ethnicity
(Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1991); Gal: Language Shift: Social
Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria, and «Concepts of Power in
the Research on Code-Switching,» in: ESF Network on Codeswitching and
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471
?vav=v@Qv}vyG {v|G(vgvyG ?vSGQO #vwvyh .)J9v*(vAvTv}vyG ^vgv< ,vp ?v+v<Qv@ fhO #v|
A,vWvyG Uvqv! BvTv+vy IQv+vWvgvyG ,vp OGQvp}G rvzvAvMv}vy ?v*(vjvzvyG J9vqv"vZv}vy9v<
.)T .J( v v y ?+ZMWyG RpG(JyG ?SGQOv
J9v v FQO bv v <Q jC ,)T .J( i(v v Av v Tv v | v v hQv v v9v v | Qv v $9v v dv v | Ov v IC

{v=vs #v| &vAvSGQO Bv}v@ Ovs ,?v+vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vy9v< )T .J( d9v}vgvAvSG
~v v $ #v v | U(v v Zv v Mv v yG )v v zv v f ,GhQv v =v v Av v fG Ov v tv v p ,)11(9v v %v v F;v v |Rh c;v v <(v v <
Qv $9v dv | ~v %v y #v *Pv yGh ,?v *Ov "v wv yG v v ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG Qv F9v Wv gv yG {v LGO f(v }v zv wv Av }v yG
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AG(v S GOOQv @ Qv Dv v}G #v +v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG fhOv gv * ?v qv zv Av Mv | ?v *O9v Zv Av sG(v +v S(v S
>v vzv vav vAv v* jPv vyG )T .J( hC ?v v\Qv vAv vtv v}v vyG ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G J9v v+v v}v vGv vgv v}v vzv vy
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Ovtvp ,?v+vf9v}vAvFG ?vtv=v_ 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< gPv%vv {v|G(vf #vf ;v]vph .?v*Rv+vzvGv! G
fC )v vyE G(v vZv vzv vLh .IQv v+v vWv vgv vyG rv vsG(v v|h ?v vfGQv v=v vyG Q9v v=v vAv vf:G #v v+v vgv v< GhPv vLC
d9v }v gv Av S;v y Ov +v F rv =v "v Av }v v y?v *OQv qv yG JGQOv tv yG Rh9v Gv Av @ IQv +v Wv gv yG Qv +v *9v gv |z
gPv$ &vJv"v}v@ jPvyG ,vTv+vFQvyG uv}vgvy9vp ,~q vC #v|h .)12()T .J( v v vy jOQvqvyG
IQv v Dv v v Uv v +v v yh ,9v v | [v v Mv v V IQv v +v v Wv v f OGOv v !C &v v < e(v v tv v * 9v v | (v v $ ?v v SGQOv v yG
q
,9v| [vMvWvy ?vY9vMvyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ?vfGQv=vyG )vAvI hC ?v+vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG
.)}S}G ($
,v p )T .J( ,v p #v +v Dv I9v =v yG #v +v < ,v Tv +v FQv yG e9v }v Av $:G d(v Jv @ Ov sh
Shana Poplack, David Sankoff and Chris Miller, «The Social )11(
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DC: Georgetown University Press, 1988).
Poplack, Sankoff and Miller, Ibid., pp. 97-98. )12(
472
{v LGO Qv +v +v jv Av yG )v zv f aQv Zv yG ?v +v =v +v vQv Av yG O(v +v tv yG Rv +v +v }v @ )v yE J9v +v "v +v !9v }v Dv yG
,v p {v tv Jv zv y IOv *Ov f {v LGOv | IOv *Ov Gv yG IQ|v =v yG gPv $ Bv <Pv F Ov sh .?v zv }v Gv yG
?vzv}vGvyG {vLGO )T .J( v v v< #v+vDvI9v=vyG A:|v$ ~vAv$G Ov v tvp ,)13(J9v+v"v+v!9v}vDvyG
fC ~vzvwvAv}vzvy #vwv}v* ?vzv}vGvyG #v| f9vwv| jC ,vpz ,~v%vDvJv< dG|vS Kv=vYzvp
,v p {v Gv Tv }v yG Qv Wv "v yG Kv =v YC J9v +v "v +v gv Tv Av yG ,v p .y?)T .J( )v yE zv Gv zv *
k k
e9v }v Av $:G f(v wv Av S ?v *(v +v "v =v yG O(v +v tv yG fC ,v ]v Av tv * 9v qv zv S GO(v F(v | f9v v jPv yG
d(v I Rv F(v | Ev Jv < ~v *Ov tv @ ~q v @ Ov sh .)T .J( ,v p Ev Jv =v zv y ,v Tv +v FQv yG
d(v Jv Av yG e(v %v qv | ~v fOv @ IOv *Ov F ?v SGQO c9v "v $ #v wv yh ,)T .J( ?v @G(v Y
k
[v vzv vL ,?v v+v v=v v*Qv vGv v@ ?v vGv vI )v vzv vf 9v vTv v+v vSzv v@h .iQv vLC )v vyE ?v vjv vy #v v| e9v vAv vyG
(v+vF9v"vDvyG f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG ~vJvtv* 9v|Ov"vfz &v!C )vyE Qvzv+v|h (Grosjean) #v+vGvShQvi
k
Carol W. Pfaff, «Constraints on Language Mixing: :;v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v| )13(
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>v zv av Av * ,S9v S}G ?v jv zv yG )v yE rv +v ]v yG ?v jv zv yG #v | ?v zv }v F hC ?v }v zv v ?v jv zv yG
k k
,#vwvyh .,v}vGvgv}vyG i(vAvTv}vyG ,vp bvtvp Uv+vy ,;v|9vV GQv+vjv@ IO9vf Qv+v+vjvAvyG
k
.)14(y,@G(ZyG i(AT}yG ,p ,9]*C
k
f9v+vTv+vFQ f9vfQvp 9v+v=v+vvQv@ v v aQvY UvS|v}vyG )T .J( ,vp EvJv=vzvy
y?v+v=v*QvGv@ IPvp9v!z 9v%v!C )vzvf )T .J( LP9v}v! Qv=vAvgv* ^vgv=vyG .{vs}G )vzvf
)v vyE ?v vp9v v\E ?v vjv vzv vyG L9v vAv v! hC/h ?v v+v v}v vGv vgv v}v vyG {v vLGOv v}v vyG ?v vgv v+v v=v v_ )v vzv vf
)v zv vf Rv FGQ &v !C )v zv f )T .J( {v }v gv Av vTv * Qv L6G ^v gv v=v yGh .)15(IQOv vtv yG
.)16(?D*OJyG ?+=+vQAyG J9*Qd"yG ,p ~fGR}yG rzAM| ?+y9gp
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k
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474
)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ?v+v<9vavMvyG RvpG(vJvyG Qv}vAvTv@ ,Bvs(vyG Uvqv! ,vph
Ov*OvGvyG #v}vwv*h .J9v+v"v+vgvTvAvyG ,vp #v+vDvI9v=vyG ~vdvgv| g9v=vAv!G IQ9vCE ,vp )T .J(
)T .J( v v y ?v*(v+v"v=vyG [vF9vZvMvyG ,vp J9vp;vAvL:G bv<Qv* ~v%v"v| ^vgv=vyG fC ,vp
.IQv+vWvgvyG ,vp J9vf(v}vGv}vyG rvzvAvMv}vy ?v+v!9vTvy(vwv+vTvyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G JGRv+v}v}vy9v<
(v v$ )T .J( fC )v vzv vf OOv vWv v* jPv vyG {v v}v vgv vyG ?v vGv vI U9v vL {v vwv vWv v< gPv v$h
?vf(v}vGv}vyG #v+v< J9vs;vgvyG J9v+v|9v"v*Ovv ,i(vAvTv| v v hQvv9v}vyG IQv$9vdvy S9vwvgv!G
g9v Gv @ rv sG(v }v yGh ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG ?v fGQv =v yG #v +v < {v f9v qv Av yG hC )17(IQv +v Wv gv yG ,v p
.)18(IQ+jA}yG ?f(}G}yG ,p ?f(}G}yG (Affiliations) J9<9TA!G
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d(vIh ,9vwv+vGvzv< ,vp ?v+v"v8v+v=vyG JGQv@(vAvyG Uvwvgv@ 9v8C ^vf )T .J( LP9v}v"v< uvzvgvAv* 9v| ,vp
,vp (Cantonese) ?v*R(v"vAv!9vwvzvy _v}vzvwvACG _v+"+vZvyG #v*QvF9v%CG d9v+vFC rvzvAvJ ,vp )T .J( LP9v}v!
Li Wei, Three Generations, Two Languages, One :9+v v !9v vav v *Qv v < ,v v p (Tyneside) Ov v *9v v Tv v "+v v @
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= Syntax of Arabic-French Code-Switching,»
475
JGhOzv vv )T .J( )v v"v v< #v v| ?v vY9v vMv vyG W9v v}v v!}G fhQv vLB Qv v=v vAv vgv v*h
gQhO aGQv Wv Av SG d;v L #v | )T .J( ?v SGQO hC H9v av Mv yG ,v p ?v +v }v +v dv "v @
,)20(Qv *hC dOv Av SG Ov tv p ,)19(H9v av Mv yG {v S;v S ~v +v dv "v @ JGQhQv +v S ,v p
k k k
9v+vp9vv ;v+vzvJv@ f{vp ,IO(vZvtv}vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G {vF9vSQvyG Z(vzv=vy &v!C )vzvf ,;vDv|
S9v +v tv |z )v zv f Ov v|v * (v %v p ,jQG(v Jv yG {v wv Wv y9v < )v yhC ?v FQOv < ~v Av %v +v S
rv s(v Av * jQv qv Wv yG Hh9v "v Av yG )v "v gv |z fE hC ,y(Juxtaposition) Qh9v Gv Av yG
k
.y>s9gA}yG &a+J| )zf 9S9SC
k k k
)T .J( )vyE Qvdv"vyG (v$ EvJv=vyG ,vp QvLB GOv*OvF 9v$9vGv@G f{vp ,GQv+vLCh
,?v jv zv yG ,v F9v "v Dv yG j(v jv zv yG L9v Av ! G #v | iQv LC W9v }v !} hv SG(v yG b9v +v Tv yG {v LGO
.J( )vzvf O(v+vtvyG LP9v}v! f(vSQOv* ?v+v!9vDvyG ?vjvzvyG H9vTvAvvG ,vp #v+vDvI9v=vyG ^vgv<h
.)21(?+!9DyG ?jzyG L9A!E J9}S Q+TqAy LP9}! MGQAsG d;L #| )T
jQqWyG Q++jAzy j(+"=yG rY(yG v v 3

)vyE Qvdv"vy9v< ~v%vTvqv!C )T .J( ,vp #v+vDvI9v=vyG #v+v< b9vqv@G c9v"v$ Uv+vy
,v p ,(Tilburg) ZQv=vz+v @ ,vp cGQv@}G #v*QvF9v%CG #+v< ?v *Ov"vy(v%vyG/?v +vvQvAvyG )T .J( d(vIh
Ad Backus, Patterns of Language Mixing: A Study in Turkish-Dutch :GOv v v v v v v "v v v v v v v vy(v v v v v v v $
Bilingualism (Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1992).
k
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Language Choice and Language Shift in a Chinese Community in Britain.
J. C. P. Auer, «The Pragmatics of Code-Switching: A Sequential )20(

Approach,» in: Lesley Milroy and Pieter Muysken, eds., One Speaker, Two
Languages: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching (Cambridge
Nanda Poulisse and Theo Bongaerts, «First Language Use in Second )21(
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476
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?vp(vqvZv}vyG ?vjvy Q9v_E LP(v}v! #v| ,v@zv* ,vzv* 9v|h .GOv+vqv| f(vwv*
Uv v v qv v v ! f(v v v zv v v }v v v gv v v Av v v Tv v v * #v v v *Qv v v LB #v v v wv v v y .Language Frame Model)
j(vJv"vyG Q9v_ G hv]v@ ,vAvyG ?vjvzvyGh .?v%v<9vWv| J9vJvzvavZv| hC J9vJvzvavZv}vyG
q
Q9v_ G OOvIo Ovsh .)[v| v v y( ?vp(vqvZv}vyG ?vjvzvyG ,v$ ?vavzvAvMv| J9v!(vwv| ,vp
J9v +v pQv Zv yG e9v dv ! #v }v ]v Av * .J9v +v pQv Zv yG e9v dv !h ?v +v pQv Y ?v =v @Qv v j(v Jv "v yG
?vavSG(v< IOOvJv| ,v%vp ,?v+vqv+vc(vyG J9v}vzvwvyG ~vdvgv|h (Inflections) J9vpQvY
+( f9v +v I}G ~v dv gv | ,v ph )Ov "p v Tv |o /{v =v tv Av | jQ(v Jv | QhO v v ( J9v }v Tv yG
R. Pandharipande, «Language Shift in India: Issues and Implications,» )22(

in: Willem Fase, Koen Jaspaert and Sjaak Kroon, eds., Maintenance and Loss of
Minority Languages (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1992).
de Bot and Schreuder, «Word Production and the Bilingual Lexicon,» )23(
in: Schreuder and Weltens, eds., The Bilingual Lexicon.
Myers-Scotton: Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in )24(
Codeswitching, and «Language Processing and the Mental Lexicon in Bilinguals,»
in: Dirven and Vanparys, eds., Current Approaches to the Lexicon.
477
,v Av yG f(v }v ]v }v yG J9v +v pQv Y hv | VQ9v gv Av @ ,v %v p ,GPv wv $h .)25()Qv *(v Tv @
k
9v%vy Ov"vTv@ hC )J9vqvZvyGh A9v}vS}G #v| Qv+vDvwvyG( ?v*Q(vJv| GQGhOC {v=vtvAvTv@
k
)J9v jv zv yG( ?v jv zv yG .?v *Q(v Jv | GQGhOC )ahQv Jv yG ^v gv <h ,d9v gv p}G >v zv iC(
)?v vGv v|Ov v}v vyG J9v vjv vzv vyG( ?v vjv vzv vyG ,v v$ )T .J( ,v vp ?v vvQ9v vWv v}v vyG iQv vL}G
.)e d(
.J( f(v wv * jPv yG )[v | e( jQOv Zv }v yG W9v tv SE [v | d {v wv Wv @

)[v |( jQOv Zv | JGP ?v zv }v Gv y aOGQv | [v | e( .)*(?v zv }v Gv yG {v LGO )T
k k
c because hv v v | )GQv v v Lzv v v Av v v | )v v v @C &v v v !}( because he came late ,;v v v Dv v v |
k
,;v Dv |( eOvgv "v | f9v +vI}G ~v dvgv | ,v p (v $ (comp) [v| fC ev I: .)[v|
Qv Y9v "v gv yG #v | Qv +v Dv wv yG #v }v ]v Av * fC #v wv }v * [v | eh )?v +v S9v SC ?v zv }v F ,v p
.?|Og"}yG
,)Q d E LP(v }v !( ?v p(v qv Zv }v yG ?v jv zv yG Q9v _E LP(v }v ! )v yE Qv dv "v y9v <h
#v v | W9v v }v v !C ?v v C;v v C c9v v "v v $ f(v v wv v @ fC #v v wv v }v v * [v v | e Q9v v _E {v v LGO
k q
;v Dv |( bv L v v S ?v *Qv dv ! {v LGO i(v Zv s J9v _9v tv SE 9v %v zv v ,J9v !(v wv }v yG
d J9v !(v wv }v yG( ?v av zv Av Mv }v yG J9v !(v wv }v yG )1( :)**()M e ,S e ,S
,(Morpheme) ~v+vpQ(CG e9vdv! Rv+v+vE {v<9vtv| i(vAvJv}vzvy hvShC ?vWvs9v"v| ^vf d(vZvJvzvy )25(
q x
)v tv zv Av @ hC _v gv @ ,v Av yG 9v $Ov Ih d9v wv V}G xv zv @ ?v +v }v Tv @ fC &v +v p >v *Q : 9v |h ,&v Tv qv ! QOv ZCG Qv dv !G
k
.i(vAvJCG ?v}v*Ovf e9vdv"vyG J9v}v+vpQ(v| fC ,v"vgv* : i(vAvJCG J9v}v+vpQ(v| {vDv| ?v+vTv+vFQ ?v*Qvwvp GQGhOC
x
,v"vgv* 9vF ,]9v%vzv$|v@ ,vAvyG +[ ?v|;vf ,v$ e9vdv"vyG J9v}v+vpQ(C IRv+q v}CG ?v+vTv+vFQvyG ?v}vTvyG fC ,v$ ?vavtv"vy9vp
k
_vgv| e9vdv! ~v+vpQ(v| fE Ev+vJv< ?vtvzvjv| J9v8vp 9v|(v}vfh( J9v8vp QvY9v"vf ,v$ e9vdv"vyG J9v}v+vpQ(v| fC
k k
?v*R+zvGv! G GPv$ ,;vDv| .&v}vwvL jPvyG i(vAvJCG ~v+vpQ(v}v< 9v%vav<Qvy ?vqvY y,vtvAv"v*z hC y9v}q vv ,vqv]v*z
k k
.?+}+}wAyG 9%Aq+c(< xyP e9+s ?t*Qay 9p;L 9$Og< ~S:G ^f y9}q v ,q]@z
(v Jv "v yG 9v $9v "v =v Av * ,v Av yG J:(v tCG Q9v _E ,v p jQOv ZCG >v vQv }v zv y Q9v Zv Av LG (v $ )U .e( )*(
k
.?*R+zG! G ,p (Complementizer=Comp) jC jQOZ}zy GQ9ZALG Og@ [|h .jO+y(AyG
,v pQv I >v vQv |h ,,v }v SG >v vQv |h ~v SG v y JGQ9v Zv Av LG ,v $ M .eh ,S .eh ,S )**(
.[G(AyG ^f
478
q
d #v | {v v d;v L #v | f(v }v ]v }v yG J9v +v pQv Y #v }v ]v Av @ )e d + [v |
k k
GPv $h .[v | d d;v L #v | 9v v v *(v Jv ! GQ9v _E 9v v v %v y #v wv yh ,e dh [v |
k q
d d;vL #v| bvtvp ,v@zv* 9v+v=v+vvQv@ ?vy9vgvqvyG J9v+vpQvZvyG e9vdv! {vv fC ,v"vgv*
j(vJv! Q9v_E )vzvf [v| d QRvF Qvp(vAv@ ,?v%v<9vWv| ?v+vqv+vwv<h )2( .[v|
q v o
d #v | ,v @zv @ J9v +v pQv Zv yG {v v fE Ev +v I #v | rv zv Av Mv @ #v wv yh ,[v | d
J9v+v pQv Y #v | bv tv p ,e d QRv F f(vwv Av@ ,jRG(v | {v wv Wv<h )3( .[v|
.)26(e d (J! d;L #| {wWA@ ,AyG e d #|
[v v| e ,v vp #v v+v v!(v vwv v}v vzv vy ?v vC;v vDv vyG W9v v}v v!}G )1( d9v vDv v}v vyG Kv v\(v v*
?v+vzvIG(vTvyG ,vp [v| d ,?vy9vJvyG gPv$ ,vp .[v| d ?vavSG(v< Z9vZv}vyG
,,v v<hQv v+v v! [v vMv v@ ?v vWv vs9v v"v v}v vyGh ,e d ,v v$ ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! Gh ,(Swahili)
d9vDv}vyG .Uv<;v}vyG rv+vdv"v@ IO9v| ,vp Bvs|v}vyG [vtv"vyGh b(vTvyGh ,9v+v"v+vvh
9v v !C( ni-ko SURE ,v v $ )e d + [v v }v v y( ?v v av v zv v Av v Mv v | J9v v !(v v wv v | #v v |
(ni-) dh}G [vMvWvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< (clitic) jQv+v}v]vyG {vZvAv}vyG .)OvvzvAv|
k
,v@zv@h ?v+vtvTv! J9v+vpQvY 9vgv| 9v}v$ (-ko) d;vL #v| (copula) ?vav<GQvyGh
?v +v pQv Y ,v $h ,sure ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G ?v qv Zv yG .[v | d ,?v +v zv IG(v Tv yG #v |
d {v=vs #v| )v]vAvtv}vyG j(vJv"vyG Q9v_ G ,vp ~vJvtv@ fC #vwv}v* ,f(v}v]v|
.e d IQv*RvF (v$ )#v+v|(v* Ovgv<( after two days ,v"v|RvyG M .e .[v|
k
9v vf(v v\(v v| Uv v+v vyh ,uv vJv vzv v| (v v$ M .e GPv v$ ,e d QRv vGv vyG ~v vdv vgv v}v vvh
k
9v%vF9vAv!E f{vp ,EL J9vqvYG(C 9vtvph {v+vwvWvAvyG IOv+vF ,v$ EL QvFGRvF fC #v| ~viQvy9v<h )26(
^vf Qvav+vTv@ ML fC ^vf {+yO ?v}v vC ,d9vDCG {v+v=vS ^vgvp .?vqvzvAvJ bQvav<h ,ML yIQvav+vSz Bv; (v$
x
uv =v av @ ){v +v wv Wv Av yG IOv +v @Gh ?v "v wv }CG J9v qv YG(CG #v | ?v f(v }v H #+v < #v |( EL J9v qv YG(v | jC ?v yzv Tv |
Dirven and :,vp ,f(v@(vwvS v v RQv*9C y?v+vF9v"vDvyG J9vjvzvyG ,vp \vtvgvyG ~vGvgCGh ?v*(vjvzvyG J9+zv}vgvyGz
Vanparys, eds., Ibid.
:( 9v v%v vgv v"v v| >v vK ?v v+v vAv vv9v vAv v"v vS(v vpQ(CG JGAGQv vF G fC ,v v"v vgv v* EL Qv vFGRv vF L9v vAv v!E fC ,v vp xv vV :h
.EL JGAGQFE u+=a@ #w}* E+J< )y9%s;iEz
479
k
IQv*RvF ,v$ )IQvp(v< gOvGvAvS(u-ta-i-pata kwa wingi ,GQv+vLCh .{vgvqvzvy
ni-me- {v gv qv yG IQ(v Y ,,v !9v Dv yG ~v zv wv Av }v yG ?v jv +v Y Q9v _E ,v ph .[v | d
k
J9v v!(v vwv v}v vyG .bv v zv vAv v Mv v| f(v vwv v| 9v v]v v*C ,v v$ )JQQv vs Ov v tv vy( DECIDE
(Uchumi supermarket) ,v|(v Wv*E b(vS .[v| d QRv F ,v $ iQv L}G
.)>vQ| ~SG( ,p9tC VGQAsG ($
Lakini ni-ko SURE u-ki-end-a :dh}G ~zwA}yG )1(
#wy r| 1 v v ?a<GQ O+vC r| 2 v v WQV v v >$P v v a T
kwa wingi ,|(VC b(S u-ta-i-pat-a #+|(* Og<
IQp(< r| 2 v v {=tAT| v v >$P v v a T
q
b(vS ),vp( gOvGvAvS #v+v|(v* Ovgv< Bv=v$P (vy xv!E #v| OvvzvAv| 9v!C #vwvyz
k
.y)9t<9S &+yE Q9W}yG )omo( (|C rd"|( IQp(< ,|(VC
Hata siku hizi ni-me- DECIDE :,!9DyG ~zwA}yG
q
)AI e9*}G gP$ r| 1 v v e9@ v v QQt*
kwanza ku-tumia sabuni y-a mi-ti
k
:hC aQZA| Q+i v v d9}gASG f(<9Y f9=]tzy
k q
yf(<9Y ?gas d9}gASG :hC JQQs e9*}G gP$ )AIz
Q+L}G BF9ZyG = C .U
))27(?*R+zG! G ?+zIG(TyG(
k
J( d iQvL}G LP9v}v"vyG ^vgv<h Q d E LP(v}v! )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< 9v*RvvQv|
d(v _ y)v zv fz 9v }v $ #v +v Av jv zv yG 9v Av zv v fzv < ~v fRv yG (v $ ,v zv }v F v v #v }v ]v yG )T
xv yP )v yE Qv +v VC 9v }v vh .h9v Tv Av | {v wv Wv < ~v $9v Tv @ : ,v %v p ,)T J( L9v Av !E
Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in )27(

Codeswitching, pp. 4-5.
480
J9v!(vwv}vyG ?v+v"v< QvTvqv* jPvyG >vS9v"v}vyG j(vJv"vyG Q9v_ G [v| d hv]v@ ,g;vfC
Q9v_E ,vp ?vavzvAvMv}vyG J9v!(vwv}vyG [vJvp HvF9vAv! fE .KvWvyG #v| Y(v"v< ?vavzvAvMv}vyG
.)28(f(v @(v wv S v v RQv *9v | {v }v f ,v p IQ(v vPv | ,v $ e d {v <9v tv | [v | d Rv +v +v }v Av yG
)vzvf Ih;vfh .Rv+v+v}vAvyG GPv$ {v}vgvAvSG #v| dhC (v$ )29(,vV(vGvp ,xvyP ~viQh
#v+vvQOv| G(v!9vv ~v%v!C )vyE #v+vtv<9vTvyG #v+vDvI9v=vyG ^vgv< J9vdvI;v| Qv+vWv@ ,xvyP
Q9v $Ov *Qv S aQv Av fG Ov tv y .)30()T .J( ,v p J9v jv zv y ?v "v *9v =v Av }v yG ?v }v $9v Tv }v zv y
QGhOC 9v %v y ?v }v $9v Tv }v yG J9v jv zv yG fC )32(gD;v |Rh #v +v Gv ShQv ih )31(Q9v $Ov *Qv Sh
.rv v+v v\ ?v vjv vy {v v<9v vtv v| rv v+v v]v v| ?v vjv vzv vv 9v v%v v+v vzv vf ?v vy9v vI G d;v vL #v v| ?v vqv vzv vAv vMv v|
,9v v FQOC (Azuma) )34(9v v |hRCh (Kamwangamalu) )33((v v y9v v |9v v jv v !G(v v |9v v v
.&Tq! QOZCG )28(

Joshi, «Processing of Sentences with Intrasentential Codeswitching,» in: )29(
Dowty, Karttunen and M. Zwicky, eds., Natural Language Parsing: Psychological,
Computational, and Theoretical Perspectives.
k
B. Forson, «Code-Switching in Akan-English Bilingualism,» :;v v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v v| )30(
(PhD Dissertation, UCLA, 1979); John Gibbons, Code-Mixing and Code Choice:
A Hong Kong Case Study (Clevedon; Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters,
1987), and Jennifer Petersen, «Word-Internal Code-Switching Constraints in a
Bilingual Child’s Grammar,» Linguistics, vol. 26, no. 3 (1988).
Sridhar and Sridhar, «The Syntax and Psycholinguistics of Bilingual )31(
Code-Mixing».
k
François Grosjean, «Exploring the Recognition of Guest Words :;v v v Dv v v | )32(
in Bilingual Speech,» Language and Cognitive Processes, vol. 3, no. 3 (1988).
k
N. Kamwangamalu, «Some Morphosyntactic Aspects of French/ :;v v Dv v | )33(
English-Bantu Code-Mixing,» in: Bradley Music, Randolph Graczyk and Caroline
Wiltshire, eds., Papers from the 25th Annual Regional Meeting of the Chicago
Linguistic Society. Part Two: Parasession on Language in Context (Chicago, IL:
Chicago Linguistic Society, 1989).
Azuma, «The Frame-Content Hypothesis in Speech Production: )34(
Evidence from Intrasentential Code Switching».
481
k k
aQv Av gv @ ,e(v +v yGh .GQv wv =v | ~v %v FP9v }v ! ,v p e d {v <9v tv | [v | d Rv +v +v }v Av yG ,9v ]v *C
.)35(J9SGQOyG #| Q+Dv
x
f(vDvI9v=vyG MQvAvsG ,e dh [v| d QhO #v+v< IRv+v}v}o vyG LP9v}v"vyG {v=vsh
k
?v=v@QvyG :,vJvavS (v$ 9v| )vzvf ~vF9vtvyG hv"v}vyG Q9v_E ,vp )T .J( )vzvf GO(v+vs
q
J:(v tv }v yG hC ,))36(&v < ?v tv zv gv Av }v yG J9v f(v "v Av yGh rv p9v wv Av }v yG Ov +v tv yG( ?v +v av Mv yG
k
hC ,))37(?v pQv Zv Av }v yG d9v gv p}Gh Qv F9v }v ]v yG #v +v < JGQv +v jv Av yG ,;v Dv |( ?v *(v Jv "v yG
k
)vzvf Bv|Ovs Ovsh .)c;v<(v=vy IQvJvyG ?v+vpQvZvyG Ov+vs ,;vDv|( ?v}vzvwvyG rv+vyzv@
.)38(JGQ(ZAyG gP$ {D| )zf IO9]}yG ?zD|}G #| O*OgyG (AyG
k
Jake, «Intrasentential Codeswitching and Pronouns: On the :;v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v| )35(
Categorial Status of Functional Elements,» and K. Walters, «Diglossia, Linguistic
Variation, and Language Change in Arabic,» in: Mushira Eid, ed., Perspectives on
Arabic Linguistics VIII: Papers from the Eighth Annual Symposium on Arabic
Linguistics (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: Benjamins, 1996).
k
Pfaff, «Constraints on Language Mixing: Intrasentential Code- :;v v v v v vDv v v v v v| )36(
Switching and Borrowing in Spanish/English’’; Poplack: «Sometimes I’ll Start a
Sentence in Spanish y Termino en Espanol: Toward a Typology of Code-
Switching,» and «Syntactic Structure and Social Function of Code-Switching,» in:
Durán, ed., Latino Language and Communicative Behavior.
Leonora Timm, «Spanish English Code-Switching: El Porque and )37(

How-Not-To,» Romance Philology, vol. 28, no. 4 (1975).
k
Jonas Nartey, «Codeswitching, Interference or Faddism: :;v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v| )38(
Language Use among Educated Ghana Ians,» Anthropological Linguistics, vol. 24,
no. 2 (1982); Bentahila and Davies, «The Syntax of Arabic-French Code-
Switching»; Eyamba Bokamba, «Code-Mixing, language Variation, and Linguistic
Theory: Evidence from Bantu Languages,» Lingua, vol. 76 (1988), and Carol
Myers-Scotton, «Codeswitching and Types of Multilingual Commuinties,» in:
Lowenberg, ed., Language Spread and Language Policy: Issues, Implications, and
Case Studies.
482
f(v zv }v gv Av Tv * #v *Pv yG f(v Dv I9v =v yG dh9v I ,?v qv y9v Mv | ?v %v F(v y ~v $Pv Lzv <h
(Government and Binding=GB)
)*(
)Q Y( bv v v v v<Qv v v v vyGh ?v v v v v+v v v v vzv v v v v|9v v v v vgv v v v vyG
d {v <9v tv | [v | d Rv +v +v }v Av yG Q9v =v Av fG fhO #v | )T .J( Ov +v +v tv @ f(v yh9v Jv *
?v }v F9v tv yG O(v +v tv yG GPv vh ,J:h9v Jv }v yG gPv $ )v zv f IO9v ]v }v yG ?v zv Dv |}G .)39(e
,)40(?v<(vF}G #v| Qv+vDvwvyG ,vp 9v$O9vGv*E ~q v@ ,?vtv<9vTvyG ,vJvavS (v$ 9v| )vzvf
k
~q v @ Ov s )41(GOv F ?v Dv *Ov Jv yG bv <Qv yGh ?v +v zv |9v gv yG {v f ~v F9v tv yG {v LOv }v yG ~v fGRv }v p
k
)v zv f ?v }v F9v s iQv LC ?v *Qv dv ! )42(f9v +v @(v $9v | Bv zv }v gv Av SG Ov sh .9v ]v *C 9v %v *Ov Jv @
q
~v+vtv@h .IQvGvWvy9v< uvJvzv}vyG ~vGn vgv}v}vyG (vJv"vyG ,(X-bar) bvL v v S ?v*Qvdv!
,vp ?vJv+vJvY J9vgvs(v@ gPv%vv ?v+v=v+vvQv@ J9v*Qvdv! Q9v_E ,vp ?vi9vZv}vyG LP9v}v"vyG
k
,GOvF ?v*(vs ,v$ LP9v}v"vyG gPv$ ,Bvs(vyG Uvqv! ,vph .bvtvp J:9vJvyG ^vgv<
,vAvyG J9v+vpQvZvyG e9vdv!h i(vAvJv| J9vqv+vyzv@ hv| i(vZvs J9v_9vtvS{v< Kv}vTv@h
k q
d #v | 9v +v =v +v vQv @ ?v y9v gv qv yG J9v +v pQv Zv yG e9v dv ! LQOv Av S LP9v }v "v yG gPv $h .OQv @ :
k
,xvyP #vf ;v]vph .[v| d E LP(v}v! Q9v_E ,vp ?vf(v"v}v}vyG J9vqv+vyzvAvyG ,e
k
f{vp ,[v| d #vf 9v\(vf )vZvsC W9vtvSE ,v$ {v+vzvJvAvyG IOvIh Bv!9vv GPE
.)1981( ,wT|(V &IQAsG jO+y(AyG (J"zy jQd! Q9_E )*(

k
Woolford, «Bilingual Code-Switching and Syntactic Theory,» and :;vDv| )39(
DiSciullo, Muysken and Singh, «Government and Code-Switching».
k
Michael Clyne, «Constraints on Codeswitching: How Universal :;v v v vDv v v v| )40(
Are They?,» Linguistics, vol. 25 (1987); Bokamba, Ibid.; Suzanne Romaine,
Bilingualism (Oxford; New York: Blackwell, 1989); I. Pandit, «Grammaticality in
Code Switching,» in: Jacobson, ed., Codeswitching as a Worldwide Phenomenon,
and Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching.
Belazi, Rubin and Toribio, «Code Switching and X-Bar Theory: The )41(
Functional Head Constraint».
Shahrzad Mahootian, «A Null Theory, of Codeswitching,» )42(
(Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL,
1993).
483
k
.Ov*OvF )vZvsC W9vtvSE jC hv| ~vAv* fC #vwv}v* 9v*Qvdv! j(vJv"vyG Q9v_ G Qv+v+vjv@
(Generalizability) ?v +v }v +v }v gv @ M(v \(v < ,v $ 9v %v +v p H(v iQv }v yG Qv +v i ?v Gv +v Av "v yG
#v| i(vAvTv}vyG GPv$ ,vp .Ov*OvF W9vtvSE jC Ovgv< 9v| ?v+v"v< hvs(v@ ,vp IOhOvJv|
Uv +v y e d {v <9v tv | [v | d Rv +v +v }v Av yG gOv YQv * jPv yG ~v +v }v gv Av yG ,Ov *Qv Gv Av yG
k
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Carol Myers-Scotton, «A Way to Dusty Death: The Matrix :Qv v v v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v v v!G )48(
Language Turnover Hypothesis,» in: Lenore A. Grenoble and Lindsay J. Whaley,
eds., Endangered Languages ([Forthcoming]).
490
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)v zv f fGRv vQv * )51(a(v !hQCh f9v }v p(v v eGO9v |h .rv Zv "v yGh #v +v Av "v Tv yG #q v S
{v qv av yG 9v %v tv zv Mv * ,v Av yG ,v zv gv qv yG YPv Gv yG #v *(v wv @ Ov fG(v tv y ?v *OGQv qv yG ?v gv +v =v av yG
Clyne, «Constraints on Codeswitching: How Universal Are They?,» p. )49(

757.
D. Kaufman and M. Aronoff, «Morphological Disintegration and )50(
Reconstruction in First Language Attrition,» in: Herbert W. Seliger and Robert
M. Vago, eds., First Language Attrition (Cambridge [England]; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1991), and Heinz Kuhberg, «Longitudinal L2-
Attrition Versus L2-Acquisition in Three Turkish Children - Empirical Findings,»
Second Language Research, vol. 8, no. 2 (1992).
Kaufman and M. Aronoff, Ibid. )51(
491
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Carol Myers-Scotton, «A Lexically-Based Production Model of )53(

Codeswitching,» in: Milroy and Muysken, eds., One Speaker, Two Languages:
Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching.
Wolfgang Klein and Rainer Dietrich, «Conclusions,» in: Rainer )54(
Dietrich, Wolfgang Klein and Colette Noyau, The Acquisition of Temporality in a
Second Language (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1995).
Wolfgang Klein and Norbert Dittmar, Developing Grammars: The )55(
Acquisition of German Syntax by Foreign Workers (Berlin; New York: Springer-
Verlag, 1979), p. 108.
493
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Production».
494
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Production Model of Codeswitching,» in: Milroy and Muysken, eds., One
Speaker, Two Languages: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching.
495
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Carol Myers-Scotton and John Okeju, «Neighbors and Lexical )59(

Borrowings,» Language, vol. 49, no. 4 (1973), and Raymond Mougeon and
Edouard Beniak, Linguistic Consequences of Language Contact and Restriction:
The Case of French in Ontario, Canada (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York:
Oxford University Press, 1991).
Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v v s )60(
Codeswitching, pp. 201-203.
497
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xamene di nanu ma japp, yobu ma ci kaso bi.
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In some cases, neither borrowed lexemes nor CS lexemes receive full )61(
ML inflections; that is, they are either base forms or receive only some of the
inflections which make ML lexemes well-formed.
Leigh Swigart, «Two Codes or One? The Insiders’ View and the )62(
Description of CS in Dakar,» Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development, vol. 13 (1992), p. 89.
498
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f(vwv* fC ,vjv=v"v* ,xvyP ~viQh .?v\QvAvtv}vyG J9v+v}vGvgv}vyG f(vzv}vgvAvTv* #v*PvyG
?v\QvAvtv}vyG J9v+v}vGvgv}vyG hv}v vGv@ : ,vv >v=vS c9v"v$ Uv+vy &v!C Kv\G(vyG #v|
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David Sankoff, Shana Poplack :Qv vdv v!G rv vy9v vJ jCQ ^v vf Y;v v_ G {v vFC #v v|h )63(
and Swathi Vanniarajan, «The Case of the Nonce Loan in Tamil,» Language
Variation and Change, vol. 2, no. 1 (1990).
499
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.gQ(]I )zf ?+=+vQAyG IQhQ]yG Uq! c9"$
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#v | Qv $9v dv | L9v |O ?v +v !9v }v y~v y j(v Jv "v yG Q9v _ G Qv +v jv Av * ,Qv F9v Wv gv yG gPv $
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?v +v !9v =v S G jOv =v @h .?v zv }v Gv yG Qv +v jv y Qv +v L}G hv s(v }v yG ,v p (Past Participles)
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M. L. Huffines, «Pennsylvania German: Convergence and Change as )64(

Strategies of Discourse,» in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
500
Mucho cubanoh, cuatro años atras se mudaron pa’ca )6(
)65(
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#v v| HQv v Av vtv v @ schert f(v v v ?v v tv v +v v tv v Ih .(shear) y[v v tv v *z )v vyE ?v v =v v Tv v"v vy9v v <
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Lourdes Torres, «Code-Mixing and Borrowing in a New York Puerto )65(

Rican Community,» World Englishes, vol. 8, no. 3 (1989), pp. 428-429.
Clyne, «Constraints on Codeswitching: How Universal Are They?,» p. )66(

750.
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Q9v _ G #v wv yh v v )T J( ,v p yIOv *Ov Gv yGz ?v Gv |Ov }v yG ?v jv zv yG v v IQv +v Wv gv zv y
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Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in :Qv v v v v v dv v v v v !G )67(

Codeswitching, chap. 7.
Thomason and Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic )68(

Linguistics.
502
rv v zv v Av v Mv v | ,9v v $Qv v vP uv v =v v S iQv v LC J9v v f(v v "v v @ ,v v ph .)(Mous) )69(S(v v |
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k k k
?v pGQq v Zv yG hv | 9v +v Tv !Qv p 9v +v }v SG 9v tv Tv ! Qv %v dv @ 9v %v !C )v zv f (Michif) ?v +v qv +v Wv +v }v yG
.)?+zgqyG (Cree) jQv
)T J( J9+!9Ty(+S(S v v 6
)T J( v v y {+D}AyG v v 1.6
f{v p ,?v *(v +v "v < Qv dv ! ?v %v Fh #v | IOv Iq (v | IQv $9v c Ov gv * )T J( eGO9v |
fE jC ,QvF9vWvgvyG rvzvAvMv| ,vp 9v%v+v"v=v@ ~q v@ Ovs &vy {v+vDv}vAvyG ,vp AGQ6G rvzvAvMv|
Qv=vf J9vp;vAvL:9v< ?vav=v@Qv|h Y(v"vAvzvy Y(v\(v| L9vAv!E IQv$9vc ,v$ y?v+vzv]vp}Gz
.?=S9"}yG ?+!9Ty v v (w+TyG(+S(TyG {|G(gyG RhQ< ,p IQ+WgyG
,v$ ?v}vdv"v}vyG JGQ9v+vAvL:G gPv$ ?vWvs9v"v| ,vp YhQvWvzvy bQvavyG iOvIEh
k k
)T J( ,v p AG(v S GRhQv < Qv Dv vC 9v +v av }v ! ,v $ IOv IGh ?v jv y fzv < aGQv Av f:G
.{s}G )zf K;C bQa< ,z}F v v #}]yG hC ,z}G+=yG
k
)v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ,&v !C (Markedness) )71(~v S(v yG LP(v }v ! ~v fRv * ,:hC
?v*(vjvzvyG J9vf(v"vAvyG #v+v< #v|h ,#v+v"v}v]vAv}vyG #v+vvQ9vWv}vyGh ,vzvf9vqv@ bv}v! jC
M. Mous, Unpublished Data Set on Ma’a/ Mbugu, 1994. )69(

Peter Bakker, «A Language of Our Own: The Genesis of Michif,» )70(
(Unpublished Ph. Dissertation, University of Amsterdam, 1992).
Carol Myers-Scotton: «The Negotiation of Identities in Conversation: )71(
A Theory of Markedness and Code Choice,» International Journal of the Sociology
of Language, vol. 44, no. 2 (1983); «Codeswitching as Indexical of Social
Negotiation,» in: Heller, ed., Codeswitching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic
Perspectives; Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching, and
«Common and Uncommon Ground: Social and Structural Factors in
Codeswitching,» Language in Society, vol. 22, no. 4 (December 1993).
503
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k k
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k k
GQ9v+vAvLGz ,9v]v*C ,Qv%vdv@ 9v%v!E jC .?vqvzvAvMv| BvTv+vy )T J( #v}v]vAv@ ,vAvyG
.ye(S(| Q+i
(v $ )T J( ,v p e(v S(v }v yG Qv +v i Q9v +v Av L:G f{v p ,IQQv wv Av | ?v +v qv +v wv <h

?v "v *Qv sh ,?v f(v }v Gv }v zv y ?v +v zv LGOv yG ?v *(v ]v gv y9v < Qv Dv vC bv =v @Qv | fQ9v tv | {v wv Wv <
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k k
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q
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?v+vSGRvy}G f{vp ,f9v+vI}G #v| Qv+vDvv ,vp ?v+vTv!QvqvyG ~vzvwvAv@ 9vTv!Qvqvy ,vSGRvy}G
#v v| iQv vLC W9v v}v v!C ,v vph .)72()T J( H9v vav vMv vy ?v v+q v vTv v+v vFQv vyG ?v vjv vzv vyG ,v v$
?v<(v gv Zv< {v}vgvAvTv| )T J( ,v p ?v*RvvQv}vyG LP9v}v"vyG OvIC Ev+vI QvF9vWvgvyG
)T J( v v v y >v F(v }v yG ,v Tv +v FQv yG >v =v Tv yG ,?v +v }v SQv yG Qv +v i Y9v \h}G ,v p
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.#v +v }v zv gv Av }v yG >v !9v F}G #v +v < J9v <G(v Gv Av S:G )T J( KOv Jv *o ,?v v v+v <Qv gv y9v <
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fhO(v* 9v]v*C ~v$ G(v|GO9v|h .y?v}vzvgvAv}vyG ?v+v%vqvWvyG ?v+v<QvgvyGz 9v%vAv+v}vTv@ #vwv}v*
Gardner-Chloros, Language Selection and Switching in Strasbourg. )72(
504
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.)73(?+<Qgzy ,zJ| ,G%y Y("@ J9}S
)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< e(vS(v}vyG Qv+vi Q9v+vAvL:G AGOC ?v+vqv+vv )vyE Qvdv"vyG #vwv}v*h
k k
?vjvy ,:hC .)T J( d ?v+v}vwvyG O9vgv<}G ^vgv< Bv+v=vDv@ ,vp GQhO {vf9vqvAvyG
k
,jC( 9v |9v }v @ Kv \Gh {v wv Wv < xv yPh ,Qv Dv vC IGOzv < ~v %v Tv @ 9v | IO9v f IOv IGh
)v vzv vfh ,)?v vjv vzv vyG gPv v$ #v v| ,v v@zv v@ ?v v*QOv vZv v}v vyG J9v v=v vvQv v}v vyG #v v| Qv v+v vDv vwv vyG
.?z+zs ?+y(_ JGQhO #| QDvC H9aMyG f9v GPE U(ZMyG
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d(vJvAvy9vv )T J( ~v+vdv"v@ RRvgv@ ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G WhQvWvyG Uvqv! ,9v+v!9vC
,v p Uv +v yh iQv LC )v yE IOv IGh ?v jv y #v | f9v +v I}G >v y9v i ,v p f(v wv * jPv yG
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/(Bukavu) (v p9v v(v < ,v zv IG(v Tv yG )T J( ,v p JGQv +v +v jv Av yGh .)74(Uv wv gv yG
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~v%vAvSGQO Bv}v@ #v*PvyG #v*QvF9v%v}vyG ?v<Q9vjv}vyG ?v+vgv\h ,v$ gPv$ Bv!9vv Ovsh
~v vdv vgv v| ,v vp ,G(v vy(v vJv v@ #v v*Pv vyG )76(GOv v"v vy(v v$ ,(Utrecht) Bv vMv v*Qv v@hC ,v vp
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{v wv V Qv $9v dv | rv zv Av Mv | Bv =v Dv @ ,v Av yG ?v jv zv yG (v $ e(v S(v }v yG Qv +v i Q9v +v Av L:G fC
Walters, «Diglossia, Linguistic Variation, and Language Change in )73(

Arabic,» in: Eid, ed., Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics VIII.
Stenson, «Phrase Structure Congruence, Government and Irish-English )74(
Code-Switching,» in: Hendrick, ed., The Syntax of the Modern Celtic Languages.
Didier L. Goyvaerts and Tembue Zembele, «Codeswitching in Bukavu,» )75(
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol. 13, nos. 1-2 (1992).
Jacomine Nortier, Dutch-Moroccan Arabic: Code Switching among )76(
Moroccans in the Netherlands (Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications, 1990).
505
k
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Qv v+v vi ,v v}v vSQv vyG Qv v+v vi 9v v%v vav v+v vSh &v v!C )v vzv vf )T J( f9v v+v vI}G ~v vdv vgv v| ,v vp
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.)T J( O9g<C B+=D@
IQ+WgyG Q+*9g|h )T J( v v 2.6

f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG iQv* rv+vv )vzvf ?vyGO f(vwv@ fC )T J( LP9v}v"vy #vwv}v*
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?vGvI (v$ &vy9v}vgvAvSG f{vp ,?vf(v}vGv}vyG {vLGO ,vTv+vFQvyG bv+vS(vyG &vTvqv! )T
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,vf9v}vAvF:G b9v+vTvyG ,vp {vs}G )vzvf ,~v%v@9v*(v$ ,vp 9v%v!(vGv|Ov* ,vAvyG ~v+vtvyG
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?v*Rv+vzvGv! G /(Baba Malay) ?v+v*:9v| 9v<9v=vyG ,;vDv|( ?vtv<9vTvyG ?v*Q9v}vgvAvS:G
9v v+v vtv v*Qv vpC ,v vp ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G /(SeSotho) (v v@(v vTv v+v vTv vyG ,)77(IQ(v vp9v vjv v"v vS ,v vp
.)78()?+<("GyG
Anne Pakir, «Linguistic Alternates and Code Selection in Baba )77(

Malay,» World Englishes, vol. 8 (1989).
T. Khati, «Intra-Lexical Switching or Nonce Borrowing? Evidence )78(
= from SeSotho-English Performance,» in: Robert K. Herbert, ed., Language and
506
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.J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG #v +v < H9v av tv Av S:G fQv tv * fC ,v jv =v "v * {v +v zv tv yG )T J( f{v p
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.)80({+TvhQ< )yE
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k k q
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{v +v Gv yG jQv F9v %v }v y iQv L}G J9v f(v }v Gv }v y9v < ~v %v Av !Q9v tv | ~v Av @h ,~v %v @9v jv y
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Society in Africa: The Theory and Practice of Sociolinguistics (Witwatersrand: =

Witwatersrand University Press, 1992).
Ov gv < ^v f >v zv jv Av @ fC ,CS ?v |;v gv yG JGP ,J9v gv }v Av GCG gPv $ {v Dv | ,v p {v Zv L Ov s )79(
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Heller, ed., Codeswitching: Anthropological and :Qvzv+v$ ?vMvTv! ,vp :y_vgv}vAvH ,vp IQvqv+vWvyG
Sociolinguistic Perspectives, in: Lowenberg, ed., Language Spread and Language
Policy: Issues, Implications, and Case Studies seem to be marked switching for
such «color» (i.e., English provides le mot juste).
Jeanine Treffers-Daller, «French-Dutch Codeswitching in Brussels: )80(
Social Factors Explaining Its Disappearance,» in: Eastman, ed., «Codeswitching».
507
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.74 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )85(

Ad Backus, «Mixed Discourse as a Reflection of Bilingual Proficiency,» )86(
in: Tina Hickey and Jenny Williams, eds., Language, Education, and Society in a
Changing World (Dublin; Philadelphia, PA: IRAAL/Multilingual Matters, 1996).
510
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Poplack: «Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence in Spanish y Termino en )87(

Espanol: Toward a Typology of Code-Switching,» and Nortier, Dutch-Moroccan
Arabic: Code Switching among Moroccans in the Netherlands.
Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in )88(
Codeswitching.
Georges Lüdi, «Internal Migrants in a Multilingual Country,» )89(
Multilingua, vol. 11, no. 1 (1992).
511
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,v$ e d d9vgvpC ?vGvy9vgv}vy ?vzv*Ov< ?v+vGv+v@GQvAvSE .)93()f(vTv"vAvS ,vp ?v*Ov"vyQv* G
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Halmari, «Structural :,vp ?v*R+zvGv! G/?v*Ov"vzv"vqvyG ,vp jOv"vzv"vqvyG )T J( ,;vDv| )90(
Relations and Finnish-English Code Switching,»
Myers-Scotton, Ibid. :,p ?*R+zG! G h| )T J( ,p ?+!(WyGh ?+zIG(TyG
H. Boeschoten, «Asymmetrical Code-Switching in Immigrant )91(
Communities,» in: European Science Foundation. Network on Code-Switching
and Language Contact, Papers for the Workshop on Concepts, Methodology and
Data: Basel 12-13 January 1990 (Strasbourg: European Science Foundation,
1990).
Bilingualism.
Stenson, «Phrase Structure Congruence, Government and Irish-English )93(
Code-Switching,» in: Hendrick, ed., The Syntax of the Modern Celtic Languages.
512
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r| 3/P| r| 1/hq| x<Q* {gp/V9|
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.)96(j(+"=yG 9$QhOh e d QRF OOQ@ Q9=AfG
E. Annamalai, «The Language Factor in Code Mixing,» International )94(

Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 75 (1989), p. 51.
k
Nortier, Dutch-Moroccan Arabic: Code Switching among :;v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v | )95(
Moroccans in the Netherlands,
.GO"y($ ,BMQ@hC ,p ?+!9C}G/?+<QjCG ?+<QgyG )T J( U(ZM<
Treffers-Daller, «French-Deutch Codeswitching in Brussels: :Qv v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v!G )96(
Social Factors Explaining Its Disappearance,» in: Eastman, ed., «Codeswitching,»
and Janice L. Jake and Carol Myers-Scotton, «Verbs in Arabic and English and
Lexical Structure,» Paper Presented at: Symposium on Code-Switching, Linguistic
Society of America, Annual Meeting, 1996.
513
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g9vGv@;vy Y(v\(v| ,v$ H9vavMvzvy ?v}vdv"v}vyG hC ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G )T J( {vF9vSQ
,v p J9v p;v Av L:G Uv wv gv @ rv +v v (v $ 9v "v $ Ev *Ov I g9v Gv @G .uv <9v Tv yGh ~v *Ov tv yG
,vp 9v%vTvqv! )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< ?vf(v}vGv}vyG rvsG(v| )T J( LP9v}v! ?vf(v}vGv}vyG
Qv+vL}G g9vGv@:G .?vfGQv=vyG J9v*(vAvTv| Uvwvgv@ hC ?vgvSG(vyG IQv+vWvgvy9v< 9v%vAvs;vf
9v "v $ #v +v Dv I9v =v yG ^v gv < ,hv sG(v yG ,v ph .)T J( >v +v vQv @ v v aQv Zv < ~v Av %v *
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.)8( d9DCG Qd!G )97(
Myers-Scotton, Duelling Languages: Grammatical :,v v p IQ(v v vPv v | ?v v zv v Dv v |}G )98(
Structure in Codeswitching, p. 152,
Forson, «Code- :?v v *R+zv v Gv v ! G (Asante) / Bv v !9v v S}G #v v Av v | #v v |h ?v v *R+zv v Gv v ! G/9v v !(v v Wv v yG #v v |
Switching in Akan-English Bilingualism».
514
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e9vtv* fC #vwv}v* d:OvAvS:G fC (v$ f9vv 9v"v$ ,vTv+v FQvyG Y(v\(v}vyG .)?v+v!9vDvyG
q
gPv $ {v Dv | W9v }v !C {v v ?v "v +v "v =v y {v }v gv @ ?v *(v jv zv yG O9v =v }v yG Uv qv ! fC )v zv f
q
9v |h .IQv $9v c {v v ,v p ?v qv zv Av Mv | ?v *(v +v "v =v yG Hv F9v Av "v yG f(v wv @ 9v }v "v +v < ,Qv $G(v dv yG
k k
,v p 9v p;v Av LG c9v "v $ fC ,v p #v }v wv * >v =v Tv yG fC (v $ 9v }v %v | GOv +v vzv @ {v wv Wv *
,v S9v SC (v Jv ! )v zv f f(v wv * fC #v wv }v * IQv $9v dv yG gPv $ ,v p ?v *(v +v "v =v yG Hv F9v Av "v yG
9v%v=vF(v}v< Q(vavAv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG WhQvWvyG ,vp J9vp;vAvL;vy ?vqv+vch
.#+}zwA}zy ?a=@Q}yG ?fGQ=yG J9*(AT|h J9f("AyG
515
QWf h<GQyG {ZqyG
du=dO9Gh sT-bT?9G :X<bT9u)h ZLP9G dXG)G
Q@Qh(v9| f(Fh OQ(qw*Q .Q f(F
?|Ot| v v 1
?v*(vjvy J9vf(v"v@ (Creoles) J:(v*QvwvyGh (Pidgins) J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG Ovgv@
IQ(v Zv Jv | #v +v FOv +v =v y9v p ,)1(J9v jv zv yG d9v Zv @G J9v s9v +v S ,v p IOv y(v | IOv *Ov F
#v +v < OhOv Jv | {v YG(v @ ,v p {v }v gv Av Tv @h ,v f9v }v Av FG QhO ,v p eQ9v Y {v wv Wv <
,~v%v"v+v< 9v| ,vp g(vgvSh hC d9vZv@:G GhQQvv #v*PvyG QvDvvC hC #v+vAvjvy ,v}vzvwvAv|
x k
#v +v < rv y|v @ 9v | 9v =v y9v i #v +v FOv +v =v y9v p ,IQv Gv %v yG hC O9v =v gv Av S:Gh IQ9v Gv Av yG Qv =v f
k
xvzv@ #v| 9v+vFP(v}v! ?vav+vTv< ,v$h ,9v%v+vzv}vgvAvTv}vy ?v+vzvJv}vyG J9vjvzvyG QvY9v"vf
J9v tv =v _h ,{v sC ?v pGQq v Yh ?v zv +v zv s J9v }v zv v 9v %v y Bv |GO9v | ?v +v zv Jv }v yG J9v jv zv yG
k
)v"vgv}vy9v< d(v*QvwvyGh .)2(?v+v=v+vvQvAvyGh ?v+v@G(vZvyG JGQ9v+vAvL:G #v| GOvF IOv+vtv|
U(v vZv vMv < OQ(v vqv wv v*Q 9v v"+zv vGv v!Ch f(v v@Qv vw+v v< xv v*Qv *O ]E 9v v"v v!9v vpQv vf #v f Qv =v vgv v! fC Ov v*Qv v! )1(
.&"}]A@ zaL jC ?+yh|T| #| 9}%+qg!h ,?sQ(yG gP%y ]h}G ?j+ZyG ^f 9}79dI;|
John R. Rickford, «Pidgins and Creoles,» in: William Bright, ed., )2 (
International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, 4 vols. (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1992), vol. 3: Morp-Slav, p. 224.
517
fhQOvJv"v* #v+v+vzvJv| #v+v}vzvwvAv| Bv=vTvAvvG #v+vFOv+v< ,v$ ,)3(d9v%vy jOv+vzvtvAvyG
k
#v +v FOv +v =v yG f(v zv }v gv Av Tv * ~v $h Ghzv Wv ! #v *Pv yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG ,v }v zv wv Av | #v | 9v }v FGO
,v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G 9v v$QhO hv v| 9v v%v v|9v vGv vTv v!G ,v vph .)v vyh}G ~v v%v vAv vjv vy 9v v$Q9v v=v vAv vf9v v<
OQG(v}vyG #v| Qv+vDvv )vzvfh ?vgvSGh JGOQvqv| )vzvf d(v*QvwvyG Qvp(vAv@ ,hvS(v}vyG
J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG ^v gv =v p ,xvyP hv |h .#v +vFOv +v=v yG #v | Qv DvvC IOv tv gv }v yG ?v*(v Jv "v yG
(Tok f9vTv+v< c(v@ :{vDv|( 9v%v+v}vzvwvAv}vy )vyhC ?vjvzvv KvzvZv@ ,vAvyG ?vgvS(v}vyG
9v v+v vtv v*Qv vpC ?v v*Q(v v%v v}v vF ,v vp (Sango) (v vjv v!9v vTv vyGh ,IOv v*Ov vGv vyG 9v v+v v"v v+v vjv vy Pisin)
x k q k
IQvCzvAv| Qv+vi ,9v+v=vTv! ,hOv=v@h ,Ov+vgv< OvI )vyE 9vqvzvS IOvtvgv| ,v$ ))vavS(vyG
.)4(#++zJ}yG #+}zwA}yG H9TAv9<
>v Gv * #v wv y ,3h 2 IQv tv qv yG ,v p J9v qv *Qv gv Av yG gPv $ SQOv !h hv S(v "v S

k
d9vGv| #v}v\ d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG f(vwv@ fC >vGv* GP9v}vy :hC dD9vTvAvyG
VQv qv @ J9v jv zv yG gPv $ fC ?v <(v F}G Ov IC .?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG e9v }v Av $G
k
9v v%v v@9v vs9v v+v vS ,v vp ?v vGv v|Ov v}v vyG J9v vjv vzv vy9v v<h ,v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G 9v v%v vMv v*Q9v vAv v< 9v v|9v v}v vAv v$G
xvyP )vzvf uvzvgv* 9v}vvh .)5(?v*O9vgvyG J9vjvzvyG &v\Qvqv@ 9v}v| QvDvvC ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
?v v zv v *Qv v wv v yGh (Pidginization) ?v v "v v FOv v =v v yG JGQhQv v +v v S hOv v =v v @z ,)6(Rv v }v v *9v v $
Robert Anderson Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages (Ithaca, NY: )3 (

Cornell University Press, [1966]).
Gillian Sankoff, «The Genesis of a Language,» in: Kenneth C. Hill, ed., )4 (
The Genesis of Language (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma Publishers, 1979), and William
J. Samarin, «The Limitations of Nativization in Language Change,» Paper
Presented at: The Annual Meeting of the Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics,
Held in Conjunction with the Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of
America, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 1995.
John R. Rickford, Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History, Texts & )5 (
Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
1987), p. 52.
Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, p. 5. )6 (
518
{v |G(v gv yG &v +v yE >v $Pv @ fC #v wv }v * 9v | )v Zv sC {v Dv }v @ 9v %v !C (Creolization)
J9vjvy ?vzvGv| J9vJvqvZvp ,y?vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvSGh d9vtvAv!G {v+vwvWv@ ,vp ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v p(v qv Zv }v yG )v zv f d:Ov Av S:9v < ?v 8v +v zv | d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v yG
Qv vLB d9v vGv v| c9v v"v v$ Uv v+v vy ?v v_9v vTv v=v v<h .)7(?v vzv v*Qv vwv vyGh ?v v"v vFOv v=v vzv vy ?v v+v vMv v*Q9v vAv vyG
QQvwvAv| {vwvWv< ?v+vMv*Q9v@ ?v+vf9v}vAvFG ?vzv8vSC &v+vp Q9vDv@ ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9v+v!9vTvzvy
.I(tyG gP$ {D}<h
Bv vyGR9v v|h Kv vzv vZv v@ Bv v!9v vv J9v vjv vzv vyG gPv v$ fC (v v$ ,v v!9v vDv vyG HG(v vGv vyGh
Qv+v jvAv yGh (Variation) Y(v "vAv yG LP9v }v! RhQv y J9v+v \QCh J9v +v avgv | QO9v Zv}v v
)8(
?v v *(v v jv v zv v yG ?v v +v v FGhOR:G e(v v %v v qv v }v v v ,,v v !9v v Tv v y(v v +v v S(v v Tv v yG (Change)
d9v gv pCz LP9v }v !h ,)9(?v +v F9v ]v Av s:Gh ?v +v }v wv yG J9v }v jv *OGQv =v yGh ,(Diglossia)
k
Philip Baker, «Column: Off Target?,» Journal of Pidgin and :;v v v Dv v v | Qv v v dv v v !G )7(
Creole Languages, vol. 5 (1990); John Victor Singler: «Short Note,» Journal of
Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 1, no. 1 (1986), and «Rejoinder: Nativization
and Pidgin/ Creole Genesis: A Reply to Bickerton,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, vol. 7, no. 2 (1992); Derek Bickerton: «The Sociohistorical Matrix of
Creolization,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 7, no. 2 (1992), and
«The Origins of Saramaccan Syntax: A Reply to John McWhorter’s ’Substratal
Influence in Saramaccan Serial Verb Constructions,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, vol. 9, no. 1 (1994); Adrienne Bruyn and Tonjes Veenstra, «The
Creolization of Dutch,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 8 (1993), and
John McWhorter, «Rejoinder to Derek Bickerton,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, vol. 9, no. 1 (1994).
Ferguson, «Diglossia »; Donald Winford, «The Concept of «Diglossia» )8 (
in Caribbean Creole Situations,» Language in Society, vol. 14 (1985), and Albert
Valdman, «Diglossia and Language Conflict in Haiti,» International Journal of the
Sociology of Language, vol. 71 (1988).
Bickerton, «Inherent Variability and Variable Rules»; David DeCamp, )9 (
«Toward a Generative Analysis of a Post-Creole Speech Continuum,» in: Hymes,
= ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages; Labov, «The Notion of System in
519
Qv +v jv Av zv y ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG J9v *Qv dv "v yGh ,)10(?v +v Tv qv "v yG ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G y?v *(v %v yG
Qq v vqv v| jC c9v v"v v$ Uv v+v vyz )12(Hv v*hQ hO xv vyP ev vI: 9v v}v vvh .)11(j(v vjv vzv vyG
k
GOv+vgv<h .yY(v"vAvyG {vwvWv| #v| d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG J9vjvy ?v=vzv_ )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<
?v SGQOv < f(v }v Av %v }v yG f(v Dv I9v =v yG HPv Gv "v * {v wv Wv }v yG GPv $ #v | J;v qv !:G #v f
Qv +v +v jv Av yGh (Multilingualism) j(v jv zv yG OOv gv Av yGh ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG Y(v "v Av yG
k
J9v vf(v v}v vGv v}v vyGh #v v+v vFOv v+v v=v vyG (v vJv v! 9v v}v vFGO (Code-Switching) jQv vqv vWv vyG
k
gPv v$ ?v vSGQOv vy 9v v%v vJv v+v vAv v@ ,v vAv vyG UQv vqv vyG )v vyE GQv vdv v! d(v v*Qv vwv vy9v v< ?v vCOv vJv vAv v}v vyG
?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vtv=vavy9v< ?vjvzvyG ?vs;vgvv 9v%v< ?vzvZvAv}vyG Qh9vJv}vyGh J9vf(v\(v}vyG
.)13(?*(%yGh ,I(ty9<h
Creole Languages,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages; =

John R. Rickford, «Variation in a Creole Continuum: Quantitative and
Implicational Approaches,» (PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1979),
and Donald Winford, «The Creole Continuum in the Context of Sociolinguistic
Studies,» in: Richard R. Day, ed., Issues in English Creoles (Heidelberg: Groos,
1980).
Walter Edwards, «Code Selection and Shifting in Guyana,» Language )10(
in Society, vol. 12, no. 3 (September 1983), and Le Page and Tabouret-Keller, Acts
of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity.
Suzanne Romaine, «Contributions from Pidgin and Creole Studies to a )11(
Sociolinguistic Theory of Language Change,» International Journal of the
V. De Rooij, «Variation,» in: Jacques Arends, Pieter Muysken and )12(
Norval Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction (Amsterdam; Philadelphia,
PA: J. Benjamins, 1995), p. 53.
John R. Rickford, «The Need for New Approaches to Social Class )13(
Analysis in Sociolinguistics,» Language and Communication, vol. 6, no. 1 (1986),
and Marcyliena H. Morgan, ed., Language and the Social Construction of Identity
in Creole Situations, with Essays by Mervyn Alleyne [et al.] (Los Angeles, CA:
Center for Afro-American Studies, 1994).
520
k
GOOv f ?v +v vP IQ(v Y ,v p {v Dv }v@ J9v jv zv yG gPv $ fC (v $ Ev y9v Dv yG HG(v Gv yGh
bv+vavMvAvyGh ?v+vtv+v=vavAvyG ?v+vgv}vAvGv}vyG J9v+v!9vTvzvyG 9v%v< Bv}vAv$G ,vAvyG 9v*9v]vtvyG #v|
9v %v y9v}v gv Av SG #v wv }v * ?v +v zv Jv }v yG J9v +v|9v gvyG {v$ ?vyzv Tv| xvyP ,v p 9v }v < ,j(vjvzvyG
?v <9v Av wv yG J9v *Ov Jv @h ,)14(,v S9v +v Tv yG QQv Jv Av yGh ,v gv }v Av Gv }v yG Ov +v I(v Av zv y JGhOC
{v gv Gv y H(v zv av }v yG hv \(v yG bv +v av Mv @h ,#v Av }v yG Qv *(v av @h ,(Orthography)
k
{vsC Uv+vy #vwvy 9vI(v}v_ {vsC (vJv! )vzvfh .)15(?v+v"v_h hC ?v+v}vSQ J9vjvzvyG gPv$
q k
,v p ?v }v $9v Tv }v yGh eOv tv Av zv y 9v YQv p d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v yG 9v "v y Kv +v Av @ ,?v +v }v $C
,)16(?v+v|9vgvyG J9v+v<OC b9vDv=v!G {vDv| J9vf(v\(v| Qv=vf J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vS v v hQvv9v}vyG
Chris Searle, Words Unchained: Language and Revolution in Grenada )14(

(London: Zed Books, 1984), and Hubert Devonish, Language and Liberation:
Creole Language Politics in the Caribbean (London: Karia Press, 1986).
Philip Baker, «Column: Causes and Effects,» Journal of Pidgin and )15(
Creole Languages, vol. 6 (1991); Lawrence D. Carrington, «Creoles and Other
Tongues in Caribbean Development,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages,
vol. 8, no. 1 (1993); Suzanne Romaine, Language in Society: An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Mervyn C.
Alleyne, «Problems of Standardization of Creole Languages,» and Donald
Winford, «Sociolinguistic Approaches to Language Use in the Anglophone
Caribbean,» in: Morgan, ed., Language and the Social Construction of Identity in
Creole Situations.
Jan Voorhoeve and Ursy M. Lichtveld, eds., Creole Drum: An )16(
Anthology of Creole Literature in Surinam, with English Translations by Vernie A.
February (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975); Anna Barbag-Stoll,
Social and Linguistic History of Nigerian Pidgin English (Tübingen: Stauffenberg
Verlag, 1983); Edward Kamau Brathwaite, History of the Voice: The Development
of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry (London: New Beacon
Books, 1984); Peter A. Roberts, West Indians and Their Language (Cambridge,
GB: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and Lilian Adamson and Cefas van
Rossem, «Creole Literature,» in: Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and
Creoles: An Introduction.
521
#vwv}v* J9vf(v"vAvyG gPv$ {v$ ?vyzvTv|h ,)17(?v*(vjvzvyG rvsG(v}vyG Q9vCBh ?vgv+v=v_h
d9v qv _}G ~v +v zv gv Av < ?v Y9v Mv yG ?v "v Tv Jv }v yG Hv $9v "v }v yG ,v p Q9v =v Av f:G #v +v gv < 9v $Pv LC
.)18(#+jy9=yG ?+|C ?<Q9J| ,p hC ?SQO}yG ,p ?<9AwyGh IAGQtyG
k
?v s9v _z v v vv &v qv Yh #v wv }v * 9v | d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v yG J9v SGQOv y ,GQv +v LCh
,vp f(vZvAvMv}vy9vp ,9v$OvtvAvqv@ IQvY9vgv}vyG ?v+vgv}vAvGv}vyG J9v+v!9vTvzvyG fC hOv=v* yIOv+v"vf
k k
?vtv*Qvav< 9v!9v+vIC v v ?v+vfQvqvyG J9v*Qvdv"vyGh J9v*Qvdv"vyG d(vI 9v|hO f(vyO9vGvAv* d(v*QvwvyG
QGOv YE jCh IhOv ! jC {v gv Gv @ ?v +v qv +v wv < #v wv y ,?v s(v C(v | f(v wv @ fC dOv < ?v qv FGR
k k k k
.GOv *Ov F 9v Dv Jv < Hv Av "v @ 9v }v v ,GQv +v Dv | GQv |C d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG J9vjvy ?vzvGv| v v vy
q
^v gv < ,v p f(v qv zv Av Mv | ~v %v Tv qv !C ?v sQ(v yG gPv $ ,v qv y|v | fC AGQv tv yG ev I;v +v Sh
k
.?s9ayG gP$ #| GO*R| >f(AT@ fC J9+!9Ty(+S(Tzy #w}*h .9*9]tyG
J. R. Rickford and E. C. Traugott, «Symbol of Powerlessness and )17(

Degeneracy, or Symbol of Solidarity and Truth? Paradoxical Attitudes Toward
Pidgins and Creoles,» in: Sidney Greenbaum, ed., The English Language Today
(Oxford [Oxfordshire]; New York: Pergamon Press, 1985).
Frederic Gomes Cassidy, «Teaching Standard English to Speakers of )18(

Creole in Jamaica, West Indies,» in: James E. Alatis, ed., Report of the Twentieth
Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies: Linguistics and
the Teaching of Standard English to Speakers of Other Languages or Dialects
(Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1970); D. Craig: «Education and
Creole English in the West Indies: Some Sociolinguistic Factors,» in: Hymes, ed.,
Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, and «Models for Educational Policy
in Creole-Speaking Communities,» in: Albert Valdman and Arnold Highfield,
eds., Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies (New York: Academic Press, 1980);
C. J. Sato, «Linguistic Inequality in Hawaii: The Post-Creole Dilemma,» in: Nessa
Wolfson and Joan Manes, eds., Language of Inequality (Berlin: Mouton, 1985);
Romaine, Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, and K. A.
Watson-Gegeo, «Language and Education in Hawai’i: Sociopolitical and
Educational Implications of Hawai’i Creole English,» in: Morgan, ed., Language
and the Social Construction of Identity in Creole Situations.
522
J9"+FO+=yG v v 2
rYh v v 1.2
#v v+v v< IQ9v vGv vAv vyG {v vtv v"v vy {v vF9v vS(v vv IO9v vf J9v v"v v+v vFOv v+v v =v vyG Jzv vWv v! Ov vtv vy
k
iQvLC J9v"v+vFOv+v<h ,(Yamas) 9v|9v* #v+vFOv+v< ,;vDv|( ?v+v"vC G J9vf(v}vGv}vyG
,vp (Lingua Francae) {v|9vgv@ ?vjvzvvh ,)IOv*OvGvyG 9v+v"v+vi (Papua) G(v<9v=vy
#v+v< (Fanakalo) )(vy9vwv"vqvyG( ?v+v"vC G IOOvgvAv| {v}vf Y9v\hC ,vp hC YQGRv}vyG
?vjvzvvh ,)?v+v<(v"vGvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC H(v"vF ,vp d9v@9v! ~vF9v"v| ,vp (vyhRvyGh ?v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG
k
#v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E ,;v Dv |( J9v +v "v C G jOOv gv Av | #v qv Tv yG ,v I;v }v y {v |9v gv @
hv S9v Av yG fQv tv yG {v FGhC xv +v qv +v S9v =v yG IQ9v Gv @ ,v p (Melanesian) ?v *Rv +v !;v +v }v yG
k
?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG #v +v < (Tây Bôi) j(v < j9v @ ,;v Dv |( ?v |Ov Mv yG J9v jv zv vh ,)Qv Wv f
.)#++|9"A+qyG 9%|GOLh
,g;vfC &v+vyE Q9vWv| (v$ 9v}vv ,J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG Ovgv@ ?v*(v+v"v=vyG ?v+vI9v"vyG #v|h
k
WQvAvWv@ ,vAvyG ?vjvzvyG U(vZvMvyG )vzvfh ,QOvZv}vyG J9vjvy )vyE 9vS9v+vs ?vav+vTv<
#v +v FOv +v < ,v $h ,(Russenorsk) xv SQ(v "v +v ShQv yG Ov gv @h .9v %v }v Gv gv | ~v dv gv |
k
:9v Dv | ,Qv Wv f hv S9v Av yG fQv tv yG ,v p ShQv yGh f(v +v Gv *hQv "v yG 9v %v zv }v gv Av SG IQ9v Gv @
k
.)19(GO+F
)v yE 150 #v | f(v wv Av * IG(v ! ,v }v Gv gv | fhRv Mv | xv SQ(v "v +v ShQv zv y v v 1
k k k k
:9v +v pQv Yo h ,9v +v Tv "v Fh 9v *OOv fh ,9v +v <GQv fE ?v |(v S(v | Qv +v ih ,)20(?v }v zv v 200
o n
.yaQg* K+T}yGz Kristus snai ,yaQp fCz moja snai
moja, snai, eta, samme, :?v+vShQvyG #v| ,v$ ?+y9vAvyG J9v}vzvwvyG ,?+y9vAvyG ?vzvDv|}G ,vp )19(
k
.9g| _AjzyG #| ?tAW| ,%p På #wy ,?+KhQ"yG #| ,$ iQL}G J9}zwyGh ,stvoja
I. Broch and E. H. Jahr, «Russenorsk: A New Look at the Russo- )20(
Norwegian Pidgin in Northern Norway,» in: P. Sture Ureland and Iain Clarkson,
eds., Scandinavian Language Contacts (Cambridge, [Cambridgeshire]; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 30.
523
#v v| hv vSGh e9v vdv v! Qv v+v vqv vWv vAv vy {v v}v vgv vAv vTv v* på Ov vIGh aQv vI c9v v"v v$ v v v 2
)v v yEz på Arkangel ,y,v v v yRv v "v v | ,v v pz på moja stova :~v v v +v v v $9v v v qv v v }v v v yG
.)21(NyE ...y,y {sz sprek på moja ,y{+G!9vQC
q
&v!Ez eta Ø samme slag :?vJv\Gh ?v+vyO9vgv@ ?vav<GQ c9v"v$ Uv+vy v v 3
.)22(yY("yG Uq!
Kristus grot vrei, :Qh9vGvAvyG ?vavSG(v< WQvWvyG #vf Qv+v=vgvAvyG ~vAv* v v 4

.)23(yB<Pv GPE K+T}yG >]j+Sz ,tvoja ljugom
{vDv| ?v+vy:OvyG J9vgvS(vAvyG OhOvJv}vyG ,v}vGvgv}vyG fhRvMv}vyG OOvJv* v v 5

på anner ar :,v vp 9v v}v vv yeO9v vtv vyGz )v v"v vgv v| )v vyE y,v v!9v vDv vyGz anner hv v+v vS(v v@
Ovgv< e(v+vyGz morra-morradag :{vDv| ,vp QGQvwvAvyGh ,)24(y?v|O9vtvyG ?v"vTvyGz
.)25(yOjyG
#v wv }v * : ?v +v =v Tv "v yG ?v _9v Tv =v yG fC )v yE ,IQ9v V G QOv Gv @ ,xv yP hv |h

k q
?v pGQq v Y ,;v Dv | Ov Gv ! .?v "v FOv =v zv y [v +v Mv Wv Av v 9v %v @GP Ov I ,v p 9v %v +v yE Qv dv "v yG
Rv jv zv yG GPv %v y ?v <(v F}G Ov ICh .J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG ,v p 9v }v v ?v +v "v +v Zv yG ,v p IOhOv Jv |
Ov+vtvgvAvyG( (Outer Form) ?v+vFQ9vMvyG IQ(vZvyG ?v_9vTv< #v+v< Rv+v+v}vAvyG (v$ f9vv
,?v +v }v Gv gv }v yG OQG(v }v yG( ?v +v zv LGOv yG IQ(v Zv yG ?v _9v Tv <h ),v =v +v vQv @ v v aQv Zv yG
James A. Fox, «Russenorsk: A Study in Language Adaptivity,» )21(

([Unpublished Term Paper, University of Chicago], 1973), pp. 56-57.
(Equative Copula)dO9vgv@ ?vav<GQ ^vf ?v+vShQvyG Qvp(vAv@ : .56 U ,&vTvqv! QOvZCG )22(
.?+KhQ"yG 9%+zf Qp(A@ 9}"+<
Broch and Jahr, «Russenorsk: A New Look at the Russo-Norwegian )23(
Pidgin in Northern Norway,» in: Ureland and Clarkson, eds., Scandinavian
Language Contacts, p. 31.
Fox, «Russenorsk: A Study in Language Adaptivity,» p. 63. )24(
Broch and Jahr, Ibid., p. 37. )25(
524
{v vDv v| J9v vjv vy Bv v!9v vv GPEh .)?v v+v vgv v*QPv vyG J9v v+v vy6Gh ,?v v+v vy:Ov vyG JGRv v+v v+v v}v vAv vyGh
k
fGOv vtv vp( (Inner Form) ?v v+v vFQ9v vMv vyG IQ(v vZv vzv vy 9v vav v+v vTv v=v v@ jOv v=v v@ ?v v+v v"v v+v vZv vyG
k o
?v +v zv LGOv yG IQ(v Zv zv y 9v av +v Tv =v @ ,xv yP ,Qv %p v dv @ J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG f{v p ,)?v pGQq v Zv yG
)v zv f Ih;v fh .)26()IOhOv Jv | ?v +v gv *QPh ?v +v }v Gv gv | OQG(v | ,Ov +v tv | ~v Gv gv |(
?v _9v Tv < LRv }v @ ,v Av yG IOv +v I(v yG J9v jv zv yG 9v %v !(v wv < J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG Rv +v }v Av @ ,xv yP
#v | Qv Y9v "v f #v +v < rv +v yzv Av yG :#v +v "v CG #v *Qv LB #v +v zv |9v gv < ?v +v zv LGOv yG IQ(v Zv yG
.)27(?*QaqyG J9jzyG rzAM}y #+}zwA}yG d9}gASGh J9jzyG rzAM|
)28(
,v=v"vF}G ?vjvy {vDv| ?vavTv v=v}vyG J;vGvTvyG #v| iQvLC W9v}v!C c9v"v$
.J9}TyG gP$ iOI OtAq@ ,AyG ?*(8qyG J9G%zyGh (Foreigner Talk)
k k
9v%vy(vI uvqvAv| 9v%v!zv< ,9v*Ov+vzvtv@ ,J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG rv*Qvgv@ ~q v@ Ovtvy ,GQv+vLCh
k
hC (Jargons) J9v!9v_QvyG Uvwvf d9v}vgvAvS:G Uv+v*9vtv| 9v+v=vTv! Bv|9vsC 9v%v!C hC
k
I(vtv< IQvCzvAv|h GQv+vjv@ QvDvvC ,v$ ,vAvyG (Pidgin Continua) #v+vFOv+v=vyG QGQv}vAvSG
(Gastarbeiterdeutch) Xv@hOQvAv+v<Q9vAvS9vwvy9vp ,9v%v+vzv}vgvAvTv}vy ?v*QvavqvyG ?vjvzvy9v<
k k
,)29(9v+v!9v!(v* hC 9v+vvQv@ ~vzvwvAv}vyG f(vv >vTvJv< #v*9v=vAv@ Bv|GO9v| ?v!9v_QvyG &v=vWv@
d9v }v Wv yG #v +v FOv +v <( (Chinnok Jargon) c(v "v +v Wv yG ?v !9v _Q ,v }v zv wv Av | #v wv y
d;v L #v | ~v dv Av "v | (v Jv ! )v zv f {v }v Gv yG ,v qv "v < f(v |(v tv * ),v vQv +v |}G ,v <Qv jv yG
q
Qv vp(v v@ : 9v v|Ov v"v vf )v vAv vI (Clause-Initial Marker) ?v vzv v}v vGv vyG ?v v*GOv v< ~v vSGh
:Qd!G )26(
Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, p. 71.
.&Tq! QOZCG )27(
Charles C. Ferguson, «Absence of Copula and the Notion of )28(
Simplicity: A Study of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins,»
in: Hymes, ed., Ibid.
[Forschungsgruppe Pidgin-Deutsch Spanischer und Italienischer )29(
Arbeiter], Sprache und Kommunikation ausl?ndischer Arbeiter: Heidelberger
Forschungsprojekt «Pidgin-Deutsch», Analysen, Berichte, Materialien (Kronberg/
Ts.: Scriptor Verlag, 1975), p. 167.
525
.)30(LP(}! jC ?*QaqyG ~%Ajy
k
#v +v < Bv 8v Wv !C ,v Av yG #v +v FOv +v =v zv y :9v Dv | Ov gv @ xv SQ(v "v +v ShQv yG Bv !9v v GPE
k k
,vp 9v}vFGO Hv|Ov@ J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG f{vp ,9v+v=vTv! h9vTvAv| hv\h JGP J9vf(v}vGv|
fC #v wv }v * ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v "v }v +v %v yG fE .{v C9v }v Av |: ,v f9v }v Av FG hv \h J9v s9v +v S
IQv }v gv Av Tv }v yG IQ9v Gv @ ?v y9v I ,v p 9v }v v ,I(v tv y9v v ?v f(v "v Av | {v |G(v f #v f Hv Av "v @
hC ,?v*Rv+v!;v+v}vyG #v+vFOv+v=vyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E ~v+vtv@ ,vAvyG ?v*Rv+v!;v+v}vyG ,vp ?v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG
~q v v@ ,v vAv yG 9v v}v v+v v* #v v+v vFOv v+v v< ?v vy9v vI ,v vp 9v v}v vv ,jQ9v vGv v@ b9v v+v vS ,v vp I(v vdv Jv vyG
(Arafundi) jOv!(vpGQCh xv}vTvy9v< fhOhRv* #v*PvyG 9v}v+v+vyG {v$C #v+v< 9v$Qv*(vav@
bv tv Tv @ J:9v Jv yG ^v gv < ,v ph .)31(?v }v +v s {v s}G (v i9v Tv yG fhQv p(v * #v *Pv yG
,vp fhOvF(v* #v*PvyG #v+v+vzvY}G f9vwvTvyG J:9vI ,vp ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v"v}v+v%vyG
,v Av yG ?v +v FOv +v qv yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v y9v I ,v p 9v }v v ,#v +v FOv +v =v yG &v +v p uv Dv =v "v @ d9v Gv |
&v +v p uvDv =v "v@ jPvyG Bv s(v yG Uv qv ! ,v p )32(,v FOv +vp ,v p ?v +v !9vav *Qv =v yG 9v %v zv }v gv Av Tv @
.iQLC J9s9+S ,p ?*R+!;+}yG #+FO+< ?*R+zG!E
gPv $ {v Dv | ,v p ,#v +v FOv +v =v zv y ,v }v Gv gv }v yG fhRv Mv }v yG ~v dv gv | uv Av Wv *

k
(Superstrate )9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG ?vjvy( 9v+vf9v}vAvFG #v}p v+v%v}vyG ?vjvy #v| ,J:9vJvyG
?v gv \9v Mv yG J9v jv zv yG hC ?v jv zv yG Qv +v Czv @ ~v dv gv | )v zv Gv Av * 9v }v "v +v < Language)
k
,vp (Substrate Language) (s) )9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9vjvy hC ?vjvy( 9v+vf9v}vAvFG
{v gv Gv @ (Substrate) 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG fC ~v iQ( 9v %v Av y:Oh 9v %v =v +v vQv @h 9v %v pQv Y
Sarah Grey Thomason, «Chinook Jargon in Areal and Historical )30(

Context,» Language, vol. 59, no. 4 (1983), pp. 853-855.
W. A. Foley, «Language Birth: The Processes of Pidginization and )31(

Creolization,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, p. 168.
Jeff Siegel, Language Contact in a Plantation Environment: A )32(

Sociolinguistic History of Fiji (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1987), pp. 69-73.
526
k
9vtvI Qv+vCzv@ 9v%vy (Superstrate) 9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG GPvvh ?v+v}vGvgv}vyG J9v|9v%vS G
?vFQGO #v| ,vy9vAvyG hvavtv}vyG ,d9vDv}vyG {v+v=vS )vzvf ,evI: .)9v%vAv+v"v< )vzvf dGO
,vp 9v%v< KOvJvAv}vyG (Tok Pisin) f9vTv+v< c(v@ ?v*Rv+v!;v+v}vyG #v+vFOv+v< ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E
:)33(IO*OGyG 9+"+i v v G(<9<
Nau wanfela master em i-kisim mi... nau ol master i- )1(
kik; i-kikim em.
then one white-man he PM-get me then PL white-man PM-
kick, PM-kick him
«Then a white man took me... then the white men were
kicking, they were kicking it»
,f(v <Qv ]v * ^v +v =v yG d9v FQv yG f9v v ~q v C .^v +v <}G {v FQv yG ,v !Pv LC ~q v Cz
y9%!(<Q]* G(!9v
J:9v I ,v p &v !C ~v iQ ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G #v | Ov v v}v Av Tv | ~v Gv gv }v yG fC ev I:
hv|h .9v%vAv v vqv+vch hv+vS(v@h ?v*Rv +vzvGv! G ?vzvLOvyG {v+v v vzvJv@ IO9vfE ~vAv@ IOv v v*Ovf
k k
?v v v+v S(v !9v +v s}G J9v jv zv yG #v v v| Ov }v Av Tv | ?v +v "v =v yG #v | GQv +v v v =v v GARv F f{v p ,xv yP
,f9v Tv +v < c(v Av y #v +v +v zv Y}G #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG {v =v s #v | 9v %v < KOv Jv Av }v yG ?v v v+v <Qv jv yG
~v v v vSGhh ,(<him) v v im ?v v*Ov vgv v Av vyG ~v v SGhh ,(PM) i {v v v v}v v Jv vyG ~v v SG(v vp
k
?v+v<QvjvyG ?v+vS(v!9v+vsh}G ?v+v"v< 9v%v v vzvv Uvwvgv@ ,;vDv| ,(PL) (<all) ol hv}vGvyG
.)34(?*R+v v zG! G ?+"< #v v | Qv v DvC
f(q w@ v v 2.2
q
?v tv zv gv Av }v yG Qv $G(v dv yG #v | OOv f {v f9vqv Av y 9v %v Av +v"v < ,v p J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG #v *Ov @
Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages, p. 149. )33(

Roger M. Keesing, Melanesian Pidgin and the Oceanic Substrate )34(
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 105-132.
527
uvAvWv* fC J:9vJvyG ^vgv< ,vp ,vyh}G LQvMvzvy #vwv}v*h .J9vjvzvyG d9vZv@9v<
)35(
S(v<hOh f(vTviQvp xvyP #v+v< 9v}vvh .,v=v"vF}G H9vavMvyG J;vGvS #v|
VGQv iC f(vzv }vgv Av Tv* >v !9v F}G hv | ~v%v Av jvzv < f(v zv YG(v Av* #v *Pv yG S9v "vyG f{v p
Qv+vi Q(vZvyGh ,&v+vp kv y9v=v }v yG uvav"vy9v v ?v +v!(vv #vwv@ ~vy fE ?vvQvAvWv | bv+vTv =v@
J9v }v zv vh ahQv Jv yGh rv *Qv gv Av yG IGOC aPv Ih ,(Uninflected) ?v pQv Zv Av }v yG
k
(vJv! OGQvp}G d9vGv| Rh9vGvAv@ 9v}vFGO Bv!9vv ?vSQ9v}v}vyG gPv%vp ,iQvLC ?v+vqv+vch
x
A9v ]v fC aQv _ #v | {v }n v gv Av Tv |o h e9v dv Av !9v < Hp(v zv av | Uv Sv |v | {v Gp v Tp v v Q(v av Av yG
p m
Bv!9vv J;vGv TvyG gPv$ {vDv}vp ,A;vLOvyG hv| f(v zv YG(vAv* 9v|Ov"vf ?vf9v}vGvyG
?v!9v_Qh )36(?v+vFOv +v qv yG #v+v FOv +v =vy9vv J9v"v +v FOv +v=vyG b9v Dv=v!G ,v p ?v+v }v $}G ?v jvy9v<
k
?vY9vL ?vTvS|v| Qv+v*9vgv}v< ~v%vAvjvzvy ;vGvS G(v|9vsC f(v+vFOv+vqvy9vp ,)37(c(v"v+vWvyG
hv s(v Av * f9v v 9v | (v $ {v Gv Tv yG GPv $ f9v vh ,A;v LOv yG hv | 9v %v y9v }v gv Av S: ~v %v <
gPv v$ {v vDv v| Uv vwv vgv v@h .,v vFOv v+v vp )v vyE d(v vY(v vyG {v v=v vs &v v}v vzv vgv v@ ,v v!9v vav v*Qv v=v vyG
k
?vzv|9vwvyG ?vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvS9v< X9vqvAvI:G ,vp #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG ?v=viQ 9v}vFGO J;vGvTvyG
c(v"v+vWvy9vp .)38(>v!9vF}G #vf Rv+v}vAvzvy hC ,e9vS hv\(vy S9vwvgv!9vv ~v%vTvqv!}
m k
Qv+vi #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG Kv\Gh {vwvWv< G(v\Q9vf Ovs ,;vDv| ,f(v*Ov"v%vyG f(v+vvQv+v|}G
c(v "v +v Wv yG ?v !9v _Q ?v |9v sE )v yE O9v s 9v | (v $h ,~v %v Av jv y H9v Tv Av v: #v +v +v zv Y}G
,vp EvJv=vyG eOvgvy ?vtv=vTv| ?vzvf c9v"v$ BvTv+vzvp ,)39(IQ9vGvAvyG ,vp 9v%vy9v}vgvAvS:
Charles C. Ferguson and C. DeBose, «Simplified Registers, Broken )35(

Language and Pidginization,» in: Valdman and Highfield, eds., Theoretical
Orientations in Creole Studies, p. 104.
Siegel, Language Contact in a Plantation Environment: A Sociolinguistic )36(
History of Fiji.
Thomason, «Chinook Jargon in Areal and Historical Context». )37(
Foley, «Language Birth: The Processes of Pidginization and )38(
Creolization,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, pp. 163-164.
Dell Hymes, «Commentary,» in: Valdman and Highfield, eds., )39(
Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies.
528
,v =v "v FC e;v v LP(v }v ! fhO #v | e(v tv @ fC #v wv }v * #v +v FOv +v =v yG fC ?v +v !9v wv |E
9v%v+vzvf ?vsO9vZv}vyG ~vAv@ ?vTvSv |v}vyG J;vGvTvyG gPv$ {vDv}vp {vgvqvy9v<h .UvSv |v|
k
?v v+v v!9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vTv vyG ?v vfRv v"v vy9v vp ,xv vyP hv v|h .Kv v\Gh {v vwv vWv v< bv vtv vp 9v v!9v v+v vIC
?v Gv %v zv yG #v f zv Wv "v @ ,v Av yG J;v Gv Tv yG gPv $ {v Dv | )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v dv I;v }v yG
k
L9v|OE ?v+vzv<9vs )vzvf #v$Qv=v@ 9vgv| ?vf9v}vGvyG J9v*(vAvTv|h (Idiolectal) ?v*OQvqvyG
.#+FO+=yG A(W! Q9=AfG ,p ,="F}G e;wyG
c(v @ )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < g;v fC xv yP 9v "v dv I: 9v }v vh ,xv yP )v zv f Ih;v fh

.#v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v +v "v < ,v p IRQ9v < JGOOv Jv | 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG J9v }v S Ov gv @ ,f9v Tv +v <
,vp ?vzvTvzvTvAv}vyG {vgvqvyG ?v+v"v<C ,vp #v}vwv* f9vTv+v< c(vAvyG Qv+vi QvLB d9vDv| c9v"v$h
?v tv =v av yG JGP ?v +v |9v "v Av +v qv yG #v | ?v tv Av Wv }v yG j(v < j9v av yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v +v Tv !Qv p
q
{v Dv }v y ?v +v p9v \E ?v zv Dv |C )41(f9v }v p(v vh f(v S9v |(v _ #v | {v v eOv tv *h .)40(9v +v !Ov yG
(v @(v | jQv +v $h ,(Kituba) 9v <(v Av +v vh ,c(v "v +v Wv yG ?v !9v _Q #v | d9v tv Av !:G GPv $
#v | ?v +v "v +v Zv yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v +v ShQh ,(Bislama) 9v |;v Tv +v <h ,(Hiri Motu)
?v qv zv Av Mv }v yG ?v |(v S(v }v yG J9v }v Tv yG fC )v zv f f:Ov Av Tv *h ,iQv LC J9v jv y #v +v <
9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG )vzvf ?vy9vI 9v< bvtvp 9v$Qv+vTvqv@ ~vAv* J9vjvzvyG gPv$ 9v%vzvDv}v@ ,vAvyG
k
9v+vp9vWvwvAvSG Ov+vqv}vyG #vwvy bv+vTv=vAvyG ,vp WQvqv}vyG [v+vZvMvAvy9vp ,?vqvzvAvMv}vyG
,v=v"vF}G Ev*OvJvyG #v+v< {vLGOvAvyG #vf HvAv"v* jPvyG xvyP f(vwv+vS #v+vFOv+v=vzvy
?v *(v +v "v =v yG J9v }v Tv yGh (Superstrate-Based) 9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yG )v zv f Uv S|v }v yG
,v}vzvwvAv| fC xvyP hv| ,evI: .9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG JGP J9vjvzvyG #v| ?vtvAvWv}vyG
Ev *Ov Jv yG {v Gv S ,v p ?v }v $9v Tv }v yG ,v p GhQv wv qv * fC #v wv }v * 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG
John Seward Phillips, «Vietnamese Contact French: Acquisitional )40(

Variation in a Language Contact Situation,» (PhD Dissertation, Indiana
University, 1975), pp. 164-171.
Linguistics, pp. 188-194.
529
v
uv C(v | (v $ 9v }v v ?v tv Dv =v "v }v yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG (v Jv ! ,v Zv Mv Wv yG ~v $(v Jv "v y ,v =v "v F}G
.?*R+!;+}yG #+FO+< ?*R+zG!E U(ZM< )42(k"+T+v ?aSG(<
k r
GQGOJ!G 9}$Q9=Af9< b+T=AyGh ?"Fn O=n yG v v 3.2
f9vTv+v< c(v@h xvSQ(v"v+vShQvy9vv RGQvavyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG )vzvf 9v"vAvy9vIE fE
q
Ov+vtvgv@h ,9v}v%v}vGvgv| ~vGvI Ev+vI #v| 9v}v%v@GP OvI ,vp f9vqvzvAvMv* #v*PvzvyG(
)vyE IQ9vV5vy PvL|v@ : fC >vGv* )?v+vMv*Q9vAvyG 9v}v%v@GQ9vTv| ,vp GPvvh ,9v}v%vAv+v"v<
,j(v v"v vDv v| Rv v+v v+v v}v v@ (v v$ J9v v"v v+v vFOv v+v v=v vyGh ?v v|9v vAv vyG J9v vjv vzv vyG #v v+v v< Rv v+v v+v v}v vAv vyG fC
k
d9v Zv @G Qv $G(v c ~v dv gv | d9v I (v $ 9v }v v 9v +v FQO 9v %v Tv qv ! Qv %v dv @ J9v "v +v FOv +v =v y9v p
q
COv=v* QGOvJv!: ?v*9v%v"vv 9v%v+vyE Qvdv"v* fC #vwv}v* ?v"vFOv=vyG fC OvI )vyE J9vjvzvyG
w
(Language Shift) J9vjvzvyG Qv+vjv@ J:9vI Qv=vf eOvtvAv@ ~vC ,{v|9vv H9vTvAvv9v<
q
o
J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG ,v p IhQPv yG kv zv =v Av p ,Xv *Ov +v +v yGh ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G ?v *Ov "v yQv * 9v v
,xvyP hv| ,?vqvzvAvMv| J9v"v+vFOv+v< c9v"v$h .f9vTv+v< c(v@h xvSQ(v"v+vShQvy9vv
>v=vTv<h ,QGOvJv!:G GPv$ d(v_ )vzvf Xv*Ov+v+vyGh xvSQ(v"v+vShQvyG #v+v< hvtv@
k k
9v v v %v v!hRv vMv v|h j(v v+v v"v v=v vyG 9v v$Ov v+v vtv gv vAv vy 9v v v |Q9v vY 9v vS9v vwv gv !G jOv =v @ ,v v%v vp xv v v yP
k
#v f 9v |E 9v v v +v FP(v }v ! zv v v Wv "v @ J:9v Jv yG gPv v v $ {v Dv }v p ,hv SG(v yG ,v }v Gv gv }v yG
k
?vy9vJvyG )vyE 9vS9v+vs 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyGh 9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG #v+v}vzvwvAv| #v+v< ,v"vi d9v v Zv@G
#v f hC ,?v tv +v }v gv yG J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG (Originators) ,v 8v Wv "v | #v +v < Bv !9v v ,v Av yG
.)43(9+!OyG ?t=ayGh 9+zgyG ?t=ayG JGP J9jzyG #+< ?tzj| ?+CGQh ?s;f
Keesing, Melanesian Pidgin and the Oceanic Substrate, pp. 89-104. )42(
Derek Bickerton, «The :f(v@Qvw+v< (Paidginization Index) ?v"vFOv< Bv=vC fQ9vs )43(
Language Bioprogram Hypothesis,» The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 7
(1984), p. 178,
John Victor Singler, «On the Use of Sociohistorical Criteria in :Qvzvj"+vS gOvtvAv!G jPvyG
the Comparison of Creoles,» Linguistics, vol. 28 (1990),
Bickerton, «The Sociohistorical Matrix of Creolization». :f(@Qw+< &yOfh
530
q k
(Naga) 9v i9v ! #v +v FOv +v < I9v }v Tv }v yG ?v "v Fn Ov =v }o v yG Rv +v |9v S}G eOv tv @ ;v Dv }v p
k
9v%v"v| ARvF ,vp ?vGv@9v! ?v}vTvyG gPv%vp ,J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG ~vdvgv| #v| QvDvvC 9vqv*QvZv@
{v < ,bv tv p IQ9v Gv @ ?v jv zv v Uv +v y Rv +v |9v S}G {v <9v tv @ ,v Av yG 9v i9v "v yG fC f(v v #v |
q
#v+vFOv+v< ,v$h (Kituba) 9v<(vAv+vwvyG eOvtv@ &v<9vWv| {vwvWv<h .)44(~v+vzvgv@ ?vjvzvv
#v | Qv Dv vC (Kikongo) (v jv !(v wv +v wv zv y ?v qv zv Av Mv | J9v Gv %v y {v f9v qv @ #v f ?v Gv @9v !
f(v gv +v av Av Tv * ?v *(v Jv ! ?v +v "v =v y IG(v ! f(v }v S9v tv Av * 9v %v +v }v zv wv Av | f} ?v *O9v f ?v pGQq v Y
k
.)45((vjv!(vwv+vwvyG g9vGv@ 9v$Ov+vtvgv@ )vyE GQvdv! #v+vFOv+v=vyG ,vp ?vfQvTv< 9v%vF9v|OE
Qv|C (v$h ,?v"vFOv=vyG )vzvf Kv=vwv}vv aQvZvAv@ ?v+vCGQ(vyG ?v<GQvtvyG fC rv+vv iQv!
9v $Q9v =v Av f9v < (Hiri Motu) (v @(v | jQv +v %v yG ?v y9v I ,v p U9v L {v wv Wv < Kv \Gh
k k
(Austronesian ?v v+v vTv v+v v!hOv v! G ?v v+v vyGQv vAv vS}G (v v@(v v| ?v vjv vzv vy 9v v"v vFOv v=v v| ;v vGv vS
xv v zv v Av v p ,#v v +v v Av v Gv v %v v y ,v v p (v v @(v v | jQv v +v v %v v yG Ov v F(v v @h .Language Motu)
(Papuan Language) fG(v<9v=vyG J9vjvy ,v}vzvwvAv| aQv_ #v| 9v%v< KOvJvAv}vyG
q o
9v }v "v +v < ,f9v Tv +v < c(v Av yG bv L d(v _ )v zv f ,v FP(v }v ! (v Jv ! )v zv f Bv Zv zv s Ov s
#v +v +v Tv +v !hOv ! G #v +v +v yGQv Av S}G #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG {v =v s #v | 9v %v < KOv Jv Av }v yG ?v Gv %v zv yG
.(Motu) )46((@(}yG ?+"< QDvC {wW< VQg@
I9+JyG IQhO 9*9]s v v 4.2

I9v +v Jv yG IQhOv y ?v +v wv +v S;v wv yG ?v i9v +v Zv yG ,v p J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG JOQh Ov tv y
J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG Bvjv+vY PE ,)47(d9v$ 9v%v|Ovs ,vAvyG J9vjvzvyG d9vZv@9v< ?vY9vMvyG
Dwijen Bhattacharya, «Nagamese: Pidgin, Creole or Creoloid?,» )44(

California Linguistic Newsletter, vol. 24, no. 2 (1994).
Salikoko Mufwene, «Universitat and Substrate Theories Complement )45(
One Another,» in: Pieter Muysken and Norval Smith, Substrata versus Universals
in Creole Genesis (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1986).
T. E. Dutton, Police Motu: Iena sivarai (Its Story) (Port Moresby: The )46(
University of Papua New Guinea Press, 1985).
Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages. )47(
531
?vzv*QvwvyG YRv! )vyE Bv%vAv!Gh ?vzv*QvwvyG Qv=vf JzvWv! IQhQv+vS ,vp )vyhC ?vzvIQv}vv
,QvCC 9v%vy f9vv ?vi9v+vZvyG gPv$ IQv%vVh ?vs9v!C fE .9v%v}vGvgv| Ov*OvGv@ g9vGv@G ,vp
#v+vFOv+v=vzvy #vwv}v* ,vAvyG ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG ?vzv*Ov=vyG 9v%vc(vdvI ~v+vAvgv@ ,vp ,xvyP hv|
k
?v _9v Jv | 9v %v !C ~v iQ {v FGOv =v yG gPv $ iOv IE ;v gv p ?v zv *Qv wv yG Ov gv @h .9v %v Wv +v f
.J(}yGh O(vQy9<
{v *(v Jv @ (v $ Hv @9v "v yGh ,?v *(v +v "v =v yG IQ(v Zv yG hv +v S(v Av < ?v zv *Qv wv yG fQv Av tv @h
#v | OOv fh d9v $ rv *Qv gv @ >v F(v }v <h .?v zv |9v v ?v jv y )v yE ?v tv <9v Tv yG #v +v FOv +v =v yG
k
?v v*Qv vav vqv vy9v v< ?v vzv v*Qv vwv vyG ih9v vTv vAv v@ ,9v v+v vy9v vI J9v vjv vzv vyG d9v vZv v@G ,v vp #v v+v vDv vI9v v=v vyG
EvJv=vyG #v+v=v* xvyP hv|h .){vqvavzvy )vyhC ?vjvy 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v<( (Nativization)
k
d9v Gv }v zv y e9v f hv +v S(v @ Qv =v f 9v !9v +v IC ~v Av * d(v *Qv v )v yE #v +vFOv +v =vyG {v *(v Jv @ fC
?vqvzvAvMv| J9vs9v+vS ,vp rvDvwv| d9v}vgvAvSG Qv=vf ?vjvzvyG Q(vavAv@ Ev+vI ,vf9v}vAvF:G
9v}v<Q f(vwv* ,xvyPvv Qv|}G fC 9v}v<h .d9vqv_}G 9v}vv Q9v=vwvyG 9v%v}v}vAv* ,?vgvSGh
,?v *Qv av qv y9v < Uv +v y d(v *Qv v )v yE #v +v FOv +v =v yG {v *(v Jv @ ?v yO9v gv | >v S9v "v }v yG #v |
.)48(,f9}AF:G QhOyG h+S(@ Q=f O*O}A< #wyh
k
#v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E fC ,;v Dv | ,(Keesing) )49(kv "v +v Tv +v v #v +v < Ov tv p
jOOvgvAv| #vqvTvyG ,vI;v| {v=vs #v| ?vzv}vgvAvTv| ?v!9v_Qvv ?vtvDv=v"v}vyG ?v*Rv+v!;v+v}vyG
fQvtvyG ?v*GOv< d;vL jO9v%vyG bv+vJv}vyG ,vp f9vAv+vJvyG Ov+vY #vqvS ,vp J9v+v"vC G
(Lingua Francae) {v |9v gv @ ?v jv y )v yE xv yP Ov gv < Bv y(v Jv @ ,Qv Wv f hv S9v Av yG
IQ9v Gv @h dOv "v Zv yG Qv Gv V YQGRv | ,v p J9v +v "v C G jOOv gv Av | #v +v zv |9v gv yG #v +v <
k
gPv $ ,v p d9v qv _}G )v yE 9v +v =v Tv ! {v }v %v }v yG Q(v ]v Jv yG >v Tv ! Ov sh ,Q9v +v Mv yG
,?vjvzvyG gPv$ LQGhO iOvIE ,v$h f9vTv+v=vv(vAvyG ,v"v=v@ ~q v@ 9v}v"v+v<h .?vzvIQv}vyG
q
#v| {vv dOvAvSG Ovtvp ,?v+v\9v}vyG ?vzv+vzvtvyG O(vtvgvyG dG(v_ )vyhC ?vjvy 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v<
Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, p. 79. )48(

Keesing, Melanesian Pidgin and the Oceanic Substrate. )49(
532
?v zv +v zv s Bv !9v v ?v jv zv yG )v zv f ?v *Qv av qv yG JGQv +v Czv @ fC )51(#v +v |hQh )50(a(v wv !9v S
q k
Bv !9v v ,?v *Qv av p ?v jv y 9v %v +v "v =v @ {v =v s )v Av Ih ,xv yP f(v ]v i ,v ph ,9v +v =v Tv !
q
?v@(vJv"v| J9v}vSG(vy ?v"v}v]vAv| ,d(v*Qvv {vwvv IQ(vav| ?v+v"v< eOvtv@ f9vTv+v=vv(vAvyG
k k
Ovsh .9v%v}vGvgv}vy ;v|9vV GQ(vav@h ?vGv|Ov}vyG J9v+v"v=vyGh ?v%vGvyGh &vF(vyGh #v|Rvzvy
k q
Uvqv!h ,?vgvS(v| #v+vFOv+v=vv 9v}vFGO {vzvJv@ fC )vyE f9vTv+v=vv(vAvyG GPv$ {vv O9vs
k
?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G )v zv f ?v Tv S|v }v yG J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG )v zv f ,9v ]v *C ,uv =v av * #v +v +v gv Av yG
k
#v +v FOv +v =v yG ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !{v v 9v Dv *Ov I ?v *Qv av p Bv Jv =v YC ,v Av yG ?v +v <Qv jv yG 9v +v tv *Qv p}
9v$Rv+v+v}v@ QPvgvAv* ?vgvS(v}vyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG gPv$ fC (v$ 9v"v$ iRvjv}vy9vp ,?v*QvGv+v"vyG
k
.j(+"=yG 9$O+tg@ i(AT| )zf J:(*QwyG #| 9S9SC
#v+v< kvy9v=vyG d9v}vgvAvS:G fC ,U(vZvMvyG )vzvf ,d:OvAvS:G ~q v@ Ovtvyh

#v +v < (v $ 9v }v | Qv Dv vC V(v }v jv yG ?v yO9v =v Av }v yG 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG J9v jv y ,v zv }v gv Av Tv |
k
)S9vSC )vzvf( 9vgvS(v@ KOvJv* 9v| (v$ ,9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyGh 9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG ,v}vzvwvAv|
k
Y(v"v@ b9v+vS ,vp 9v}v FGO &v!9vwv| PvLzv+vS 9v+v!O ?vtv=v_ v v 9v+vzvf ?vtv=v_ {vYG(vAvyG fC
k q k
9vi9v! #v+vFOv+v=vy ?vgvS(v}vyG ?v+vY9vMvyG ;vDv}vp ,9v| OvI )vyE 9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vS OhOvJv|
#v | ?v zv }v gv Av Tv | 9v %v !(v wv y )v yh}G ?v FQOv y9v < iRv gv @ fC #v wv }v * (Naga Pidgin)
{v Dv }v y9v <h .(Assamese) Rv +v |9v S}Gh 9v i9v "v yG J9v jv y rv zv Av Mv | ,v }v zv wv Av | {v =v s
#v+v< {v}vgvAvTv@ 9v|Ov"vf bvtvp uvpOv@ ?vFQO >vTvAvwv@ ?v+v"v+vZvyG #v+vFOv+v=vyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv!{vp
?v +v "v +v Zv yG #v +v < (v $ 9v }v | {v ]v pC ,?v ]v |9v jv yG ?v +v "v +v Zv yG LQGhOv yG ,v }v zv wv Av |
Qv v|}G GPv v%v v< uv vzv vgv vAv v}v vyG (Whinnom) e(v v%v v"v v*h MGQv vAv vs9v vp .)52(?v v+v v!9v vav v*Qv v=v vyGh
Sankoff, «The Genesis of a Language,» in: Hill, ed., The Genesis of )50(
Language.
Romaine, Pidgin and Creole Languages, pp. 68, and 304. )51(
Keith Whinnom, «Linguistic Hybridization and the «Special Case» of )52(
Pidgins and Creoles,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages,
p. 104.
533
9v |Ov "v f ?v "v v9v S J9v "v +v FOv +v < A9v Wv !E #v f bv tv p Hv Av "v * d9v Zv @:G fzv < ,v \9v tv yGh
xv yPv v I9v }v Tv }v yG( iQv LC {v YG(v @ ?v jv y Qv Dv vC hC #v +v Av jv y (v }v zv wv Av | {v }v gv Av Tv *
.)53(T9t! &y(I QGO MGQAsG ,xyP h| ,($ ,)y,C;DyG #+G%AyGz
k
J9vs9v+vTvyG rvzvAvMv| Qv=vf ,~vFGO {vwvWv<h ,9v]v*C J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG Qv}v@h
k
,;vDv| ,(v@(v| jQv+v%vy9vp ,hvS(vAvyG IQhQv+vS ,vp ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGh ?v+vpGQvjvGvyG
J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG hv | IQ9v Gv Av yG ,v p ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG (v @(v }v zv y {v Gv Tv v JCOv < ,v Av yG
?v|9vf {v|9vgv@ ?vjvy BvJv=vYC Ovs ,(Papua) G(v<9v< Hv+vzvL d(v_ )vzvf ?vgv<9vAvyG
IQvWvAv"v| BvJv=vYC ~q vC ,#v+v+v<hQh}G ehOvs hv| ,,v=v+vTvTv*Q(v| A9v"v+v| d9vGv}vy
9v%vy9vZv@G {v]vqv< JQvWvAv!G Ev+vI {vLGOvyG ,vp ,vzvJv}vyG Uv+vy(v=vyG I(vs ?vavSG(v<
fC #v| ~viQvyG )vzvf L9v|Ov!:Gh jO9vZvAvs:G Q(vavAvyG ,vp {vDv}vAv* d9vf hv\(v<
k k
bOvZv* A,vWvyG Uvqv!h .)54(c9v"v$ 9v*Qvavp 9v%v< 9vCOvJvAv| #vwv* ~vy 9v%v@GP (v@(v}vyG
#v+v< {v}vgvAvTv@ Bv!9vv IQ9vGv@ #v+vFOv+v=vv ?vtvDv=v"v}vyG (Lingala) :9vjv"v+vzvyG )vzvf
9v+vtv*QvpC ,vp (vjv!(vwvyG Qv%v! d(v_ )vzvf ?vzvZvAv}vyG (vAv!9v=vyG J9vjvy ^vgv< ,v}vzvwvAv|
k
IQ9vGvAvyG ,vp {v}vgvAvTv@ {v|9vgv@ ?vjvzvv 9v}v*Ovs 9v%vMv+vSQv@ ~q v@ #vwvy ,)vavS(vyG
?v*Rv+v!;v+v}vyG #v+vFOv+v< ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E fC xvyPvv 9v"v*CQ Ovtvy .)55(Xv+vGvyGh ?v+v<QvAvyGh
~q vC ,?vfQRv}vyG ?vjvzvv 9v%v+v"v=v@ hvsh ~q vC ,#vqvTvyG #vAv| )vzvf {v|9vgv@ ?vjvzvv JCOv<
k
?v av =v @Qv | ?v +v !Ov }v zv y ,v zv LGO ,v "v CE b9v +v S ,v p IOv F9v S ?v jv y GQv +v LC Bv Jv =v YC
v v #v+vFOv+v< I9v+vJvyG IQhO ?vi9v+vY fC iQv! ,GPvwv$h .JGRvGv"v}vy9v<h ?v+v<QvAvy9v<
,v "v jv yG Y(v "v Av yG ~v +v Av gv @ )v yE ,9v %v @Ov F9v p ~v iQ ,&v Gv Av @ ?v zv *Qv wv yG YRv ! v v d(v *Qv v
Thomason and Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and :Qv v v v v dv v v v v v!G )53(
Genetic Linguistics, pp. 196-197.
Dutton, Police Motu: Iena sivarai (Its Story). )54(
Jan Knappert, «The Origin and Development of Lingala,» in: Ian F. )55(
Hancock, ed., Readings in Creole Studies, in Collaboration with Edgar Polome,
Morris Goodman, Bernd Heine (Ghent: E. Story-Scientia, 1979).
534
9v v%v vav v+v vJv v| ,v vp #v v+v vFOv v+v v=v vyG J9v vjv vzv vy f(v vwv v@ fC #v vwv v}v v* ,v vAv vyG J;v vf9v vqv vAv vzv vy
.,F(y(+S(TyG
,vAvyG J9vgv+vS(vAvyG #v| YG(v!} hv]vMv* J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG #v| OOvf f9vv GPEh
k
dG(v _ #v +v FOv +v =v yG IQ(v Y )v zv f ev p9v I 9v %v "v | GOOv f f{v p ,g;v fC 9v $9v "v Wv s9v !
k
jC jOv v=v v@ : ,;v vDv v| (Russenorsk) xv vSQ(v v"v v+v vShQv vy9v vp ,#v v|Rv vyG JGQv vAv vp
hv|h #vwvyh ,?vwvS9v}vAv|h ?v*(vs Bv!9vv IQ9vGvAvy9vp ,dGO hvS(v@ )vzvf ?v|;vf
9v %v !C ~v iQ ,,v S9v SC Qv |zv v IQ9v Gv @ ?v jv y ,v "v =v Av y ?v F9v I c9v "v $ #v wv @ ~v y xv yP
k
J9v"v+vFOv+v< f{vp ?v%v<9vWv| ?v+vqv+vwv<h .)56(IQvwv=v| #q vS ,vp 9v%v<9vTvAvvG ~q v@ 9v!9v+vIC
,v wv *Q(v wv yGh ?v "v FOv =v }v yG f9v }v zv * Gh (Chinook) c(v "v +v Wv yG ?v !9v _Qv v iQv LC
k k k
d;vL GQv+vjvY :GO 9vgvS(v@ BvV9vf Ovs IOv*OvGvyG 9v+v"v+vi v v G(v<9v< ,vp (Koriki)
k
9vf9v=vav!G OvZvs fhO #v| BvavfC Ovs 9v}v<Q d9v$ ?vi9v+vZvp ,{v*(vavyG 9v$Qv}vf
fC #v +v =v @ g;v fC JOQh ,v Av yG xv zv Av v ?v zv Dv |C f{v p xv yP hv |h ,?v +v }v Av Jv yG #v f
^vgv< IRv+vGv| ?v+vF(vy(v+vS(vS JGRvqvJv}vy ?v<9vGvAvSG bvtvp hvS(vAv@ #v+vFOv+v=vyG
?v Zv zv tv | J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG {v dv @ JGRv qv Jv }v yG gPv $ {v Dv | H9v +v i ,v ph .hv S(v Av yG
.IQ9GAyG {t"y ?+q+ch JGhOC 9%"wy
k
,vp hv]vMv@ 9v%vgvS(v@ Xvgv@ ~vy ,vAvyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG ~vdvgv}vp ,GQv+vLCh
q
?v +v F(v y(v +v S(v Tv yG JGRv qv Jv }v yG rv wv @ 9v |Ov "v f ?v jv zv yG J(v | )v yE Qv |}G Qv LB
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f(v +v Gv *hQv "v yG Q9v Gv Av yG COv < ;v Dv | 1850 ?v "v S Ov gv < .O(v F(v yG #v f 9v $O(v F(v y
,v \9v }v yG ,v p &v +v zv f G(v zv Zv I 9v }v | Qv Dv vC ?v +v ShQv yG ,v p ?v |9v @ IQOv s H9v Tv Av vG
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xv SQ(v"v+vShQvy9vp xvyPvy ?vGv+vAv!h .9v+vShQ ,vp {v*(vavyG ~v %v C(vwv| )vyE GQvdv!
q k
{v v #v | ?v *Q9v Gv Av yG ?v f(v }v Gv }v yG OGQv pC {v v 9v tv <9v S 9v %v < KOv Jv Av * f9v v ,v Av yG

535
&v v Fh )v v zv v f xv v }v vTv v yG jO9v v +v v Zv v< ?v v av v =v v @Qv v | Bv v Jv v =v vYC Ov v s J9v v *(v vAv v Tv v }v v yG
?v+vy9vJvyG ?v+vShQvyG #v| {vsC 9v%v!Ch ,AGQOR9v< 9v%v+vyE Qvdv"vyG ~v@h ,U(vZvMvyG
d9v }v yG IQ9v Gv @ IhRv i #v | U;v Mv yG )v @C Ov sh .Q9v Gv Av yG 9v %v < KOv Jv Av * ,v Av yG
,vp ~q v@ Ev+vI ,QvWvf #v|9vDvyG fQvtvzvy )vyh}G O(vtvgvyG ,vp b9vav"vyG ?vgvSG(vyG
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(Pidginized Zulu) ?v "v FOv =v | (v yhR ,v $h (Fanakalo) (v y9v wv "v qv yG A9v Zv sE
(Cibemba) 9v=v}v+v=v+vS hC ?v+v"vFOv=v}vyG (Town Bemba) 9v=v}v+v< fh9v@ Kvy9vZvy
.)58(9+=|GR ,p
h*R(@ v v 5.2
,y?v =v *Qv iz IQv $9v dv v J9v +v <O}G ,v p Hv y9v gv @ fC )v yE ?v "v FOv =v yG &v Gv Av @
gPv$ Qvdv"vyG ?v%vFh f{vp xvyP hv|h .?vjvzvyG ?v"v+v"v< IO9vf yaQvavAv|z d9vDv}vvh
k
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?v+v<hQh}G J9vavzvTvyG Bv|9vsC Ev+vI ?v+vFG(vAvS:G #vv9v|}G ,vp d(v*QvwvyG J9vjvy
~q v @ ,Qv Wv f hv S9v Av yG )v yE Qv Wv f Uv |9v Mv yG #v +v !Qv tv yG #v | AkGOv Av <G JGQv }v gv Av Tv |
q k q
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?v+v!(vv ?vvQvAvWv| ?v*QvWv< ?v<9vGvAvSG {vDv}v@ 9v%v!C hOv=v@ J9v"v+vFOv+v=vy9vp ,?v"vwv}v}vyG
.?v]v|9vi J9vjvzvy ?vCOvJvAv}vyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG #v+v< WhQvWv}vyG d9vZv@:G ?vF9vJvy
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.58-55 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )57(

John A. Holm, Pidgins and Creoles, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA; New )58(
York: Cambridge University Press, 1988-1989), vol. 2: References Survey, p. 555.
536
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,vAvyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG hC ,(Indo-Aryan) Ov"v%vyG ,vp ?v*QBhOv"v%vyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG
q
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v v ?v*Ov*(vTvyG #v| #v+vGv$h (Borgarmalet) Bvy9v|Q9viQ(v=vy9vv ?vqvzvAvMv| ?v*Q9vGv@
.(Swedish-Lappish) )60(?+<;yG
d(*QwyG J9jy v v 3
?+fQqyG W9}!}Gh d(*QwyG J9}S v v 1.3

k k
9v}vv ,J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG #v| 9v*(v+v"v< IQ(vav|h IOvtvgv| 9v}vFGO J:(v*QvwvyG Ovgv@
y#v v +v v FOv v +v v =v v yGz {v v IGQv v | #v v +v v < J9v v p;v v Av v L:9v v p ,g;v v fC xv v yP )v v yE 9v v !Qv v VC
k k k
;v*(v_ 9v"v|R BvV9vf #v+vFOv+v=vyG Bv!9vv GPE GOvF ?vJv\Gh BvTv+vy yd(v*QvwvyGzh
?v*QvavqvyG PvLzv@ fC {v=vs 9v%v+v}vzvwvAv}vy )vyh}G ?vjvzvyG BvJv=vYCh BvMvSQv@ ~q vC
f{vp ,xvyP hv|h .)61(IOv*OvGvyG 9v+v"v+vjvy f9vTv+v=vv(vAvyG d9vI (v$ 9v}vv ,9v%v!9vwv|
Foley, «Language Birth: The Processes of Pidginization and :Qv v v v v v v v vdv v v v v v v v v !G )59(
Creolization,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey,
(v$h ,jOv!(vpGQhCh S9v}v++yG QvY9v"vf #+v< LRv| jPvyG ,S9v}v+v* _vFO+v< uv+vC(v@ ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v<
k
.[(p {}f {=s d(*QwyG - _FO+=yG d(I K9J<}G ,p 9phQg| #w* D LR|
Sankoff, «The Genesis of a Language,» in: Hill, ed., The Genesis of )61(
Language; Derek Bickerton, Roots of Language (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 1981),
pp. 3-4, and Romaine, Pidgin and Creole Languages, pp. 68, and 304.
537
.Qv wv =v | {v wv Wv < ?v "v Gv %v }v yG J:(v *Qv wv yG J:9v I ,v p ?v Jv \Gh J9v p;v Av L:G
hC /h #v +v *Qv av qv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG >v Tv Av wv @ ,v Av yG J:(v *Qv wv yG f{v p ,xv yPv yh
Ov gv < ?v fQv Tv <h M(v \(v < ~v %v Av f9v }v F H9v av Mv y )v yh}G J9v jv zv yG Bv Jv =v YC
,v|9vgvyG d9vZv@:G f(vwv* &v+vzvfh .){v+vGvyG {vLGO( )vyh}G d9vZv@:G ?v+vgv\h
~vAv* 9v|Ov"vf ?v!9v_QvyG hC IQv+vjvAv}vyG #v+vFOv+v=vyG {v=vs 9v| ?vzvIQv| ,vp Q(vavAv| Qv+vi
HvAv"v@ ,vAvyG IQhQv+vTvyG )vzvf )62(f9v}vp(vvh f(vS9v|(v_ {v+vJv*h .?vjvzvyG #v+vGv%v@
Bvtv=v_ Ovs 9v%v!C 9v%v!9v*Qv*h ,rvF9vqv}vyG ?vjvzvyG #v+vGv%vAv< J:(v*QvwvyG gPv$ {vDv|
J:(v *Qv wv yGz 9v %v +v p 9v }v < ~v y9v gv yG ,v p ?v phQv gv }v yG J:(v *Qv wv yG #v | OOv f )v zv f
d9v Gv | ,v ph 9v +v tv *Qv pzv < ?v +v <hQh}G Ov +v =v gv yG IQ9v Gv @ b9v +v S ,v p Jzv Wv ! ,v Av yG
Ov vtv vAv vgv v*h .)63(yjOv v"v v%v v yG bv v+v v Jv v}v vy9v v< QRv vGv vyG #v v| OOv vf ,v vph ,v v =v v*GQv vwv vyG
,v$ ?v"v+vGv%vyG J:(v*QvwvyG fC )65(f9v}vp(vvh f(vS9v|(v_ {vDv| )64(f(v@Qvwv+v<
?v*Rv+vzvGv!E fC 9v}v%vp;vMv< OvtvAvgv* &v"vwvyh ,A9v"vDvAvS:G Uv+vyh (Norm) Q9v+vgv}vyG
gPv v $ ^v v gv v =v v p ,)66(?v v tv v =v v av v yG gPv v $ ,v v p {v v LOv v @ (HCE) jGh9v v $ d(v v *Qv v v

Linguistics.
.148 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )63(
Derek Bickerton, «Creole Languages and the Bioprogram,» in: )64(
Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, vol. 2: Linguistic Theory:
Extensions and Implications, p. 272.
Thomason and Kaufman, Ibid. )65(
q
,1 ~vsQ Xv|9v%vyG ,352 U ,&vTvqv! QOvZCG ,vp f9v}vp(vvh f(vS9v|(v_ #v| {vv OvtvAvgv* )66(
Derek Bickerton, «Roots of Language,» :,v v v v p (Morris Goodman) f9v v v v |O(v v v v i {v v v v Dv v v v |
International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 51 (1985), and John Holm,
«Substrate Diffusion,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in
Creole Genesis, and McWhorter, «Rejoinder to Derek Bickerton,» pp. 87-89,
k
bv +v vJCG ?v v*R+zv Gv v!E _v vFO+v v< #v v| 9v vs;v vav v!G JQ(v v_ ,(HCE) jGh9v v$ d(v v*Qv vv ?v v*R+zv vGv v!E fC
= ?vY9vBG jGh9v$ _vFO+v< ?v*R+zvGv!E #v| ?"+v"v< QvDvvC ,v$h ,19 fQvtvyG ,vp IO(vF(v| Bv!9vv ,vAvyG jO9v%vyG
538
Qv+vih IQvwv=v| ?vzvIQv|( 9v%v+vyE QvtvAvqv@ #vwvy J:(v*QvwvyG 9v%v}vS9vtvAv@ J9v}vTvyG
gPv $ #v }v ]v Av @h .jGh9v $ #v +v FOv +v < ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E {v Dv | J9v "v +v FOv +v < )IQ(v av Av |
:)67(J9}TyG
k
d(v *Qv v #v | ?v zv }v F ,;v Dv | (Movement Rules) {v tv "v yG Ov fG(v s v v 1
fC #v vwv v}v v* )ICQv v|G iCQ f(v vF( jan bin sii wan uman :(GC) 9v v!9v v *(v vi
wan uman Janh ,{v f9v qv yG Qv +v Czv Av < Jan bin sii wan uman :v v v v uv tv Jv @
Qv v v +v v v Czv v v Av v v < a sii jan bin sii wan umanh ,d(v v v gv v v qv v v }v v v yG Qv v v +v v v Czv v v Av v v < bin sii
.)68({gqyG
?vpQvgv}vyG ?v+v}vS:G J9v=vvQv}vyG #v+v< Rv+v}v* jPvyG )69(

rv*QvgvAvyG e9vdv! v v 2
Derek Bickerton, :f(v @Qv w+v < ,v p 9v %v Av Wv s9v "v | Bv E ,v Av yGh ,_v +"+v =v zv qv yGh _+v !9v <9+yG #v *Qv F9v %C9v < =
Roots of Language (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 1981),
q
OQ(vqvwv*Qvp ,f9vAvqvzvAvJ f9vAv*Qvdv! d9vtCG GPv$ ,vqvy|C ?v+v]vtvyG gPv$ ,vqvp ,xvyP hv|h ,QvLB f9vwv| ,vph
?v *R+zv Gv !E _v FOv +v =v y uv <9v Tv yG Q9v Wv Av !:G hv SG(v yG O(v F(v yG Ov +v vzv Av y gRGQv <E ~q v @ M(v \(v yG ^v gv < fC Qv gv Wv *
?v*R+zvGv!E fC ,vp Qv@Qh(vv9v| hv| rvzvAvMh ,QvtvAvTCG QvWvf hvS9vAvyG fQvtvyG ,vp jGh9v$ ,vp jO9v%vyG bv+vJCG
?vp(vs(v| ?+v!9vC ?vjvy {vGvTvv ^vpQv@ fC #vwv}v* _v+"+v=vzvqvyGh _+v!9v<9+yG #v*QvF9v%C9v< ?vY9vBG jGh9v$ _vFO+v<
U9vL {vwvWv< QvCzvAv| OQ(vqvwv*Q fE ,~v%v8v+vH {v=vs ?vzv*(v_ QhPvF 9v%vy ,vAvyGh ?v*R+zvGv! G ?vjvzvyG d9vZv@:
_v FO+v <h jGh9v $ _v FO+v < Q(v av @h ?v gv +v =v _ d(v I ,v Zq v "v yG M(v \(v y9v <h ?v gv SG(v yG 9v +v pGQv i(v }v *Ov y9v <
Julian M. Roberts: «A :Uv @Qv <hQ 9v %v qv "v Y ,v Av yG jGh9v $ ,v p ?v *R+zv Gv ! G d(v *Qv vh ?v *R+zv Gv ! G
Structural Sketch of Pidgin Hawaiian,» Amsterdam Creole Studies, vol. 12 (1995),
and «Sociohistorical Data on Pidgin Creole Development in Nineteenth Century
Hawai’i,» (MS Presented to Visiting Stanford Pidgin/ Creole Class at the University
of Hawaii, Honolulu, May 1995), and Derek Bickerton, «Development of Pidgins
and Creoles: At Last the Facts!,» (MS, Presented to Visiting Stanford Pidgin/
Creole Class at the University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HL, May 1995).
Bickerton, Roots of Language, pp. 51-72, :Qd!G )67(
.?qzAJ J:(*Qv ,p J9}TyG gP$ {D| #| 12 U(ZM<
.52 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )68(
.56 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )69(
539
,)H9v v vAv v vwv v vyG( (di buk) :9v v v!9v v v*(v v vi d(v v v*Qv v vv :(Definite Noun Phrases)
Qv v +v v ih ,)U9v v L H9v v Av v v( (Undifinite) (wan buk) ?v v pQv v gv v }v v yG Qv v +v v ih
oo
.)>o Av( (Nonspecifies) (buk) ?ZZM}yG
(Modality) &v F(v }v yGh (Tense) #v |Rv yG {v Dv | JGRv +v +v }v @ Q9v qv VE v v 3
uv+vsOh (Irrealis) ,vgvsGh Qv+vih (Anterior) uv<9vS {vDv| (Aspect) ?v%vGvyGh
k
ah ,bin ,go :;vDv| ?v+vzvgvp {v=vs J9v}vSGhh Qv+vjvAv| ?vavSG(v< ,(Punctual)
d(v*Qvv ,vyG(vAvyG )vzvf ape h avah teh ,,vyG(vAvyG )vzvf 9v!9v*(vi d(v*Qvv ,vp
.(HC) )70(,A*9$
{v v}v vF L9v v|OEh (Relativization) ?v vzv vZv vyG A9v v"v v< ,v vp J;v v+v v%v vTv v@ v v 4
k
{vDv| (Relative Pronoun) ?vzvZvyG Qv+v}v\ )vzvf :hC Qvp(vAv@ iQvLC ?v=vvQv|
:9!9*(i d(*Qv ,p gOG! 9|
bo mi granfaada bin ga wan ool boot, (ØRP)
bin ton dong batam wan big managgo chrii (ØRP)
bin de rait a head a di biling.
(vjv!9v| IQvGvV BvJv@ >vzvtv!G )jPvyG( ~v*Ovs HQ9vs jOvGvy f9vv #vwvyz
.)71(y?*9"=yG e9|C B!9v ,AyG IQ+=v
k
9v ]v *C ~q v @ IQv Lzv Av }v yGh IQv wv =v }v yG ?v "v +v Gv %v yG J:(v *Qv wv yG )v yE ?v p9v \ 9v <
J:(v*Qvvh (Fort) #vZvJvyG J:(v*Qvv #v +v < IO(vF(v}vyG )72(bhQvqvyG f9v+v=v@
J:(v *Qv wv p ,(Marron) A9v "v Av Tv wv yG J:(v *Qv vh (Plantation) ?v fQRv }v yG
.59 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )70(

Rickford, Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: :#v v v f ?v v v Tv v v =v v v Av v v tv v v | ,#v v v *Qv v v *E )71(
History, Texts & Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole, p. 148.
Bickerton, «The Language Bioprogram Hypothesis,» pp. 269-270, and )72(
Jacques Arends, «The Sociohistorical Background of Creoles,» in: Arends,
Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction, pp. 16-17.
540
OvfG(vtvyG d(vI hC ,vp JQ(v_ ,vAvyG J9v+v|9vgvyG d9vZv@G )vzvf {v+vJv@ #vZvJvyG
#v+v!QvtvyG #v+v< ?v+v<QvjvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC {vIG(vS )vzvf ?v+v|9v|}G ?v+v<hQh}G ?v*QvwvTvgvyG
k
#v+v+vtv*Qvp}Gh #v+v+v<hQh}G #v+v< ){vY}G ,vp( :hC ,QvWvf hvS9vAvyGh SO9vTvyG
IQ9v vGv v@ ,v vp fhOv vf9v vTv v* #v v*Pv vyG hC f(v vZv vJv vyG ,v vp #v v+v vzv v|9v vgv vyG #v v+v v+v vzv vJv v}v vyG
,f(v Zv Jv yG gPv $ {v Dv | #v | OOv f ?v +v y9v jv @Qv =v yG {v Dv | ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !5v yh )73(uv +v sQv yG
?v*Rv+vzvGv!E BvGvAv!C f(vZvJvyG gPv$ fC (Hancock) )74(c(vwv!9v$ ~vfR Ovsh
k
#v| OOvgvy GQOvZv| 9v$QhOv< BvJv=vYC ,vAvyG (GCCE) 9v+v"v+vi {vI9vS d(v*Qvv
#v wv @ ~v y {v <9v tv }v yG ,v ph .jRv +v zv Gv ! G S9v S}G JGP ?v +v =v +v *Q9v wv yG J:(v *Qv v
#v vc Ov vsh ,?v v+v v<Qv vjv vyG ?v v+v vtv v*Qv vp}G JGQv v}v vgv vAv vTv v}v vyG gPv v$ {v vDv v| ?v v+v v!9v v=v vS5v vy
,v !9v =v SE S9v SC JGP J:(v *Qv wv yG IQPv ! fC (McWorter) )75(Qv @Qh(v v9v |
?vtv@(v=vyG fC VGQvAvp9vp ,)vavgv}vyG GPv$ )vyE gO9v"vSE #vwv}v* Ov*OvGvyG ~vy9vgvyG ,vp
,v $ #v wv @ ~v y Ov *Ov Gv yG ~v y9v gv yG J:(v *Qv wv y ?v }v S9v Jv yG ?v +v Mv *Q9v @(v +v S(v Tv yG
9v %v "v | )v @C ,v Av yG ?v +v <Qv jv yG 9v +v tv *Qv pC f(v Zv I {v < ,Ov *Ov Gv yG ~v y9v gv yG IQv }v gv Av Tv |
c9v "v %v p ,{v v9v Wv | #v | (v zv Mv * : #v wv y Qv +v Dv | VGQv Av pG (v $ ,Ov +v =v gv yG ~v dv gv |
~vy9vgvyG G(vzvYh #v*PvyG yhv+v=vzvy #v+v\hQvgv}vyG Ov+v=vgvyGz >vzviC fC O9vtvAvf: >v=vS
jC hC 9v v+v v"v v+v vi {v vI9v vS d(v v*Qv vv ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v!E f(v vpQv vgv v* G(v v!(v vwv v* ~v vy Ov v*Ov vGv vyG
Ov +v =v fzh fhQ(v Fzv }v yG f(v +v <Qv jv yG f(v +v tv *Qv p}G 9v }v "v +v < ,#v Zv Jv yG J:(v *Qv v
f9vv GPv$ J9v+v|9vgvyG d9vZv@G f{vp ,e9vf {vwvWv< J:(v*Qvv 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< 9v%+zvf ?vy9vI G ~viQ )73(
fC ~viQ ,~v%v}vdvgv| #vwv* D fE 9v%+zv}vgvAvTv| #v| OOvgvy ?v*Qvavp Qv+vi J9vf(v"v@ M(v\(v< f(vwv* fC >vK
k q
J9vjvy BvJv=vYC f(vwv@ Ovs 9v8Ch ,9v*Qvavp 9v$(v}vzvgv@ Ovs ,vtv*Qvp}Gh NhQh}G O9v;:G ,vp d9vqv_}G
.?*Qap ?jy ~9Oy BT+y #*PyG x8yhC ^g=y ]hC
Ian F. Hancock, «The Domestic Hypothesis, Diffusion, and )74(
Componentiality: An Account of Atlantic Anglophone Creole Origins,» in:
Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis.
John McWhorter, «The Scarcity of Spanish-Based Creoles Explained,» )75(

Language in Society, vol. 24, no. 2 (1995).
541
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,v]vAvtv* 9v}vv J:(v*QvwvyGh .)76(Ov*OvGvyG ~vy9vgvyG )vyE G(v=v$P ~v%v!C {v}vAvJv}vyG
,v p JQ(v _ hC Bv }v +v sC 9v %v !C VGQv Av pG ~q v @ ,v Av yG xv zv @ ,v $ 9v %v }v SG xv yP
Ev+vI jOv"v%vyGh jO9v%vyGh ,vTvzv_}G bv+vJv}vy9v< QvwvTvyG YQGRv| ,vp {vY}G
#v| O(vtvgv< d9v}vgvyG hC Ov+v=vgvyG J9v+v"vCE #v| ?vf(v"v Av| J9vf(v}vGv| >vzvF ~q v@
?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+v"v=vyGh 9v+vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvy9vp ,~vy9vgvyG #v| iQvLC AGRvFC
v v #v +v FOv +v =v yG Qv *(v av @h YGOv <E JGQhQv +v Sh gPv $ YQGRv }v yG J9v f(v }v Gv | {v Dv }v y
k k
,v p GOv *Ov F 9v f(v \(v | Bv Tv +v y f9v wv }v yG GPv $ ,v p hv \(v }v Av * jPv yG d(v *Qv wv yG
k q
#v+v< 9v%v< KOvJvAv}vyG xvzv@ ,v$ A9v"vAvTvwvyG J:(v*Qvwvp ,GQv+vLCh .)77(&v@GP OvI
G(v|9vsCh O9v=vgvAvS:G #v| GhQvp #v*PvyG Ov+v=vgvyG hC #v+v+vF9v"vAvTvwvyG #v| #v*QOvJv"v}vyG
k
9v %v i(v zv < >v gv Zv * J:9v Gv | ,v ph O;v =v yG {v LGO ?v Y9v Mv yG ~v %v @9v f9v }v F 9v }v FGO
k
9v v vQv v+v v|Ch e9v v"v v*Q(v vS ,v vp (Saramaccan) ?v v+v v!9v vwv v|GQ9v vTv vyG Ov vgv v@h .9v v+v v=v v Tv v !
Qv +v i IRv +v }v }v yG 9v %v @9v }v Sh .IQv %v V Qv Dv v}G ?v +v F9v "v Av Tv wv yG d(v *Qv wv yG ,?v +v <(v "v Gv yG
,v Av yG ?v +v =v Tv "v yG ?v yRv gv yG )v yE 9v %v "v | ARv F ,v p hv FQv @ fC #v wv }v * ?v +v <hQh}G
.)78(?"ATwyG 9%+]At@
Morris Goodman, «The Portuguese Element in the American Creoles,» )76(

in: Glenn G. Gilbert, ed., Pidgin and Creole Languages: Essays in Memory of John
E. Reinecke (Honolulu, HL: University of Hawaii Press, 1987), and Rickford,
Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History, Texts & Linguistic Analysis of
Guyanese Creole, pp. 46-51, and 53-56.
Mervyn C. Alleyne, «Acculturation and the Cultural Matrix of :fQ9v v v v v v v vs )77(
Creolization,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, and
Philip Baker, «On the Origins of the first Mauritians and the Creole Language of
Their Descendants,» in: Philip Baker et Chris Corne, Isle de France Creole:
Affinities and Prigins (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 1982).
Richard Price, ed., Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the )78(
Americas (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1973); Mervyn C. Alleyne,
= «Substratum Influences - Guilty untill Proven Innocent,» in: Muysken and Smith,
542
{Y}G J9*Qd! v v 2.3
#v v +v v FOv v+v v =v v yG J9v vSGQO ,v v p dOv v Gv vzv vy IQ9v v CE 9v v *9v v ]v v tv v yG eOv v sC Ov v IC
rv +v v U9v L {v wv Wv < hC ,J9v jv zv yG gPv $ Jzv Wv ! rv +v v ,v $ d(v *Qv wv yGh
k
,vp 9v+v=vTv! ?vavTv=v}vyGh ?vFhRv}v}vyG 9v%vZvF9vZvLh( 9v%v@;vC9v}v@ Qv+vTvqv@ #vwv}v*
IOOv gv Av | J9v *Qv dv ! #v +v < {v Y}G ,v p Uv p9v "v Av yG f9v v Ov tv y .)79(){v sC b9v av !
?vzv tv Av Tv| JzvWv ! J9v f(v "vAv yG ~v dvgv | fC VQv Av qv* (Polygenetic) d(v Y}G
{v v vY}G ?v v v*O9v v vIC J9v v v*Qv v vdv v v!h ,?v v vqv v vzv v vAv v vMv v v| ?v v v"v v vwv v v|Ch J9v v vshC Qv v v=v v vf
hC rv zv S #v | Bv tv Av VG J9v f(v "v Av yG >v zv iC fC VQv Av qv @ (Monogenetic)
,vp ,xvyPvy ?vGv+vAv! ,9v$Q9vWvAv!Gh 9v%vDv< ~q v@ ,vAvyG a;vS}G #v| {v+vzvs OOvf
,v p J9v V9v tv ! #v +v +v \9v }v yG #v *Ov tv gv yG ,v p Bv "v }v +v $ #v wv y .iQv LC #v v9v |C
IOOv gv Av | : Bv Tv +v y ,v Av yG( ,v F9v +v I}G Hv |9v !Qv =v yG ?v *Qv dv ! d(v I J9v +v <O}G
.)d(Y}G ?*O9IC :h d(Y}G
Q9v=vAvf9v< ?vzv}vAvJv| ?v+v<P9vF )vzvf d(vY}G IOOvgvAv}vyG J9v*Qvdv"vyG Qvp(vAv@

k
uv*OvZvAvzvy {v<9vtvyG Qv+vi VGQvAvp:G ,v]vAvtv@ :h 9v+v}vy9vf uv+v=vavAvzvy ?vzv<9vs 9v%v!C
k q
.9v+vMv*Q9v@ {vZvAv| d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG ~vy9vf ,vp OvIGh {vv fC ,vp {vDv}vAv}vyG
J9vfGOv<E J9vf(v"vAvyG gPv$ Bv!9vv GPE( QQvwvAv}vyG jOvJvAvyG GPv$ &vFG(v@ 9v%v"vwvy
?v+vS9vS}G ?v+vGv+v@GQvAvS G fE .)?9v%v@9v%v<9vWv@ Qv+vTvqv@ #vwv}v* rv+vwvp ,?vzvtvAvTv|
Ov *Ov Jv @ ,v p #v }v wv @ d(v Y}G IOOv gv Av }v yG J9v *Qv dv "v yG H9v Jv YC 9v $9v "v =v Av * ,v Av yG
J9v v "v v +v v FOv v +v v =v v yG uv v zv v Mv v * jPv v yG d9v v Zv v @:G J:9v v I ,v v p Qv v Dv v vC hC {v v |9v v f
Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis, and Arends, «The Sociohistorical =

Background of Creoles,» in: Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An
Introduction, p. 16.
Pieter Muysken, «Are Creoles a Special Type of Language Creole :fQ9v v v s )79(
Languages and the Bioprogram,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge
Survey, vol. 2: Linguistic Theory: Extensions and Implications, pp. 285-286.
543
k
bQv v av v < 9v v $Q(v v av v @ ,v v p 9v v =v v =v v S f(v v wv v * fC #v v wv v }v v * jPv v yGh J:(v v *Qv v wv v yGh
.)80(?*RG(A|
iOv v vy {v v vF9v v v$ e9v v v}v v vAv v v$9v v v< )v v vdv v vJv v v@ ,v v vAv v vyG {v v v|G(v v vgv v vyG Ov v vIC {v v vgv v vy
9v%v+vp uvDv=v"v@ ,vAvyG ?v*RG(vAv}vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vs9v+vTvyG ,v$ #v+v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG
.9v%vAv*Ozv@ 9v%v+vzvf ,vAvyG ?v*RG(vAv}vyG rvF9vc(vyG GPvvh J:(v*QvwvyGh J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG
k
{v tv Av Tv }v yG jRG(v Av }v yG Q(v av Av yG ?v *Qv dv "v < )v }q v Tv * 9v | ;v gv p f(v wv *o 9v | GPv $h
)v v v v yE IOv v v v "v v v v Tv v v v }v v v v yG (Independent Parallel Developement Theory)
,v vf9v }v Av vF:G b9v v+v vTv yG ?v v*Qv vdv v!h )83(#v v+v v|hQh )82(O(v @ {v v=v vs #v v| ,)81(d9v v$
)v v v vyE ?v v v v<(v v v vTv v v v"v v v v}v v v vyG (Common Social Context Theory) cQv v v vAv v v vWv v v v}v v v vyG
)86(
GQv v Av v Tv v "v v +v v ph #v v wv v Tv v *(v v |h )85(#v v wv v Tv v *(v v | aQv v _ #v v | )84(a(v v wv v !9v v S
k
jC #v f a(v wv !9v Sh d9v $ ,v p 9v Dv =v f Ev Jv =v yG #v wv }v * #v wv y ,(Veenstra)
k
9vS9vSC )87(d9v$ Ovgv*h .{v]vpC {vwvWv< IQ(vav| Y(v"vyG GPv$ #v| ?v+vqv+vch ?v*Qvdv!
k
9v %v +v p aQv Av gv * Ev +v I (Baby Talk Theory) {v qv av yG ?v jv y ?v *Qv dv "v y 9v IQv V
: d(vY}G jOOvgvAv}vv ~v%vqv"vZv! #v*PvyGh f(vzvjvAvWv* #v*PvyG S9v"vyG fC ]E IQ9vV G >v: )80(
.,f(< hC IQhQ]y9< xyPv ~%Tq!C f(q"Z*
Loreto Todd, Pidgins and Creoles (London; Boston, MA: Routledge )82(
and Kegan Paul, 1974), p. 31.
Romaine, Pidgin and Creole Languages, pp. 92-102. )83(
Gillian Sankoff, The Social Life of Language (Philadelphia, PA: )84(
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980).
Muysken, «Are Creoles a Special Type of Language Creole Languages )85(
and the Bioprogram,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, vol.
2: Linguistic Theory: Extensions and Implications, pp. 286-287.
Pieter Muysken and Tonjes Veenstra, «Universalist Approaches,» in: )86(
Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction, p. 128.
544
e9v@ Qv+vi H9vTvAvvG b9v+vS ,vp 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG #v| ^vgv<h 9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG Qv+vCzvAv<
Qv$9vdv}vyG IOOvgvAv| J:9vtv| ?vf(v}vGv| )89(a(vwv!9vS Ovgv*h .)88(?v+v!9vDvyG ?vjvzvy
,v p (Grammaticalization) Ov +v gv tv Av yG d(v I IOv FGQv yG J9v V9v tv "v yG #v }v ]v Av @
k
ev vqv vzv v* J:9v vtv v}v vyG gPv v$ #v v| GOv vIGh d9v vtv v| : #v vwv vy ,H9v vav vMv vy9v v< ?v vs;v vf
?v +v zv YG(v @ J9v =v zv av Av | Ov +v =v gv yG YQGRv | VQv qv @ :eQ9v Y ,v qv +v ch Q(v dv "v |z v v v<
HQvs}G )91(,vy(vp Ovgv*h .)90(#vwvTv*(v| aQv_ #v| 9v%v+vyE IOv"vTv}vyG y?v%v<9vWvAv|
,?vIQvAvtv| J9v*Qvdv"vyG gPv$ A9v}vSC hOv=v@ Ev+vI ,vqv+vc(vyG Q(vdv"v}vyG ~v*Ovtv@ )vyE
)92(
,v v=v v"v vF}G ?v vjv vzv v y ?v v"v vwv v}v v}v vyG J9v v|9v v%v vS 9v v< ?v v*GOv v< aGQv vAv v f:9v v< #v vwv vy
k
?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vS Qvdv! ?v%vFh #v| ;v||v| f(vwv* 9v}v"v+v<h .(Foreigner Talk)
k
IQ(vav}vyG ?v+vqv+vc(vyG J9v*Qvdv"vyG #v| GOv*Rv| HvAv"v* fC {v}vAvJv}vyG #v| EvJv=vyG fC
f(v wv ! fC >v Gv * ,d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v yG A(v Wv "v < ?v Y9v Mv yGh e9v @ {v wv Wv <
?v fQRv }v yG J:9v I #v +v < ?v +v s9v +v Tv yG J9v %v <9v Wv Av yG ,v p ?v jv y9v =v }v yG ,v p #v *QPv I
{vwvWv< ?vphQvgv| Qv+vih Y(v"vAv| Qv+vwvqv@ bvJv| 9v%vzv+vY9vqv@ BvyGR9v| ,vAvyG IQ9vGvAvyGh
q
.f6G )AI a9v
)94(
d9v$ )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< 9v}vv ,(Bloomfield) )93(
Ovzv+vqv|(vzv< )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<h
.&zqSC Qd!G )88(

Sankoff, The Social Life of Language. )89(
2: Linguistic Theory: Extensions and Implications, p. 287.
Foley, «Language Birth: The Processes of Pidginization and )91(
Creolization,» in: Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, p. 164.
.&zqSC Qd!G )92(
Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York: H. Holt and Company, )93(
[1933]), pp. 472-473.
Hall, Pidgin and Creole Languages, p. 5. )94(
545
#vwv}v* 9v%vAvavSG(v< ,vAvyG IQhQv+vTvyG (v$ d(vY}G OOvgv@ ,vp jRG(vAv}vyG {v|9vgvyG
#v| 9v%v<9vTvAvvGh 9v%v}v%vp Qv+vTv+vAvy ~v%vAvjvy fzvAv< G(vavTv=v* fC 9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG ,v}vzvwvAv}vy
?vjvy ?v*Qvdv! Bv!9vv ,)vyh}G 9v%vAvi9v+vY Q9v_E ,vp .9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG ,v}vzvwvAv| {v=vs
Uv vqv v! f(v vGv vAv v"v v* #v v+v vjv vy9v v=v vyG f} GPv vwv v$ I9v v}v vTv v}v vyG( (Baby Talk) {v vqv vav vyG
?v v+v vav v+v vTv v=v v@ ?v v*Qv vdv v! )d9v vqv v_}G aQv v_ #v v| ~v v%v vqv vyG {v v+v v%v vTv vAv vy J9v vav v+v vTv v=v vAv vyG
rv+vv Qv+vTvqv@ (v$ 9v%v+vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< Qv=vv}G {vwvWv}vyG f9vv fEh #vwvy )95(?v*QvZv"vfh
9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yG J9v jv y rv zv Av Mv | ,v }v zv wv Av }v y IOQv qv "v }v yG bv +v Tv =v Av yG J9v v(v zv S fC
#v f Hv Av "v * fC #v wv }v * )c(v "v +v Wv yGh ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yGh ?v +v y9v jv @Qv =v yGh ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G(
,?v Wv $Ov }v yG ?v *(v +v "v =v yG J9v %v <9v Wv Av yG #v | Qv +v Dv v hv | J:(v *Qv wv yGh J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG
fC xv v vyP( (Nautical Jargon Theory) ?v v v*Qv v vJv v v=v v vyG ?v v v!9v v v_Qv v vyG ?v v v*Qv v vdv v v"v v vp
?vavSG(v< JQvWvAv!Gh Bv}v! ?v+vyhO ?v!9v_Qvy IQv}vC ,v$ J:(v*QvwvyGh J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG
(Lexical ?v +v }v Gv gv }v yG {v LGOv }v yG ^v gv < Qv Tv qv @ fC #v wv }v * )#v qv Tv yG ,v I;v |
,vAvyG ))OvgvZv}vyG( haish )iQvL}G ?v%vGvyG )vyE QGO( Kapsaig {vDv|( Items)
#vwvy ),v<hQhC S9vSC JGP( J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyGh J:(v*QvwvyG #v| OOvf ,vp 9v$OvGv!
?v gv SGh LP9v }v "v yG fzv < {v F9v tv yG e(v %v qv }v yG fE .?v *(v +v "v =v yG 9v %v @9v %v <9v Wv @ Qv Tv qv @ :
#v}v]vAv@ ,vAvyGh( ,)96(,v=v"vF}G e;vwv< ?vY9vMvyG ?v+v}vy9vf #vwv@ ~vy fE Q9vWvAv!:G
k
fC NhQh}G VQv vAv vqv v* fC #v vwv v}v v*z :5 U ,&v vTv vqv v! QOv vZCG ,v vp d9v v$ #v vf ;v vDv v}v vp )95(
Qv+vi 9v%vAv+vtv+v=vav@ ]E U+y iRvgv@ ?+v<hQh}G ?vjvzvy9v< KOvJvAvzvy ?v|9vAvyG Qv+vi \vY}G ~vzvwvACG JGO(v%vH
k
jOv vGCG Qv v+v vi #v v| &v v!C ]E ,GPE NhQh}G [v vzv vMv v+v vS .?v v|R;v v| ?v v+v v"v v$P ?+v v!hO ]E #v vwv vyh ?v v+v vp9v vwv vyG
,Qv+vL}G GPv%vy e9vAvyG Qv+vi H9vavBG Uvqv"v< &v=v+vGv+vSh ,\vY}G KOvJvAv}vzvy yIOv+v@G ?vjvzvyGz d9v}vgvAvSG
k
.gOvzv< ,vp J9+v<QCGh J9v%v|}G aQv_ #v| IO9vf ?vzv}vgvAvTCG {vqvavyG ?vjvy LP9v}v! ^vgv< xvyPvv 9vqv+v]v|
?v +v tv +v tv AG ?v jv zv y9v < uv zv gv Av * Qv |}G fC f(v \Qv Av qv +v S xv yP #v | #v Tv IC f(v pQv gv * : #v *Pv yG f(v +v |hQ}Gh
k k
9v}v< ~v%v| {vwvWv< 9vJv+vJvY UvwvgvyG f9vv Ovsh .y9v%vy9v}vgvAvS9v< GQhQvTv| f(vwv+vSh ,^+v<}G {vFQvzvy
k k
?vjvy ~vzvgv@ &vIQvpC 9+v<hQhC GQvWv=v| fC hOv=v* Ev+vI ,IOv*Ov@G 9v+"+vi fG(v<9v< ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v< ,?v*9vqvwvyG &v+vp
(Dutton, Police ?vjvzvyG gPv%vy ?vavTv=v| ?vjv+vY OvZvs #vf )vtvzv@ &v!C rvWvAvvG xvyP Ovgv< #vwvy ,(v@(CG
Motu: Iena sivarai (Its Story)).
= Ferguson, «Absence of Copula and the Notion of Simplicity: A Study )96(
546
,v vp 9v v$Ov vGv v! ,v vAv vyG xv vzv v@ )v vyE ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v< ?v vp(v vyzv v| [v v+v vzv vtv v@ JGQhQv v+v vS
q
P9v tv !E RG(v F ,v p 9v | Ov I )v yE Ov +v qv @ Ov s )97()J:(v *Qv wv yGh J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG
,v}vzvwvAv| fC xvyP ,QvLB rvgv\ IQv+vL}G gPv%vy #vwvy .{vqvavyG ?vjvy ?v*Qvdv!
k
f(v fOv =v }v yG 9v }v FGO ~v $ 9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yG ,v }v zv wv Av | #v | Qv Dv vC 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG
fCh ,)98(d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v yG J9v f(v "v Av y f(v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yGh f(v +v S9v S}G
#v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v ]v |9v i f(v wv @ J:(v *Qv wv yGh J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG
J9v }v Tv yG Hv Av "v @ fC {v }v Av Jv }v yG Qv +v i #v |h ,9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yG #v | #v +v FOv Av =v }v yG
xv yP ev I: 9v }v vh ,fzv Av | bv +v Tv =v @ #v f d(v *Qv wv yGh #v +v FOv +v =v zv y ?v +v S9v S}G
:(Taylor) )99(Q(z*9@
gPv$ K;vDvyG d(v*QvwvyG J9vjvzvy ?v*O9v"vS G ?v}vdv!}G Qv+vTvqv@ #vwv}v* :z

k
9vjv+vY 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< )(Saranan) f9v!GQvSh ,vAv*9v$ d(v*Qvv ,xv+v"v+v@Q9v| d(v*Qvv(
[v F9v Zv Mv yG gPv %v p ,?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! Gh ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG ,v p IO(v F(v }v yG xv zv Av y ?v pQv Jv |
iQvLC J9vjvyh ?v+v<QvjvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC J9vjvy #v| OOvf xvyP hv| 9v%v}vS9vtvAv@ ,vAvyG
q
,v <hQh}G Ev Jv =v zv y 9v %v Tv qv ! eOv tv @ fC >v gv Zv yG #v | f(v wv +v S ,?v "v +v Gv $ Qv +v i
.y9%|;v b+T=Ay ,<QjyG
of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins,» in: Hymes, ed., =
Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, and Ferguson and C. DeBose,
«Simplified Registers, Broken Language and Pidginization,» in: Valdman and
Highfield, eds., Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies.
Foley, :Qv dv !G ,9v %v Gv F9v Av !h bv +v Tv =v Av yG JGQhQv +v Tv y ?v }v F;CG ?v Y;v BG ]E ?v =v Tv "v y9v < )97(
«Language Birth: The Processes of Pidginization and Creolization,» in:
Newmeyer, ed., Linguistics, the Cambridge Survey, p. 165, table 1.
Whinnom, «Linguistic Hybridization and the «Special Case» of Pidgins )98(
and Creoles,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages.
Douglas M. Taylor, «The Origin of West Indian Creole Languages: )99(
Evidence from Grammatical Categories,» American Anthropologist, vol. 65, no. 4
(August 1963), p. 810.
547
OOv vgv v@ J9v v*Qv vdv v! Qv v$(v vF #v v}v vwv v* IQv v+v vL}G J9v v\GQv vAv vf:G gPv v$ ,v vqv vp
?v tv =v av yG ,v }v zv wv Av | )v zv f Rv +v vQv Av yG ~q v @ GPEh .{v Y}G d(v I ?v zv *Ov =v yG d(v Y}G
#v+vFOv+v=vzvy ~v%vfGOv<E Q9v=vAvfG #vwv}v* ,9v+vzvgvyG ?vtv=vavyG ,v}vzvwvAv| #v| QvDvvC 9v+v!OvyG
{v|9vf )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< )100(?v+v!9vC ?vjvzvy OOvJv| H9vTvAvv: L9vAv"vv ){vs}G )vzvf(
Uvqv! HvAv"v@ iQvLC {v|G(vfh ?v+vpQvgv|h ?v*(vjvy {v|G(vf ?vf(v}vGv}vv jRG(vAvyG
{v s}G Kv zv av Zv }v yG d9v }v gv Av SG hC( (Interlanguage) )v av S(v yG ?v jv zv yG YG(v !C
k
.)S(v <hOh f(v Tv iQv qv y (Broken Language) yIQv Tv wv "v }v yG ?v jv zv yGz 9v |D;v @
q k
GPE 9v | d(v I ,xv yP hv | ,&v < Szv < : xv V #v f 9v Dv *Ov I Qv +v =v gv Av yG ~q v @ Ov sh
#v | Qv Dv vC aOv %v yG ?v jv zv yG H9v Tv Av v: J:h9v Jv | ,v ]v Av tv @ ?v "v FOv =v yG Bv !9v v
f(v vS9v v|(v v_ dOv vAv vSG Ov vsh .)101(,v v"v vDv v8v v+v v< d9v vZv v@: IGOC uv vzv vMv vy J:h9v vJv v|
fC VQv Av qv @ ,v Av yG Qv dv "v yG ?v %v Fh 9v $Ov Ih &v !C )v zv f {v gv qv y9v < )102(f9v }v p(v vh
k
?v |A;v }v yG ,v p #v +v Av "v }v ]v Av }v yG 9v gv | 9v +v zv gv yG ?v tv =v av yGh 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG ,v }v zv wv Av |
fC 9v v%v v"v vwv v}v v* (Mutual Linguistic Accomodation) ?v vyO9v v=v vAv v}v vyG ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG
,vp 9v%vFGQOE eGQvAvIG hv| J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyG #v+v< J9vp;vAvL:G Q9v=vAvf:G #v+vgv< PvLzv@
k
(Trials) J9v+vC;vDvyGh (Duals) )v"vDv}vyG Q(v]vJvv 9v+vzvv ?v|(vS(v}vyG J9v}vTvyG
9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG ?v}vS ,v$h ,f9vTv+v=vv(vAvyGh (Bislama) 9v|;vTv+v=vyG QvF9v}v\ ,vp
k
PvLzv@ fC #vwv}v* IOvIGh 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG :h 9vgv=v_h .?v+vTv+v!hOv! G ?v+vyGQvAvS}G
q
,)103(#v +v yB #v wv y ,~v y9v gv yG J:(v *Qv vh J9v "v +v FOv +v < {v v Q9v =v Av f:G #v +v gv <
Derek Bickerton, «Pidginization and Creolization: Language )100(

Acquisition and Language Universals,» in: Albert Valdman, ed., Pidgin and Creole
Linguistics (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1977), and Roger W.
Andersen, ed., Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition (Rowley,
MA: Newbury House, 1983).
Baker, «Column: Off Target?,» p. 111. )101(
= Mervyn C. Alleyne, Comparative Afro-American: An Historical- )103(
548
,)106(~vy(v$h ,(Lefebvre) )105(
Qvqv+vp(vyh ,(Boretzky) )104(
,vwvTvAv*Q(v<h
J9v vjv vyh (Kwa) G(v vwv vyG fC )v vzv vf G(v vyOv vAv vSG fhQv vLBh , )107(
Qv v@Qh(v vv9v v|h
{v gv qv yG ?v +v "v < )v yE Qv dv "v y9v < a9v v {v wv Wv < ?v %v <9v Wv Av | ?v +v <Qv jv yG 9v +v tv *Qv pzv < iQv LC
(Saramaccan) ?v +v !9v wv |GQ9v Tv yG ,v p 9v $Ov Gv ! iQv LC J9v }v Sh ,?v zv Tv zv Tv Av }v yG
#v| #v*QOvJv"v}vyG f9vwvTvyG 9v%v< KOvJvAv* ,vAvyG ,v=v*GQvwvyGh ,vAv*9v$ J:(v*Qvvh
Qv Dv v}G Qv +v Tv qv Av yG Kv =v Zv * jPv yG 9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG Qv +v Czv @ )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < 9v +v tv *Qv pC
)108( k
(Afro- ,v tv *Qv p}G A(v Wv "v y9v < 9v %v +v zv f d9v Jv }v yG ?v *Qv dv "v yG gPv %v p . :9v }v Av IG
)110(
f(v v @Qv v wv v +v v < 9v v %v v y iOv v Zv v @ Ov v s )109(
#v v wv v Tv v *(v v | aQv v _ #v v | Genesis)
Comparative Study of English-Based Afro-American Dialects of the New World, =

with a Foreword by Ian F. Hancock (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma, 1980).
Norbert Boretzky, Kreolsprachen, Substrate und Sprachwandel )104(
(Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1983).
C. Lefebvre, «Relexification in Creole Genesis Revisited: The Case of )105(
Haitian Creole,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole
Genesis.
Holm, «Substrate Diffusion,» in: Muysken and Smith, Ibid. )106(
John McWhorter, «Substratal Influence in Saramaccan Serial Verb )107(
Constructions,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 7, no. 1 (1992).
#v | ?v f(v }v H #+v < ,v av }v "v yG >v S9v "v Av yG fCz :f9v }v p(v vh f(v S9v |(v _ xv yP ev I: 9v }v v )108(
q
QvGv+v"vyG J9vjvy {vv hC >vzviC ,vp 9v%vtvpG(v@ ,vAvyG J9v+v"v=vyGh ?v+vTvzv_}G J:(v*QvwvyG ,vp ?v+v=v+vvQvAvyG J9v+v"v=vyG
k
:,v vp ,y,v v\Qv vf {v vwv vWv v< 9v v%v v]v vgv v< #v v| GOv vF ?v v=v v*Qv vs Ov v+v vvzv vAv vy9v v< ,v v$ ?v v=v vS9v v"CG ?v v}v v%CG (v vjv v!(v vwv vyG -
Thomason and Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics,
p. 162.
2: Linguistic Theory: Extensions and Implications.
Bickerton: «The Language Bioprogram Hypothesis,» and «The )110(
Origins of Saramaccan Syntax: A Reply to John McWhorter’s ’Substratal
Influence in Saramaccan Serial Verb Constructions’».
549
fC ,d9vgvp {vwvWv<h ,Q9v=vAvfG ,vp BvzvWvp 9v%v!} ,)111(Ev+v}vSh #vwvTv*(v|h
eGQv Av IG hv | ?v "v wv }v | ,v <Qv i ,v tv *Qv pC QOv Zv | JGP J9v jv y #v +v < J9v p;v Av L:G
U9vL (v*Q9v"v+vS ~v*Ovtv@ ,vp BvzvWvp 9v}vv ,?v|(vfRv}vyG 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9v}vS
,vp xvyPvv 9v%vzvWvph ,?vtvDv=v"v}vyG d(v*QvwvyG {vLGO 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9v}vS {vtv"v<
,v$ iQvLC ?vtv=v_ J9v}vS BvTv+vyh 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9v}vS ^vgv< GP9v}vy Qv+vTvqv@
d(vI T9vtv"vyG f{vp xvyP hv|h .?vtvAvWv}vyG J:(v*QvwvyG ,vp 9v%vF9v|OE ~q v@ ,vAvyG
k
J:9v tv | xv yP )v zv f Ov %v Wv @ 9v }v v {v qv tv * fC #v f GOv +v gv < {v dv * 9v *9v ]v tv yG gPv $
Y(v"v@ (v $ &v@GP ,v tv *Qvp}G A(v Wv"vyGh .d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG J9v+v!9vTvy ?vzvGv|
J9v *Qv dv "v yG gPv $ {v Dv | Bv tv zv @ Ov sh ,9v +v !Ov yG ?v tv =v av yG JGP J9v *Qv dv "v zv y ,v fQv p
k k
?v+vS(v!9v+vsh}G 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG d(vI)112(kv"v+vTv+vv {v}vf d;vL #v| GQv+v=vv 9v}vfO
.?*R+!;+}yG #+FO+< ?*R+zG!E ,p
q
d(vY}G IOOvgvAv| 9v%v@;v+vDv| a;vMv< {vY}G ?v*O9vI}G J9v*Qvdv"vyG OQv@h
jPv vyG (Braod Scope) hv vSG(v vyG Rv v+v vJv vyG Y(v v! (v v$ dh}G :#v v+v vf(v v! )v vzv vf
k
d9v Zv @G #v | ?v tv Av Wv | ~v y9v gv yG J:(v *Qv vh J9v "v +v FOv +v < #v | GOOv f fC VQv Av qv *
SO9vTvyGh QvWvf Uv|9vMvyG #v+v!QvtvyG J:9vZv@G f9v<E IQ(vav}vyG ?v+vy9vjv@Qv=vyG ?vjvzvyG
?vzvZvAv| Bv!9vv 9v$QhOv< ,vAvyGh ,#v+v+v<QvjvyG #v+v+vtv*Qvp}Gh ?v+vy9vjv@Qv=vyG #v+v< QvWvf
,bvS(vAv}vyG ^v+v<}G QvJv=vzvy ?v*(vavShQvtvyG {v|9vgvAvyG ?vjvy (Sabir) ?v*Qv+v<9vTvy9v<
(Relexification) 9v %v }v Gv gv | Ov *Ov Gv Av < uv zv gv Av }v yG 9v %v \GQv Av pGh ?v *Qv dv "v yG gPv %v p
iQv L}G J9v f(v "v Av yGh ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! Gh ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG fC rv +v v Qv +v Tv qv @ ,v jv =v "v *(
k
9v}v%v| GQOvs BvGvAv!C ),v<Qvi ,vtv*QvpC S9vSC 9v%vy ?v+vy9vjv@Qv=vyG #v| ?vav=v"vAvTv}vyG
9v%vy9vZv@G 9v%v+vp 9v}v< IOv*Ovf H9v=vS} J9v+q v"v+vgv=vTvyGh J9v+q v"v+vAvTvyG ,vp IQ9vC G #v|
q
Ov I )v yE ?v zv Zv qv "v | jO9v %v yG bv +v Jv }v yG #v |h ?v +v Tv zv _C J9v f(v "v Av < ,v Mv *Q9v Av yG
Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction. )111(

Keesing, Melanesian Pidgin and the Oceanic Substrate. )112(
550
k
,v p 9v +v FRv F Bv av tv S Ov s ,#v +v Jv yG xv yP Pv "v | ,v %v p ,xv yP hv |h .)113(Ov +v gv <
#v v| OOv vf hv v| Kv v\Gh {v vwv vWv v< uv v+v v=v vav vAv vzv vy ?v vzv v<9v vs Qv v+v vi 9v v%v v!} I(v vdv vI;v vyG
Qv V9v =v | Qv +v i hC Qv V9v =v | d9v Zv @G 9v %v y Uv +v y ,v Av yG J:(v *Qv wv yGh J9v "v +v FOv +v =v yG
k k
#v Av Tv +v < Qv dv ! ,v p y9v +v !;v tv f:z 9v \GQv Av pG hv ]v @ 9v %v !} xv yPv vh ?v +v y9v jv @Qv =v y9v <
fhO 9v v $Ov v Ih ?v v zv v *Qv v wv v yGh ?v v "v v FOv v =v v yG fC xv v yP ;)114(#v v *Qv v LBh (Besten)
Ovgv< IQv| Uv+vyh IOvIGh IQv| {vZvJv@ ?v+v!9vTv! G ?v*Q(vZvAvyGh ?v+vp9vtvDvyG ?vavWv!}G
?v=vTv"vy9v< Ov+vtv| Rv+vI JGP ,v$ iQvL}G {vY}G ?v*O9vI}G ?v*Qvdv"vyGh .iQvLC
9v$Qv=vAvfG ,vAvyGh jRv+vzvGv!E S9vSC 9v%vy ,vAvyG J9v"v+vFOv+v=vyGh J:(v*QvwvyG )vyE
(CGCE) ?v|(vfRv}vyG 9v+v"v+vi {vI9vS d(v*Qvv ?v*Rv+vzvGv!E ?vzv+vzvS c(vwv!9v$
)115(
QvWvf SO9vTvyG #v+v!QvtvyG ,vp ?v+v<QvjvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC Hv+vzvL )vzvf 9v$Qv*(vav@ ~q v@ ,vAvyG
,v$ M9vAvqv}vyG ?vzv8vS}G iOvIE g;vfC &v+vyE Q9vWv| (v$ 9v}vvh .QvWvf hv<9vTvyGh
Bv !9v v &v <9v Wv | j(v jv y f9v +v v jC hC 9v +v "v +v i {v I9v S d(v *Qv v ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !E {v $
#v| &vzvtv! ~v@h ,yhv+v=vzvy #v+v\hQvgv}vyG Ov+v=vgvyGz #v| ?vyGO OGOvfC {vgvqvy9v< &vCOvJvAv@
,v p ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G Q(v av @ ,v p Qv +v Czv Av zv y Ov +v =v gv yG A:|v $ #v | a9v v OOv f aQv _
R. W. Thompson, «A Note on Some Possible Affinities between :Qv dv !G )113(

the Creole Dialects of the Old World and Those of the New,» in: R. B. Le Page,
ed., Proceedings of the Conference on Creole Language Studies Held at the
University College of the West Indies, March 28-April 4, 1959, Creole Language
Studies; 2 (London; New York: Macmillan, 1961), and Keith Whinnom, «The
Origin of the European-Based Creoles and Pidgins,» Orbis, vol. 14 (1965),
David DeCamp, «Introduction: The Study of :,v v v p IQ(v v v vPv v v | iQv v v LC d9v v v }v v v fCh
Pidgin and Creole Languages,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of
Languages, and Todd, Pidgins and Creoles.
Besten [et al.], 1995, p. 88. )114(
Hancock, «The Domestic Hypothesis, Diffusion, and )115(
Componentiality: An Account of Atlantic Anglophone Creole Origins,» in:
Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis.
551
k
#v vwv vyh 9v vv9v vwv vV f9v vv ,)116(OQ(v vqv vwv v*Q .,v v=v v*GQv vwv vyG #v v| ?v vqv vzv vAv vMv v| AGRv vFC
.xyPv #w* ~y )117(Q@Qh(v9|
Pv"v| d(v*QvwvyG {vYC J9vV9vtv! )vzvf {vgvqvy9v< Bv"v}v+v$ ,vAvyG ?v*Qvdv"vyG fE

&v vIQv vAv vsG jPv vyG ?v vjv vzv vy ,v vF9v v+v vI}G Hv v|9v v!Qv v=v vyG VGQv vAv vpG ,v v$ J9v v+v v"v v+v v!9v v}v vDv vyG
d9v +v F~v y J9v fGOv <{v v J:(v *Qv wv yG )v yE Qv dv "v * jPv yG (LBH) )118(f(v @Qv wv +v <
k
d9vqv_}G f{vp f(v@Qvwv+v< >vTvIh .9v*Qvavp 9v$(v=vTvAvvG #v*PvyG d9vqv_~vy )vyh}G
hC J9v "v +v FOv +v =v < KOv Jv Av * Ev +v I j(v jv y d9v Zv @G J:9v I ,v p GhOv yh #v *Pv yG
k k k k
)v yE 9v %v zv *(v Jv Av y 9v +v f(v ! GOOv Jv | 9v +v F9v +v IC 9v Gv |9v !Qv < f(v <Pv Av Gv * ?v +v yhC J9v !9v _Q
.fGO(v Tv yGh ,v Av *9v $h 9v wv *9v |9v Fh jGh9v $ ,v p ?v Jv \Gh ?v "v +v Gv $ J:(v *Qv v
9v %v !C 9v }v < {v Y}G IOOv gv Av | ?v *Qv dv "v yG gPv $ Q9v =v Av fG #v wv }v * Qv $G(v dv yG >v Tv Jv <h
k k
J9v jv y 9v %v +v p JQ(v av @ ,v Av yG #v v9v |}G rv zv Av Mv }v y ;v tv Av Tv | 9v tv zv L VQv Av qv @
k
9v }v | Qv Dv vC d(v *Qv wv y9v < 9v S9v SC bv =v @Qv * VGQv Av p:G GPv $ fC ev I:( d(v *Qv wv yG
{vY}G ?v*O9vIC ?v*Qvdv! iQvLC ?v+vI9v! #v| 9v%v"vwvy .)#v+vFOv+v=vyG d(vYzv< bv=v@Qv*
aQv_ #v| ?v%vF(v| J:(v*QvwvyG gPv$ Q(vav@ Qv=vAvgv@ Bv|GO9v| Bvs(vyG Uvqv! ,vp
.jQW=yG U"GyG #+< cQAW| OIGh ,F9+IC H|9!Q<
?v*Rv+vzvGv!E #v+v< J;v<9vtvAvyG ,vF9v+vI}G Hv|9v!Qv=vyG IOv F9vqvy {v+vyOvyG #v}v]vAv*

f(v +v "v +v =v zv qv yG fhQv F9v %v }v yG 9v %v }v zv wv Av * f9v v ,v Av yG ?v +v yh}G ,v Av *9v $ #v +v FOv +v <
,v Av *9v $ d(v *Qv v ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !Eh ,1920h 1900 #v +v < G(v zv Yh #v *Pv yG f(v +v !9v <9v +v yGh
Ovgv< jGh9v$ ,vp GhzvWv!h GhOvyh #v*PvyG S9v"vyG 9v%v}vzvwvAv* f9vv ,vAvyG ?vgvS(v}vyG
Rickford, Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History, Texts & )116(

Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole.
)117(
McWhorter, «The Scarcity of Spanish-Based Creoles Explained».
Bickerton: Roots of Language; «The Language Bioprogram )118(
Hypothesis,» and «Column. Beyond Roots: The Five Year Test,» Journal of
Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 1, no. 2 (1986).
552
q
)v v v$ H E( #v| {v v 9v%v y(vI rvzv Av Mv@ ,vAv yG ?v+vtv +vtvJv yG J9v}v TvyG f(v vh .xvyP
&vF(vyGh #v|RvyG J9v}vSGhh (Movement Rules) {vtv"vyG OvfG(vtvv )v v v$ c E(h
,vp IO(vF(v}vyG xvzv@ ,v$ ,)119(iQvLC A9v+vVCh (TMA Markers) ?v%vGvyGh
k
?vtv+vtvJvp ,iQvLC MG(v! #v| ?vqvzvAvMv| ?v+v}vGvgv| OvfG(vs #v| 9vs;vav!G J:(v*QvwvyG
QOvZv}vyG {vwvWv@ ,vAvyG )?v+v!9v}vy}Gh ?v+vTv!QvqvyGh ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G( J9vjvzvyG fC f(vv
,9v$OhRv@ ~vy &v!C )vyE Qv+vWv@ J9v}vS #v}v]vAv@ : J:(v*QvwvyG gPv%vy ,v}vGvgv}vyG
Ov fG(v vs f(v zv }v gv vAv vTv * : )v v v $ H E( f(v }v zv wv vAv * #v *Pv vyG #v *Qv F9v %v v}v yG f(v vvh
d(v vY}G OOv vgv v@ J9v vf(v v"v v@ ~v vdv vgv v|h ,jO9v vI}G {v vY}G LQ9v vL J9v v}v vTv vyG
?vGvJvyG #v| QvL6G ARvGvyGh .J:(v*QvwvyG ,vp 9v$Q(v]vJvy ?vzv}vAvJv| JGQv+vTvqvAvv
VQvAvqv* ,vAvyG( J:(v*QvwvyG ~vzvwvAv@ : J9vf(v}vGv| ,vp d9vqv_}G ?vjvy fC (v$
k
J9v}vS 9v}vFGO #v}v]vAv@ ),v F9v+vI}G Hv|9v!Qv=vzvy IQvwv=v}vyG JGQv+vCzvAvyG {vDv}v@ 9v%v!C
f{v p ?v jv zv y ,v F9v +v I}G Hv |9v !Qv =v yG VGQv Av pG >v Tv Ih ,J:(v *Qv wv yG ,v p 9v $Ov Gv !
)v yE Qv dv "v y9v < #v +v +v F9v "v Dv Av SG f(v !(v wv * Ov s d(v *Qv wv yG ,v }v zv wv Av | {v FGh}G d9v qv _}G
#v| QvDvvC IQv=vL d9vqv_~vy Bv|GO9v| ,vyhO b9vav! )vzvf )vyh}G ?vjvzvyG H9vTvAvvG
,vp GhOvyh ~v%v!C )vyE hvFQv@ Bv!9vv 9v}v<Q ?v+vF9v"vDvAvS:G ~v%vAvgv+v=v_ #vwvy .~v%vF9v<B
#v | Qv Dv vC IQ(v av | Qv +v i Bv !9v v 9v %v <9v Tv Av vG ~v %v +v zv f ,v Av yG ?v jv zv yG Ev +v I ?v +v gv \h
#v v*Pv vyG #v v+v vjv vy9v v=v vyG Uv vwv vf d9v vqv v_}G f} xv vyPv vvh .d9v v}v vAv vv:G ?v v|9v v@ 9v v%v v!(v vv
.&g+S(Ay ,F9+I}G H|9!Q=yG G(Gyh Os v v Q(aAyG ?zIQ| GhRh9G@
q
iOvIEh .)120(?vf(v"vAv| ,v F9v+vI}G Hv|9v!Qv=vyG Ov\ HvGvJvyG Bv!9vv Ovtvy
.g;fC Qd!G )119(

_v FOv +v =v yG d(v I IQv %v V Qv Dv v}G ?v +v }v *Ov tv Av yG U(v Zv "v yG ^v gv < fC Qv dv "v zv y Bv p;v yG #v | )120(
k
(Mühlhäusler, Pidgin and Creole Linguistics), :;D| ,d(*QwyGh
k
Wardhaugh, An :;vDv| ,?v*O9vI}G J9+v!9vTvzvyG ,vp ?vDv*OvI ?v+v}v*Ovtv@ ?v+vp9v\E U(vZv! xvyPvvh
Introduction to Sociolinguistics (1992), and Romaine, Language in Society: An
Introduction to Sociolinguistics.
q
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553
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k
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(v$ #vwv* ~vy f(v@Qvwv+v< aQv_ #v| uvC(v}vyG ?vjvzvy ,vF9v+vI}G Hv|9v!Qv=vyG fC ,v$
#v+vFOv+v< ,v$ IQv+vL}G gPv$ QhPvF #vwvy ,)v v v$ c E( d ,vtv+vtvJvyG {vY}G
9v %v ]v *(v gv @ ~q v @ ,v Av yGh e9v @ {v wv Wv < IQ(v av | jRv +v zv Gv !E S9v SC JGP ?v }v *Ov s
hv S9v Av yG fQv tv yG Qv LGhC ,v p {v |9v gv @ ?v jv zv v IQv wv =v }v yG ?v "v FOv =v }v yG ?v +v *Gh9v %v y9v <
(TMA ?v %v Gv yGh &v F(v yGh #v |Rv yG e9v dv "v y f(v @Qv wv +v < {v +v zv Jv @ fE .
)122(
Qv Wv f
q
?v v av v SG(v v < , gQ9v v =v v Av v LG ~v v @ Ov v s J:(v v *Qv v wv v yG #v v | OOv v f ,v v p System)
)123(
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f(v@Qvwv+v=vy ?vjvzvy ,vF9v+vI}G Hv|9v!Qv=vyG VGQvAvpG (v*Q9v"v+vS fC ,vp {vDv}vAv* QvLB
n
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k k k
Ovsh .)124(;v}vAvJv| hOv=v* 9v}v| 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG J9vjvzvy ;v+vzvs GQv+vCzv@ VQvAvqv*
Mufwene, «Universitat and Substrate Theories Complement One )121(

Another,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis.
Bickerton, «Roots of Language,» International Journal of American )122(
Linguistics, vol. 51 (1985), (Morris Goodman); John McWhorther: «Towards a
New Model of Genesis: Competing Processes in the Birth of Saramaccan Creole,»
(PhD in Linguistics, Stanford University, 1992-1993), and «Rejoinder to Derek
Bickerton».
.{ZqyG GP$ ,p 66 ~sQ X|9%yG Qd!G
John Victor Singler, ed., Pidgin and Creole Tense- :,v v v p J:9v v v tCG Qv v v dv v v !G )123(
Mood-Aspect Systems (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1990).
Mervyn Alleyne: «Introduction,» in: Valdman and Highfield, eds., )124(
= Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies, and «Substratum Influences - Guilty
554
k
9v }v <Q JPv LC Ov s ?v *Qv av qv yG fC MQv Av sG #v | dhC 9v ]v *C )125(Qv zv jv "v +v S f9v v
q k k
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fC IQv wv p v v (Gradualism) LQOv Av yG VGQv Av pG ~v fOv y IQv +v L}G JG(v "v Tv yG
k
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,vp ~vS9vJvyG ~vzvgv}vyG (v$ ?v*QvavqvyG Uv+vyh QGQvtvAvS:G fCh ,?vjvzvy ,vF9v+vI}G
.)126(9%@zW!
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k q
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untill Proven Innocent,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in =
Creole Genesis; Bickerton, «Roots of Language,» International Journal of
American Linguistics, vol. 51 (1985), (Morris Goodman); Holm, «Substrate
Diffusion,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole Genesis,
and Thomason and Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic
Singler: «Short Note,» and «Rejoinder: Nativization and Pidgin/ )125(
Creole Genesis: A Reply to Bickerton».
Guy Carden and William A. Stewart, «Binding Theory, Bioprogram, )126(
and Creolization: Evidence from Haitian Creole,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, vol. 3 (1988); McWhorter, «Substratal Influence in Saramaccan Serial
Verb Constructions»; Arends, «The Sociohistorical Background of Creoles,» and
Jacques Arends and Adrienne Bruyn, «Gradualist and Developmental
Hypotheses,» in: Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An
Introduction.
555
k
,)127(d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG J9vSGQO ?vzvGv| J9vJvqvY ,vp 9vS9vSC &v@9vJv+v\(v@h
?v <(v FC {v =v s #v | Bv <9v C {v wv Wv < 9v %v "v f ?v <9v F G Bv }v @ f(v @Qv wv +v < JGO9v tv Av !9v p
9v"vJv}vyC ,vAvyG d9vGv}vzvy yIOv+v"vgvyG ?vs9vavyGz ,vp #v+v}v $9vTv| )128(&v+vzvf #v+vfOv}vyG
k k k
d(v*QvwvyG ,vSQGO ~vdvgv| fE d(vtvyG 9v=vS9v"v| hOvjv* ,9v}v<Q ,9v|(v}vfh .9vtv<9vS 9v%v+vyE
k
A(vWv! ,vp 9v+v!OvyG ?vtv=vavyG Qv+vCzvAvyh (Universals) J9v+vzvwvzvy GQhO c9v"v$ fC fhQv*
y,vF9v+vIC Hv|9v!Qv<z )vzvf {v+vyOvv dh}G )vyE GhQvdv! AG(vS #vwvy .)129(d(v*QvwvyG
Qv vY9v v"v vgv vyG gPv v$ #v v| Qv vL6 hC Qv vZv v"v vgv vy &v v!hOv v"v vTv v* QhO #v v| ~v vvh ,jQv vav vp
.K\Gh {wW< 9%y(I #+}Tt"| G(yGR: 9*9]s 9%zv ,$ ,K+@9q}yG
?"G%yG ?yGREh d(*QwyG {ZA| v v 3.3

Ev +v I )9v wv *9v |9v Fh jGh9v $h 9v !9v *(v i {v Dv |( J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG ^v gv < ,v p
Q9v+vgv}vyG ?vjvzvyG hv| (Basilect) y,vGv%vzvyG S9vS}Gz hC( d(v*QvwvyG Xv*9vgvAv@
k
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k
Derek Bickerton: «Column. Beyond Roots: Knowing What’s :;v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v | )127(
What,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 2, no. 2 (1987); «On the
Supposed «Gradualness» of Creole Development,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, vol. 6 (1991); «The Sociohistorical Matrix of Creolization,» and «The
Origins of Saramaccan Syntax: A Reply to John McWhorter’s ’Substratal
Influence in Saramaccan Serial Verb Constructions’».
Sarah Grey Thomason, «Response to Bickerton,» Journal of Pidgin and )128(
Creole Languages, vol. 7 (1992); Singler, «Rejoinder: Nativization and Pidgin/
Creole Genesis: A Reply to Bickerton»; McWhorter, «Rejoinder to Derek
Bickerton,» and Arends, «The Sociohistorical Background of Creoles,» in: Arends,
Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction.
Mufwene, «Universitat and Substrate Theories Complement :Qv v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v !G )129(
One Another,» in: Muysken and Smith, Substrata versus Universals in Creole
Genesis,
Muysken and Smith, Ibid. :,p iQLC J9G9T|h
556
(v$ 9v}vv ,9v %v"v+v< (Mescolects) y)v avSh J9vGv %vyz hC( )vav Sh J9vf(v "vAvy
?vzv*Ov=vyG bQvavy9v< ?vY9vMvyG ,(Allsopp) )130(H(vTvyB ?vJvF: {v=vs #v| #v+v=v|
:)131(9!9*(i ,p (I told him) y&y Bzsz d(ty
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k k
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.xyP A9"CC )aSh J9G%y #+GA"| ,(Standard) Q9+g}yG g9G@G
,v p J9v p;v Av L:G fC )133(#v +v yB MQv Av sG gPv $ Qv dv "v yG ?v %v Fh jOv Jv Av yh
,v vp Ov v+v v=v vgv vyG J9v vf(v v}v vGv v| rv vzv vAv vMv v| rv vsG(v v|h ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G HQ9v vGv vAv vyG
Richard Allsopp, «The English Language in British Guiana,» English )130(

Language Teaching, vol. 12, no. 2 (1958).
Bickerton, Dynamics of a Creole System, pp. 9-14. :fQ9s ,T9t"zy )131(
DeCamp, «Toward a Generative Analysis of a Post-Creole Speech )132(
Continuum,» in: Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization of Languages.
Alleyne, «Acculturation and the Cultural Matrix of Creolization,» in: )133(
Hymes, ed., Ibid.
557
k
jO9v *}G ,)Ov +v =v gv yG d(v tv I {v <9v tv | ,v p Ov +v =v gv yG J(v +v < ;v Dv |( JGQv }v gv Av Tv }v yG
k
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)134(
f(v@Qvwv+v<h .?v*GOv=vyG Pv"v| IQv}vAvTv| &v=vV ?v*Qv+vjv@ )vyE JO9vs 9v}v<Q ?vsQ9vp}G
f(v +v <hQh}G f9v v JGQv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ,v p {v FGh}G #v +v +v tv *Qv p}G fC ev I: jPv yG
k
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,9v+vzvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyG y,vf9vGv@QG {vwvWv<z Z9vZv* fC &v+vzvf f9vvz d(v*QvwvyG {vZvAv|
k k
hv}vAvGv| eQv$ {vDv| 9v|9v}v@ ,,vGv%vzvyG S9vS}9vp ,)vavS(vyG ?vGv%vzvyG ~q vC ,:hC
)136(
#v*(vp(v| )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<h .y)135(A,vav< {vwvWv< &vTvqv! Z9vY jPvyG Ov+v=vgvyG
k
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k
(Monolithic) ?v YGQv Av |h ?v }v Gv Tv "v |h 9v +v =v Tv ! IQv +v jv Av | :(v *Qv v ,U(v Zv Mv yG
k
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k
.(Diachrony) >s9gAyG ?GI #| :O< (Synchrony)
,v p {v Zv Av }v yG J:9v I fC ?v yzv Tv | d(v I b9v qv @:G #v wv }v * xv yP hv |h

k k
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fQv tv yGh ,v "v *GQv wv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < Qv Wv f hv <9v Tv yGh Qv Wv f SO9v Tv yG #v +v !Qv tv yG
k
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#v *Pv yG J(v +v =v yG Ov +v =v f fC ~v iQh .y?v "v Gv %v zv y ?v yGR{v vz &v +v yE Qv dv "v yG #v wv }v *
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S9v S}G ,)v av S(v yG ?v Gv %v zv yG( )v av S(v yG ?v jv zv yG {v IGQv | ?v zv Tv zv S Qv =v fh
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{v Zv Av | d(v _ )v zv f 9v *(v +v "v < ?v *Qv vPv @ ,v $ ,v Av yG )9v +v zv gv yG ?v Gv %v zv yG ,,v Gv %v zv yG
Bickrton, «Column. Beyond Roots: The Five Year Test,» p. 226. )134(
k
Baker, «Column: Causes and Effects,» :9v]v *G Qvdv !G ?v av tv "v yG gPv $ U(v ZvMv < )135(
pp. 267, and 277.
Mufwene (1988), and (1989). )136(
558
k
?v Gv %v zv yGh ,v Gv %v zv yG S9v S}G 9v }v "v +v < ,9v +v !9v C .)137(?v "v Gv %v yG ?v yGRv }v yG d(v *Qv wv yG
hC #v+vAv8v| hC ?v8v| O(vF(vyG )vyE Bv@C Ovs ?v+vy9vJvyG 9v+vzvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyGh )vavS(vyG
?v yGRE fC ,v p xv Wv yG #v | {v +v zv s Ov F(v * &v !{v p ,)138(Bv zv L ?v "v S ?v 8v | K;v C
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J9vf(v"v@ ,vp f(v}vwvJvAv* #v*PvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG ?v=vTv!h Bv]vqvMv!G Ovs ,vGv%vzvyG
k
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,vAvyG J9v}vTvyGh ,vGv%vzvyG S9vS}G J9v}vS Ev+vI( ,vqv+vwvyG )v"vgv}vy9v< ?v"vGv%vyG
k
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John H. Schumann and A.-M. Stauble, «A Discussion of Second )137(

Language Acquisition,» in: Andersen, ed., Pidginization and Creolization as
Language Acquisition, and Rickford, Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: History,
Texts & Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole, p. 34.
fC ,v"vgv* )_vGv$ Qv+vi jC( jO9vf j(vjvy Qv+v+vjv@ O(vFh fC VGQvAvp:G GPv$ VQvAvqv* )138(
fQvtvzvy ,vAvyG xvzv@ hv| ?v69vWvAv| f(vwv@ fC #vwv}v* : #v*QvWvgvyG fQvtvzvy Q9v+vgCG ?vGv%vzvyG hC 9+zvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyG
k k
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q
Rickford, Ibid., and Barbara :fQ9v s IQv wv =v | JGQv Av p ,v p e9v f {v wv Wv < ?v I9v ACG J9v f(v "v Av yG {v v
Lalla and Jean D’Costa, Language in Exile: Three Hundred Years of Jamaican
Creole (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1990),
k
Barbara Lalla and Jean D’Costa, :;v v Dv v | ,_v v tv v zv v gCG ^v v gv v < )v v fOG 9v v }v v v ?v v *(v v s Bv v T+y
«Language in Exile: Three Hundred Years of Jamaican Creole,» Journal of Pidgin
and Creole Languages, vol. 8, no. 1 (1993) (Charles Gilman), p. 151, and John
McWhorter, «Creole Studies and Historical Linguistics: Renewing Our Vows,» in:
Jocelyn Ahlers [et al.], eds., Proceedings of the 21st Annual Meeting of the Berkeley
Linguistics Society University of California, Berkeley, February 17-20, 1995
(Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society, 1995).
Alleyne, Comparative Afro-American, pp. 192-194, and John R. )139(
Rickford, «What Happens in Decreolization,» in: Andersen, ed., Pidginization and
Creolization as Language Acquisition, pp. 300ff.
559
k
)141(
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bv tv p IOv IGh IQv | {v Zv Av }v yG uv zv L OQv * fC >v Gv * f9v v {v Y}G jO9v I}G
#v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v}v vyG fCh )Qv vWv vf Ev vy9v vDv vyG hC Qv vWv vf hv v<9v vTv vyG fQv vtv vyG ,v vp AG(v vS(
hC G(v"v=v@ ~v%v!C )vzvf ~v%v+vyE Qvdv"vyG >vGv* f9vv ~v%vAv"vGv$ ?vyGRv}vyG #v+vtvI;vyG
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#v +v fOv =v }v v ~v %v Av "v Gv $ ?v yGRv }v yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG )v yE Qv dv "v * xv yP hv | d(v Y}G
,vGv%vzvyG S9vS}G #v| Qv+v+vjvAvyG f(vyh9vJv* 9v}vv )vavSh J9vf(v"vAvy #v+vav+vWv!
~v%vzv=vs Bv}v@ ,vAvyG xvzvAvy ?v%v<9vWv| JGQ9vTv| ~vSQ #v*Ov+vgv| 9v+vzvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyG )vyE
JGQ9v=vAvfG ?vavSG(v< #v*RvqvJv|h ?v%v<9vWv| ?v*9v%v!h ?v*GOv< ?vavtv! #v+v< G(vzvtvAv!G ~v%v!}
)v yE Qv dv"v yG #v wv }v }vyG #v | {v $ ,v$ iQv LC ?v yzv Tv| .?v %v <9v Wv | ?v +v !9v Tvy(v +v S(v S
(African-American Vernacular ?v+vtv*Qvp}G ?v+vvQv+v|}G ?v+v|9vgvyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G
?v+vvQv+v|}G ?vfQRv}vyG d(v*Qvwvy &vAv"vGv$ Bvzv*RC {vwvWvv English) (AAVE)
Y9v v\h}G AGQh 9v v| )v vyE {v vtv vAv v!G Ov vs Ev v*Ov vI T9v vtv v! c9v v"v v$h .IQv vwv v=v v}v vyG
,)142(JQG(v v +v v Av v S d9v v Dv v |C d(v v *Qv v wv v yG ,v v p #v v +v v Zv v Av v Mv v }v v y ?v v =v v av v tv v Av v Tv v }v v yG
Lise Winer, Trinidad and Tobago, Varieties of English around the :fQ9v vs )140(
World. Text Series; v. 6 (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1993), p. 6,
John R. Rickford and Jerome S. Handler, :h ,(v vi9v v<(v v@h OGOv v+v v"v v*Qv v@ ]E ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v<
«Textual Evidence on the Nature of Early Barbadian Speech,» Journal of Pidgin
and Creole Languages, vol. 9, no. 2 (1994),
.(Barbados) ShO9<Q9< ]E ?=T"y9<
Rickford: «Variation in a Creole Continuum: Quantitative and )141(
Implicational Approaches,» pp. 411-413, and Dimensions of a Creole Continuum:
History, Texts & Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole, pp. 34-35.
William Stewart: «Sociolinguistic Factors in the History of American )142(
= Negro Dialects,» Florida Foreign Language Reporter, vol. 5, no. 2 (1967), and
560
,v v p #v v +v v Zv v Av v Mv v |h ,?v v "v v Gv v %v v yG ?v v yGRE ?v v +v v gv v \h Ov v *C jPv v yG )143(OQ;v v *Oh
#v v *Pv vyG )145(Ov v +v v qv v*GO c9v v |h ,(Davis) )144(Uv v qv v*GO d9v vDv v|C J9v v Gv v %v vzv vyG
k k
GOvF 9v Dv *OvI ?v yzvTv }v yG G(v SQO #v*PvyG A9v}v zv gvyG )vyE ?v =v Tv"v y9v<h .9v $(v\Q9v f
iQv vLC ?v v*Qv v+v v+v vjv v@ Hv vGv vIh ?v v+v v}v vwv vyG ?v vGv vJv vyG d9v v}v vgv vAv vSG )v vyE f(v vzv v+v v}v v*
{vDv| ?v"vwv|C ,vp ,vtv*Qvp}G ,vvQv+v|}G J9vAvWvyG #v| J9v+vavgv}vyG f(v<PvAvGv*h
f9vv ~v%v]vgv<h .9v*Qv+v=v+vy hC xv+v"v+v|hOvyG ?v*Q(v%v}vF ,vp (Samana) 9v!9v}vS
k k k
GOv *|v | f9v v ~v %v ]v gv <h )146(?v "v Gv %v yG ?v yGRE VGQv Av p: 9v Tv }v Jv Av | 9v Fh9v "v |
k
#v *Pv yG A9v }v zv gv yG #v | ?v }v %v | ?v av +v Sh ?v f9v }v F c9v "v $ #v wv y .)147(9v Tv }v Jv Av |
«Continuity and Change in American Negro Dialects,» Florida Foreign Language =

Reporter, vol. 6, nos. 3-4 (1968).
Joey Lee Dillard, Black English: Its History and Usage in the United )143(
States (New York: Random House [1972]).
L. Davis, «Dialect Research: Mythology and Reality,» in: Walt )144(
Wolfram and Nona H. Clarke, eds., Black-White Speech Relationships
([Washington, DC]: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1971).
R. I. McDavid and V. G. McDavid, «The Relationship of the Speech )145(
of Negroes to the Speech of Whites,» in: Wolfram and Clarke, eds., Ibid.
Shana Poplack and David Sankoff, «The Philadelphia Story in the )146(
Spanish Caribbean,» American Speech, vol. 62, no. 4 (1987); Sali Tagliamonte and
Shana Poplack: «How Black English «Past» Got to the Present: Evidence from
Samana,» Language in Society, vol. 17, no. 4 (1988), and «The Zero-Marked Verb:
Testing the Creole Hypothesis,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, vol. 8,
no. 2 (1993).
J. Baugh, «A Re-Examination of the Black English Copula,» in: )147(
Labov, ed., Locating Language in Time and Space; John Holm, «Variability of the
Copula in Black English and Its Creole Kin,» American Speech, vol. 59 (1984);
John Victor Singler, «Copula Variation in Liberian Settler English and American
Black English,» in: Walter F. Edwards and Donald Winford, eds., Verb Phrase
= Patterns in Black English and Creole (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press,
561
,IQv wv =v | J9v shC ,v p ?v "v Gv %v yG ?v yGRE VGQv Av p: A9v *(v sC #v *Qv Y9v "v | G(v !9v v
?v v+v v|9v vgv vyG ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G fC GhQv vgv vV PE ,J9v vdv vqv vJv v@ ~v v%v v*Ov vy f6G #v vwv vy
Qv +v Czv @ 9v %v y f9v v hC d(v *Qv v &v =v V f(v wv @ fC #v wv }v * ?v +v tv *Qv p}G ?v +v vQv +v |}G
.)148(e9@ {wW< ?G\9! d(*Qv f(w@ fC fhO #| ,FRF ,y(*Qv
?v+v"v|GRv@ ?v+v]vs #v| QvDvvC d(v*QvwvyG {vZvAv| d(vI J9vp;vMvyG #v}v]vAv@h

k
9v]v*C c9v"v$ .?v"vGv%vyG ?vyGR L9vAv"vv 9v%v+vyE Qvdv"vyG 9v!QhOvtv}v< f9vv GPE 9v| d(vI
{vZvAv}vyG J9vf(v}vGv}v< )v}q vTv* 9v| ,vp ,v"v|GRvAvyG Y(v"vAvyG f9vv GPE 9v| ?vyzvTv|
9v| )vzvf ?vzvZvAv}vyG LP9v}v"vyG xvyP MQvAvtv@ 9v}vv ,Ovgv=vyG jO9vIC hC {vZvAv| (v$
k k
:9v gv p GQ9v =v Av fG G(v |Ov s Ov s {v Zv Av }v yG (v zv zv Jv | f9v v GPE 9v | ?v yzv Tv |h ,hOv =v *
f9vv GPE 9v|h ,{vZvAv}vyG Y(v"vAvy ?v+v!9vTv! Gh ?v+v<(vzvS}Gh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G O9vgv<~vy
k
9v\GQvAvpG )9v+vzvgvyG ?vGv%vzvyG g9vGv@9v<( bvMvyG jO9vIC {vZvAv}vyG Qv+v+vjv@ VGQvAvpG
k
.)149( 9J+JY
1991); Donald Winford, «Another Look at the Copula in Black English and =
Caribbean Creoles,» American Speech, vol. 67, no. 1 (1992), and John R.
Rickford, «The Development of African American Vernacular English,» in:
Salikoko S. Mufwene [et al.], eds., African-American English (London: Routledge,
[in Press]).
John Holm, «The Atlantic Creoles and the Language of the Ex-Slave )148(
Recordings,» in: Guy Bailey, Natalie Maynor and Patricia Cukor-Avila, eds., The
Emergence of Black English: Text and Commentary (Amsterdam; Philadelphia,
PA: J. Benjamins, 1991); Salikoko Mufwene, «Ideology and Facts on African-
American English,» Pragmatics, vol. 2 (1992), and Donald Winford, «Back to the
Past: The BEV/Creole Connection Revisited,» Language Variation and Change,
vol. 4, no. 3 (October 1992).
Rickford, Dimensions of a Creole Continuum: :Qvdv!G ,9v*9v]vtvyG gPv$ ?vWvs9v"C )149(

History, Texts & Linguistic Analysis of Guyanese Creole, pp. 15-39; Lawrence D.
Carrington, «Images of Creole Space,» Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages,
= vol. 7, no. 1 (1992); Mervyn C. Alleyne, «Problems of Standarization of Creole
562
?}@9L v v 4
bQvavyGh iOv}vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< IQvI9vS ?vzvDv|C d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG Ovgv@
,?v jv zv yG d9v Zv @G Qv =v f Z9v Zv @h Ov y(v @ fC J9v jv zv y #v wv }v * 9v %v Av av SG(v < ,v Av yG
Ov sh ,)150(?v "v S 200 b(v qv * 9v | )v yE Bv zv YG(v @ Ov s J9v jv zv yG gPv $ ?v SGQOv p
k
?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG ?v *GOv < Pv "v | 9v =v *Qv tv @ 9v %v < f(v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG ~v Av $G
?v*Qvdv"vyG ?v+v}v$}G rvYh ?vsQ(vyG gPv$ ,vp 9v"vyh9vI Ovtvy )151(9v%vTvqv! ?vDv*OvJvyG
,J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < J9v jv zv yG gPv %v y ?v +v tv +v =v av Av yGh ?v +v Gv %v "v }v yGh
q
A9v}vzvf {vjvWv@ ?v+v=vs9vgv@h ?v+v"v|GRv@ 9v*9v]vs ,9v| OvI )vyE Qv=vvC {v+vZvqvAv< ~v*Ovtv@h
rvYh )vzvf #v*QO9vs #vwv! ~vyh .d(v*QvwvyG {vZvAv|h d(v*QvwvyGh #v+vFOv+v=vyG
?v *(v <Qv Av yGh ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGh ?v *Qv +v =v gv Av yG( ?v +v !9v Tv ! G 9v *GRv }v yG Qv Dv vC {v +v Zv qv Av <
q
.?vjvzvyG ,vzv}vgvAvTv}vy J9vjvzvyG gPv$ 9v%v|Ovtv@ ,vAvyG J9v*OvJvAvyGh )?v*O9vZvAvs:Gh
J:9v vIE )154(#v v+v vyBh )153(#v v+v v|hQh ,(Devonish) )152( Xv v+v v!(v vqv v*O Ov vgv v*h
q
.OI Og<C )yE 9*9]tyG gP$ ?g<9A}y ?gFGQ}zy IO+F
Languages,» in: Morgan, ed., Language and the Social Construction of Identity in =
Creole Situations; Winford, «Sociolinguistic Approaches to Language Use in the
Anglophone Caribbean,» in: Morgan, ed., Ibid., and De Rooij, «Variation,» in:
Arends, Muysken and Smith, Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction.
Jochum Melchior Magens, Grammatica over det Creolske sprog, som )150(
bruges paa de trende Danske Eilande, St. Croix, St. Thomas og St. Jans i Amerika
(Copenhagen: Gerhard Giese Salikath, 1770).
Ferguson, «Diglossia,» and Hymes, ed., Pidginization and Creolization )151(
of Languages.
Devonish, Language and Liberation: Creole Language Politics in the )152(
Caribbean.
Romaine, Language, Education, and Development: Urban and Rural )153(
Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea.
Alleyne, «Problems of Standardization of Creole Languages,» in: )154(
Morgan, ed., Language and the Social Construction of Identity in Creole Situations.
563
,9v"vAv|Ovtv| ,vp 9v!QvVC 9v}vv ,d(v*QvwvyG v v #v+vFOv+v=vyG ?vSGQO d9vGv| fE
J9vp9v WvAv v:G KOv Jv@ Ev+v I yIOv +v"v gv yG ?v s9v av yGzh IQ9v C 9v < A,vzv | d9v Gv | (v$
fC >vGv*h .9v%v_9vtvSEh ?v}v*OvtvyG Q9vwvp}G jOvJv@ ~vAv*h QGQv}vAvS9v< IOv*OvGvyG
k k
&v "v | f(v }v zv gv Av * GQv pGh GQGOv tv | ,d9v Gv }v yG GPv $ ,v p f(v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG Ov Gv *
.&+p G(}$9T+yh
564
QWf U|9MyG {ZqyG
XS2XIC;Gh JXLP9G dXG)G
k*Qv Oy9q"*Qi B+y(v
?|Ot| v v 1
eOv v s ?v v }v v *Ov v s (Language Death) J9v vjv v zv v yG J(v v | IQv v$9v v c fC hv v |
k k
;vtvI 9v+v=vTv! Ovgv@ ?v+vtvTv"vyG 9v%vAvSGQO f{vp ,~vy9vgvyG J9vjvzvy fhOv}vyG Nv*Q9vAvyG
k
JGQ(vWv"v}vyG #v| ?vzvTvzvS JOvvC Ovsh .J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyGh J9v+v!9vTvzvy GOv*OvF
k
9v!zvV BvJv=vYC Ovs IQv$9vdvyG gPv$ fC J9v+v"v+v!9v}vDvyG bvSGhC ?vgv}vGvAv}vyG ?v}v%v}vyG
k k
.)1(?SGQOzy ;tIh &< 9pQAg|
Wolfgang U. Dressler, «On the Phonology of Language Death,» in: Paul )1 (

M. Peranteau, Judith N. Levi [and] Gloria C. Phares, eds., The Chicago Which
Hunt: Papers from the Relative Clause Festival, April 13, 1972; a Paravolume to
Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting (Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society,
[1972]); Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect;
Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and
Death; Schmidt, Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from
Australia; Jane H. Hill and Kenneth C. Hill, Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of
= Syncretic Language in Central Mexico (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press,
565
)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ,J9vjvzvyG J(v| IQhQv+vTvy ,v}vzvgvyG e9v}vAv$:G #v}vwv*h
k
JGQv+vjvAvy hv]vMv@ dGhRvzvy ?vzv*6G J9vjvzvyG #v| GOOvf fC ,vp ,#v+v*(vjvzvyG
{v v5v Av y ?v |9v gv yG IQhQv +v Tv yG ?v SGQOv y Qv Dv vC J9v +v av gv | xv yPv < ?v Jv !9v | ?v *(v +v "v <
?v *Qv Wv =v yG J9v jv zv yG ?v gv +v =v _ #v f Qv +v =v gv Av zv y ,v %v Av "v @ fC >v Gv * ,v Av yG J9v jv zv yG
H9v=vSC ?vSGQO ,vp QvDvvC #v+v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG e9v}vAv$G #v}vwv*h .e9vf {vwvWv<
.)2(Qj"*R!Q< ?}$9T| &+zf B=w!G Q(J| ($h .J9jzyG J(| ahQch
P9vtv! G J9v+v!9vTvzv< J9vjvzvyG J(v}vy j(vjvzvyG uv+vC(vAvyG ?v!(v"vf Bv}v@ Ovtvy

k
~v%v@ 9v*9v]vs Qv+vDv* EvJv=vyG #v| Y(v"vyG GPv%vp ,9v!9v+vIC (Salvage Linguistics)
fC #vwv}v* Q9v+vgv}vyG ?v+v}vwvyG J9vSGQOvyG fC xvyP ,,v!GOv+v}vyG {v}vgvyG ?v+vGv%v"v|
J9v SGQOv yG fCh ,?v +v gv \(v zv y ?v +v tv +v tv Jv yG ?v gv +v =v av yG ?v av SG(v < ?v |GQv Zv < Ov +v tv @
#v *Qv +v L}G #v +v }v zv wv Av }v zv y ?v Y9v Mv yG ?v s;v gv yG AGRE ?v +v S9v Tv I >v zv av Av @ ?v +v f(v "v yG
.dGhRv v zv v y ?v v zv v *6Gh ?v v |(v v S(v v }v v yG ~v v %v v Av v jv v y U(v v Zv v Mv v < (Last Speakers)
dGhRvzvy ?vzv*6G J9vjvzvyG )vzvf ,v!GOv+v}vyG {v}vgvyG Qv+vDv* ,xvyP )vyE ?vp9v\ 9v<h
q
EvJv=vzvy ?v|R;v}vyG b;vL}G d(vI ?vzv8vS}G {vv (Obsolescent Language)
H9v =v wv !:G ~q v @ 9v *9v ]v s ,v $h ,9v %v +v zv f #v }v +v %v }v yGh ?v Wv }v %v }v yG ?v "v v9v Tv yG d(v I
J9v jv zv yG )v zv f {v }v gv yG Qv +v Dv * .,v !GOv +v }v yG {v }v gv yG A9v "v CC 9v %v Av =v sGQv |h 9v %v +v zv f
k
hv v \h 9v v*9v v]v vs ,9v v]v v*C (Endangered Language) Qv vav vMv v zv v y ?v v \Qv vgv v}v v yG
,vp 9v}v< J9vjvzvyG J(v| IQhQv+vS d9vav< ?v+v|GQvyG O(v%vGvyG AGRE #v+v+v}v*O9vv}G
hv v *Q9v v Wv v|h (Language Preservation) ?v vjv v zv vyG ev v qv v I ,v v p ~v v $QhO xv v yP
.(Language Revitalization) ?jzyG A9+IE
1986), and Allan R. Taylor, ed., «Language Obsolescence, Shift, and Death in =
Several Native American Communities,» International Journal of the Sociology of
Language, special issue, vol. 93 (1992),
.1985 ?"S (SSILA) ;+S QE|| #f
566
9%y9G|h ?SGQOyG Y(\(| O*OJ@h ?!("f v v 2
,J9v!(v"vgvyG #v| OOvf BvJv@ J9vjvzvyG J(v| IQv$9vc ?vSGQO Bv}v@ Ovtvy
J(v|z v v v< ?vY9vMvyG ?v!(v"vgvyG BvJv@ ?v+v]vtvyG )vzvf Bv=vwv!G J9vSGQOvyG ^vgv=vp
k
Ov Gv ! #v wv y ,(Language Demise) y?v jv zv yG rv s(v @z v v v < 9v !9v +v ICh ,y?v jv zv yG
q k
y?v jv zv yG aGQv Jv !Gz J9v !(v "v f Bv Jv @ OQv @ ?v zv Zv yG JGP J9v +v <O}G #v | GQv +v Dv v
dGOv =v Av SGz hC (Language Shift) y?v jv zv yG d(v Jv @zh ,(Language Drift)
.(Language Replacement) y?jzyG
?vGv+vAv! f(vwv*h ,?vjvzvy e9vAvyG d;vJv}v\:G )vzvf ?vjvzvyG J(v| {v+vJv*
#v | ?v zv |9v wv yG ?v f(v }v Gv }v zv y bv tv p i(v Zv tv yG J:9v Jv yG ,v p rv F9v qv | J(v |
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,v p f(vwv@ ,v Av yG J9vjv zv yG ?v y9v I ,v p J(v }v yG ~vAv * 9v| GQv+v Dv vh .#v+v }v zv wv Av }v yG
.)Bilingualism( ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG ?v v+v vF9v v"v vDv vyG Qv v+v vjv v@ ,v vph )In Contact( d9v vZv v@G
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Qv +v vjv vAv vyG IQhQv v+v vSh cQ9v vWv vAv v@ 9v v| GQv v+v Dv vv ?v vjv vzv vyG J(v v| IQhQv v+v S fC ~v viQh
,v p 9v %v gv | rv zv Av Mv @ 9v %v !{v p ,,v Mv *Q9v Av yG )Linguistics Change( j(v jv zv yG
?v+v"v+v@;vy9vp )v"vgv}vyG GPv%v<h .?v+vF9v%v"vyG 9v%vAvzv+vZvI ,vp ~q vC ,Qv+v+vjvAvyG Rv+vIh ?vfQvS
,v v ,v qv wv * 9v }v < JQv +v jv @ 9v %v "v wv yh ,rv Av Mv @ ~v y 9v %v !} ,?v Av +v | ?v jv y Bv Tv +v y
,v Av yG J9v jv zv yG J9v 8v | (v $ J(v }v yG #v wv y .IOv *Ov F J9v jv y ,v p ?v +v I Ev gv =v "v @
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.R*O!}G ,p 9w! G
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9v|Ov"vf yIOOv%v}vyGz hC yQvavMvzvy ?v\Qvgv}vyGz J9vjvzvyG #vf Ev*OvJvyG f(vwv*h
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Qv +v Czv @ ~v Gv I fCh ,rv F9v qv | {v wv Wv < hC Abv =v < J(v }v @ fC 9v %v "v wv }v * Qv Wv =v y9v v
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IQhQv+vS WhQvWvy IO9v| &v"v| ARvF ,vp (v$ ?vjvzvyG ?v+v"v< )vzvf J(v}vyG IQhQv+vS
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c9v"v$h .)Tasmanian( ?v+v!9v}vTvAvyG ?vy9vI ,v$h ,f9vwvTvzvy ?v|9vAvyGh ?vgv*QvTvyG
?vjvzvy Qv+vL}G ~vzvwvAv}vyG J(v}v* 9v|Ov"vf ~vAv@ rvF9vqv}vyG J(v}vzvy ?vY9vL ?vy9vI
k q
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9v v vQv v +v v |zv v < Qv v +v v L}G Xv v I(v v Av v }v v yG jOv v "v v %v v yGz )Ishi( ,v v Wv v * G J(v v | f9v v <E
#v+v*(vjvzvy #vwv* ~vy gPv$ rvF9vqv}vyG J(v}vyG J:9vI {vDv| ,vqvp ,)3(y?v+vy9v}vWvyG
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?vjvzvyG G(vzv}vI Ovs ?vjvzvy #v*Qv+vL}G #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG fC 9v}v< ,&v!(vy(vtv* GQv+vDvv 9v8v+vV
.9%qF9ch {|9w< J(}yG )yE
)Radical Language Death( yjQPv vGv vyG ?v vjv vzv vyG J(v v|z ?v vy9v vI fE
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)Lenca( 9v wv "v +v zv yG J(v | ?v *9v wv I ,v $h ,&v F9v tv < e9v |C 9v tv F9v f Bv zv c 9v %v !}
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Theodora Kroeber, Ishi in Two Worlds; a Biography of the Last Wild )3 (

Indian in North America, with a Foreword by Lewis Gannett (Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press, 1961).
L. Campbell and M. C. Muntzell, «The Structural Consequences of )4 (
Language Death,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language
Contraction and Death, p. 185.
568
q k
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,(Eastern Sutherland Gaelic) )5(9v<hQhC ,vp ?v+v<QvjvyG ?v+v<(v"vGvyG ?v+vzv+vjvy9vv
?v+vGv*hQv"vyGh ,)6(?v+v"v+v@;vyG 9vvQv+v|C ,vp )Nahautl( JG(v$9v"vyG ?v+vwv+vTvwv}vyGh
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)9(
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)v zv f ,v ]v Av tv @ 9v %v !E .(Language Tip) y?v jv zv yG f;v +v |z fG(v "v f Bv Jv @
Ovgv< ?v"v}v+v%v| ?vjvy )vyE ?v+vzvsC ?vjvy #v| rvF9vqv| Qv+vjv@ ?vy9vI ,vFP(v}v! (vJv!
(Ethnic ?v v v+v v v"v v vC G ?v v vjv v vzv v vyG fGOv v vtv v vp fE .j(v v vtv v vyG A9v v vtv v v=v v vyG #v v v| fhQv v vs
)vzvf ~v*OvAvTv| AGOvAvf: ?vGv+vAv! (v$ ,f9v*QhO dOvAvTv@ 9v}vv ,Language)
Qv =v f &v gv =v Av @ #v wv }v *h ,{v LGOv yG #v | {v v5v Av @ 9v %v Av |9v fO {v gv F jPv yG ?v jv zv yG
KOv Jv Av * Ev +v I ,?v Y9v L J;v F9v f ,v p ?v jv zv yG d9v }v gv Av SG LP9v }v ! Q(v av @
Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. )5 (

Hill and Hill, Speaking Mexicano: Dynamics of Syncretic Language in )6 (
Central Mexico.
Einar Haugen, «The Rise and Fall of an Immigrant Language: )7 (
Norwegian in America,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in
Language Contraction and Death.
Schmidt, Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from )8 (
Australia.
Dorian: Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect, p. )9 (
51, and «Abrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden
They «Tip» to the Dominant Language Communities and Families,» in: V.
Nikiforidu [et al.], eds., Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley
Linguistics Society (Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society, 1986), p. 74.
569
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.IzGp
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)vyE {vqvSC #v| J(v}vyG #v| bv}v"vyG GPv$ )vzvf ?vy9vI G Bv}v@ Ovtvp ,?v+v}vSQ
q k
,v vp )Yaqui( ,v vv9v v+v vyG ?v vy9v vI 9v v%v v!E .y,v v"v v+v v@:z LP(v v}v v"v vv ,9v v]v v*C ,)v vzv vfC
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Rv|Qv@ #vwvy ,bvtvp ?v+vS(vtv_ J9vs9v+vS ,vp ?v+vI Bvzvc ,vAvyG ;vDv| ,9v!hRv*QC
.)10(?+"C G ?f(}G}yG ,p ?*(]gzy ~S9I {wW<
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J(v| IQhQv+vS {vZvAv| )vzvf GhQv|5vAv* fC #vwv}v* #v*PvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG W9v}v!C
#v+v< #v|h )11(#v+v}vzvwvAv|;vyG )vyE #v+v*QvavqvyG #v+vJv+vZvqvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v| ?vjvzvyG
#v+v Jv+v Zvqv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG Rv+v +v}v @ #v wv }v* #v+v *Qv av qv yG #v +vJv +vZv qvyG #v+v }vzv wvAv }vyG
,vFP(v}v! {vwvWv< f(v}vzvwvAv* #v*PvyG Q9vjvZvyG #v+vJv+vZvqvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyGh Q9v=vwvyG
q q
{v v {v =v s #v | ?v +v fG(v _ #v f 9v %v y(v =v s ~q v @ ,9v | Ov I )v yE ?v jv zv y IQv +v jv | IQ(v Y
,vp Q9vjvZvyGh Q9v=vwvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v+v< Rv+v+v}vAvyG GPv$ OvFh Ovtvp ,?vf(v}vGv}vyG
k
.)12(JO+}V aQ_ #| 9%t+C(@ ~q @ ,AyG ;D| d9<Q+*OyG ?+g\h
Jane Hill, «Language Death in Uto-Aztecan,» International Journal of )10(

American Linguistics, vol. 49 (1983).
Schmidt, Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from )11(

Australia; Dorian: Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect,
and (1985); Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language
Contraction and Death; Campbell and Muntzell, «The Structural Consequences of
Language Death,» in: Dorian, ed., Ibid., and Wolfgang U. Dressler, «The
Sociolinguistic and Patholinguistic Attrition of Breton Phonology, Morphology,
and Morphonology,» in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
Schmidt, Ibid. )12(
570
,?vjvzvyG J(v| J:9vJvy ?v+vFP(v}v! QvDvv}G #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v| ?v8vp c9v"v$h
f9v *QhO ~v %v @OOv I #v *Pv yG )Semi-Speaker( y#v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG v v &v =v Vz ?v 8v p ,v $
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k
?v <(v zv av }v yG ,v tv zv Av yG JGQ9v %v | ,v p 9v =v *Qv tv @ e9v @ ~v wv Jv @ #v wv yh ,9v %v < KOv Jv Av zv y
#vf 9v%vI9v*Rv!G f{vp ?v*(vjvzvyG ?vf(v}vGv}vyG QvY9v"vf ?vSGQO ~viQh .)13(y9v%v}v%vqvy
eOvf ,vFP(v}v! {vwvWv< Qv%vdv@h ,zvavL Qv=vAvgv* ?vf(v}vGv}vzvy ?v*(vjvzvyG Qv+v*9vgv}vyG
{vwvWv< ?v+vp9vv #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v| ?v8vqvyG gPv%vp ,?vjvzvy9v< 9v%vAvpQvgv| g9vGv@ f9v|}G
#v+v}vzvwvAv| )vyE #v+vJv+vZvp #v+v}vzvwvAv| #v| S9v"vyG #v| ?vtv=v_ ?v}vF;v}vy Kv\Gh
k k
#v *Qv +v L}G #v +v }v zv wv Av }v y9v < 9v !9v +v IC ~v %v +v zv f d9v Jv * #v *Pv yG GOv F #v *OhOv Jv |
.)Terminal Speakers(
?vSGQO ,vp 9v%v"v+v}v]v@ )vyE L9vAvJv@ #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v| iQvLC ?v8vp c9v"v$h
~v v %v v p ,)Rememberers( y#v v *Qv v vPv v Av v }v v yGz ?v v 8v v p ,v v $h ,J9v v jv v zv v yG J(v v |
#v+vJv+vZvp #v+v}vzvwvAv| ,I9v+vJvyG #v| IQvwv=v| ?vzvIQv| ,vp 9v}v<Q ,G(v!9vv f(v}vzvwvAv|
)v ]v | Bv sh ,v p ?v jv zv yG Qv Y9v "v f ^v gv < bv tv p G(v }v zv gv @ 9v }v <Q hC ,#v +v *Qv av p
k
~v$ fhQvvPvAv}vy9vp ,IQvwv=v}vyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ~v%v@QOvs #v| GQv+vDvv GhOvtvph ,?v_9vTv=v<
q
OvI )vyE ?vjvzvyG J(v}vy ?v|OvtvAv}vyG ?vzvIQv}vyG ?v+vgv\h )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< f(v+vFP(v}v!
{v Dv }v y ?v *(v jv zv yG IQv vGPv zv y #v wv }v *h .?v +v =v Tv ! ?v yRv f ,v p ~v %v Tv qv !C GhOv Fhh 9v |
k
hv*Q9vWv| ,vp ?vvQ9vWv}vzvy bv+vWv! {vwvWv< RvqvJv@ fC 9v!9v+vIC #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG A:|v$
>v Tv Jv < #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG A:|v $ AGPv *E #v |Rv yG Qv =v f ~v Av * #v wv y .IPv tv "v | ?v *(v jv y
fC #v wv }v * A,v V : Ev +v Jv < )Stigmatized( ?v |(v S(v }v yG ?v jv zv yG ~v %v COv Jv @
.9%"| Q+Dv OGOQASG )zf ~$Of9T*
Dorian (1983), p. 32, and Dorian: «The Problem of the Semi-Speaker )13(
in Language Death,» and Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic
Dialect.
571
?jzyG J(| ?SGQOy ?*Qd"yG J9<Q9t}yG v v 3
k
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hC 9v%vV9v}vwv!Gh 9v%vzvv5v@h 9v%vy(vpCh 9v%vy;vJv}v\Gh 9v%vf9v+v\h ,?vjvzvyG dGhR {vDv|
k k
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{v Dv | ,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v vQv Jv yG #v | iQv LC W9v }v !zv < 9v %v zv Zv @ ,v Av yG J9v p;v Av L:Gh
n
?v yGREh (Creolization) ?v zv *Qr v wv yGh ?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v jv zv yGh )v yh}G ?v jv zv yG H9v Tv Av vG
)vyh}G ?vjvzvyG rvgv\h ,(Aphasia) ?vTv=vJo vyGh ,(Decreolization) ?vzv*QvwvyG
k
aOv %v y9v p ,GQv +v LCh .(Historical Change) ,v Mv *Q9v Av yG Qv +v jv Av yGh ,?v +v !9v Dv yG hC
?v|9vf ?v+v!9vTv! G ?vpQvgv}vzvyh ,?vjvzvy ?v+v}v+vdv"vAvyG O9v=v}vyG Kv+v@9vqv| a9vWvAvvG (v$
q
jPvyG VGQvAvp:Gh .gPv$ ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vvQvJvyG JGQv%vdv}v@ {vv 9v%v_QvAvWv@ Ovs ,vAvyG
q
?vjvy Qv+vjv@ J:9vI {vv fC (v$ &v+vzvf uvqvAv}vyG O(v%vGv}vyG GPv$ {vDv| AGQh #v}vwv*
?v+vTvqv"vyG ?v+v=vZvgvyG IOOvJv}vyG {v|G(vgvy9v< ?vY9vMvyG ?vp(vqvZv}vyG Uvqv!z ,v]vAvtv@
.)14( yQ+jAyG g9G@G #f Qd"yG aQZ< .?+p9tC(+S(TyGh
,vp BvzvZvqv}v@ Ovs 9v%v<9vTvAvvGh ?vjvzvyG J(v| #v+v< ?v\QvAvqv}vyG ?vs;vgvyG fE

IQhQv +v S fC ~v fRv * jPv yG (Regression Hypothesis) yjOQv Av yG VGQv Av pGz
k
(v$ :hC Y9v\ 9v| fC jC ,?vjvzvyG H9vTvAvv: IBQv| IQ(vY ,v$ ?vjvzvyG fGOvtvp
k v
O9v}v Av f:9v < )15(f(vTv <(vv9vF &v|Ovs ,v zvY}G VGQv Av p:G fE .GQvLB ~v zv gv Av *o 9v|
GPv $ jOQv Av yG VGQv Av pG 9v }v "v +v < .bv tv p )Phonological( ?v +v @(v Y JGhOC )v zv f
~vyh ,?v+vFGQvtvyGh ?vjvzvyG H9vTvAvvG d(vI Ev*OvJvyG EvJv=vyG ,vp &v}vfO ~vAv* ~vy
Kenneth Hyltenstam and Åke Viberg, eds., Progression and Regression )14(
in Language: Sociocultural, Neuropsychological, & Linguistic Perspectives
(Cambridge [GB]: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 25.
Roman Jakobson, Child Language. Aphasia and Phonological Universals )15(
= Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze, Translated by Allan R.
Keiler (The Hague, Paris, Mouton, 1968).
572
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k
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k
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J(v | d9v Gv | ,v p Ev Jv =v yG #v wv y ,#v +v +v gv Av zv y ?v zv <9v s ?v zv Tv zv Tv Av | JG(v av L ,v p
.)17(,"+t* {wW< ?zC9}| LP9}! ?|9s ?+p9v J9+ag| Og< HA"* ~y ?jzyG
iQvLC ?vjvyh ?vjvzvyG J(v| #v+v< ?v!Q9vtv}vyG #v| &v@O9vqvAvSG #vwv}v* 9v| 9v|C
n n r
fC (v $ ,)18(?v "v Gv %o v yG ?v yGREh ?v zv *Qr v wv yGh ?v "v Fn Ov =n v yG d9v Zv @G JGQhQv +v S ,v p
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(vJv! #vfh ?v|9vf H(vzvSC ?v*O9vIC #vf #v+vFOv+v=vyG ?vjvzv< dGhRvzvy ?vzv*6G ?vjvzvyG
k
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k
.9]*C H9TAv:G k+Y ,ph #+}zwA}yG rsG(| ,ph
(v$h ,?vjvzvyG {vv5vAvy ?vY9vL ?vy9vJvv SQOv* fC ?vjvzvyG J(v}vy #vwv}v*h

{vv5v@h ?vTv=vJvy9vv ,?vjvzvyG fGOvtvqvy ?vqvzvAvMv| JGQv%vdv}v@ #v}v]vAv* e9vf KvzvavZv|
J(vgv"vyG U(vZvMv< ?vGvAv"v}vyG J9v\GQvAvp:G #vwvy ,?v+v!9vDvyG hC )vyh}G ?vjvzvyG
.)19(Oy(@ f} ?F9I ,p ByGR: j(jzyG {v5Azy ?"w}}yG ?*(jzyG
Kees de Bot and Bert Weltens, «Recapitulation, Regression, and )16(

Language Loss,» in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language )17(
Contraction and Death.
Roger W. Andersen, «Determining the Linguistic Attributes of )19(
Language Attrition,» in: Richard D. Lambert and Barbara F. Freed, eds., The
= Loss of Language Skills (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1982), and Lise Menn,
573
,vp Qv+v=vv {vwvWv< bv=v@QG Ovs ?vjvzvyG J(v}vy Qv+vdv"vAvyG fC ,v$ ?vY;vMvyGh
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q
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.,q+c(yG hC jQ(ZyG ~zgAy9< ?a=@Q|
?jzyG ?+"< )zf ?jzyG J(| Q+Cz@ v v 4

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?v*(vjvzvyG J9vqvZvyG ?vSGQO ,vp YhQvWvzvy >vS9v"v}vyG f9vwv}vyGh .?vjvzvyG d9vZv@:
k
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(Cross- ?v*(vjvzvyG Qv=vf Qvdv"vyG J9v%vFh RRvgv+vS jPvyG EvJv=vzvy {v}vf Hv|9v!Qv<
«Some People Who Don’t Talk Right: Universal and Particular in Child =
Language, Aphasia, and Language Obsolescence,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating
Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death.
Dorian, ed., Ibid.; Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition, and )20(
Hyltenstam and Viberg, eds., Progression and Regression in Language:
Sociocultural, Neuropsychological, & Linguistic Perspectives.
Andersen, Ibid. )21(
Campbell and Muntzell, «The Structural Consequences of Language )22(
Death,» in: Dorian, ed., Ibid.
574
.(Cross-Disciplinary) ?+ZZMAyG Q=fh Linguistic)
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,vAvyG ?v+vS9v+vS(v+vS(vTvyGh ?v+v"v*OvyG JGO9vgvyG xvyP ,vp 9v}v< ,,v|(v}vgvyG fGOv+v}vyG
.?jzy ?*Q(ZyG >+y9S}G ^g< ?Gy9g}y L9AJ@
H(v vzv v SC ?v v *O9v v IC ,v v $ Y(v v \(v v }v vy9v v< ?v v zv vZv vyG ?v v tv v+v v C(v v yG ?v v y9v vJv v yGh
#v v*Pv vyG )Breton( f(v v@hQv v=v vzv vy #v v*Qv v+v vL}G #v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v}v vyG (Monostylism)
J;vf9vqv@ )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+v}vSQvyG Qv+vi >v+vy9vS}G ,vp ,bvtvp ,f(v}vwvJvAv*
U9v tv ! &v yhGOv @ ~q v @ jPv yG Qv L6G d9v Dv }v yGh ,)23(jQv $(v Gv yG #v +v @hQv yG
{v }v Gv yG d9v }v gv Av SG OOQv @ fGOv tv p (v $ {v Gv Tv yG fGOv tv p #v f rv V9v "v yG ?v jv zv yG
(Luiseno) (v"v*Rv*(vzvyGh (Cupeno) (v"v+v<(vwvyG ,vp (Subordinate) ?vgv<9vAvyG
?v gv <9v Av yG {v }v Gv yG {v wv Wv @ Ev +v I f9v Av jv y 9v }v $h ?v +v <(v "v Gv yG 9v +v !Q(v qv +v y9v v ,v p
k k
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.?+|(}gyG
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{vDv| fC ?vdvI;v}vy9v< Qv*OvGv y9vp ,9v%v< U9vMvyG H9vavMvyG LP9v}v! [vF9vZvL
k
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.?v f(v }v Gv }v yG ,v }v zv wv Av }v y ?v "v }v +v %v | IOv *Ov F ?v jv y {v LGO H9v av Mv yG [v F9v Zv L
Dressler and Wodak-Leodolter, «Language Preservation and Language )23(

Death in Brittany,» and Dressler, «The Sociolinguistic and Patholinguistic
Attrition of Breton Phonology, Morphology, and Morphonology,» in: Seliger and
Vago, eds., First Language Attrition, p. 101.
575
f9vwvS9v<9v@C f(vv(v*(vv )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< 9v%vtv+vC(v@ ~q v@ {vtv"vyG #v| ?vy9vJvyG gPv$ {vDv|h
{v v wv vWv v< J(v v}v v@ 9v v %v v !C M(v v \(v v < hOv v =v v * ,v vAv vyG (Koyukon Athabaskan)
Ov+vgvY )vzvf ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G #v| U9vL HQv]v< 9v%v]v*(vgv@ ~q v@ #vwvyh ,rvF9vqv|
?v v*(v v%v vy j(v vs f(v v}v v]v v}v v< 9v v%v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v| OhRv v@ ,v vAv vyGh ,{v vwv vv hv v}v vAv vGv v}v vyG
.)24(f(v(*(wyG
k k
?vqvzvAvMv}vyG W9v}v!}G ?vWvs9v"v| ,vp &v+vyE Q9vWv| (v$ 9v}vvh ,9v]v*C ,9v!9v+vICh
k
Qv+vi J;vGvTvyG #v| COv=v* ,9vS(vwvgv| fGOvtvqvyG LP(v}v! f(vwv* ,?vjvzvyG J(v}vy
k
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#v| Y(v"vyG GPv%vp ,JGPv*(vgvAvyGh I;vZvzvy ?v+v}vSQvyG ?vjvzvy9vv ,&v+vzvf ?vdvp9vJv}vyG
q
(Southern ?v+v <(v "vGv yG d9v Av*RvAvyG )vyE ?v=vTv "vy9v < &v qv Yh ~v @ ,v"v+v @;v yG LP(v }v "vyG
hv <QC )v zv f ?v dv p9v Jv }v yG Bv }v @ Ev +v I ,?v +v <(v "v Gv yG (v wv +v Tv wv | ,v p Tzetal)
k
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.)25(9$9"g}y ?|9f ?i9+Y IO9fE #| QDvC G(|Ot* fC ~%"w}* :
,}Gg}yG fGOtqyG v v 2.4

IO9v | ?v jv zv yG J(v | J:9v I ,v p ,v }v Gv gv }v yG {v v5v Av yG A9v Zv tv Av SG Uv +v y
jhP #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG &v =v Wv y ?v |9v gv yG ?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av S G Bv |GO9v | ?v dv I;v }v zv y ?v tv +v sO
fGOvtvqvyG fC {v}vAvJv}vyG #v|h .e;vwvyG >v"vGv@ ,v$ IOhOvJv| ?v*(vjvy QO9vZv|
~vy ,vAvyG J9vf(v\(v}vyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< J9v}vzvv ,v]vAvtv* uvzvav}vyG ,v}vGvgv}vyG
P. Kwatcha, «Discourse Structures, Cultural Stability and Language )24(

Shift,» in: Taylor, ed., «Language Obsolescence, Shift, and Death in Several
Native American Communities».
Death,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language
576
k k k
^vgv< ,vp {v+vs PE 9vs(vWv| :9vDv| ~vTvGvyG AGRvFC Ovgv@h .9v+vp9vtvC ?v=vS9v"v| Ovgv@
IQ9vV G Bv}v@ #v+vI ,vp ,~vGvgv}vyG ?v|h9vtv| &v+vp hv+v]v@ d9vGv| &v!C J:9vJvyG
fE .iQvLC J9v+vgv\h ,vp Y9v+v]vyG #v| hv\h &v!C )vzvf ?vY9vL ?v+vqv+vwv< &v+vyE
(Cayuga) 9vi(v*9vv ~vzvwvAv| &v=vV &v< rvY(v* ~vTvGvyG AGRvFC ~vGvgv| fGOvtvp
)vzvf ?vy:Ovzvy (Foot) eOvs ?v}vzvv d9vDv}vyG {v+v=vS )vzvf OQ(v* jPvyG (v*Q9vAv!hzv<
,(Hip) cQ(v v yG )v v zv v f ?v v y:Ov v zv v y (Buttocks) aGOQCh ,(Thigh) Pv v Mv v qv v yG
,(Toe) eOvtvyG eOvtv| hC (Ankle) {vI9vwvy9v< 9v%v]v*(vgv@ &vAvf9vavAvS9v< Uv+vyh
.(Cheeks) )26(?"F(yG hC (Eyebrow) >F9JyGh
~v Gv gv }v zv y Qv Wv Av "v }v yG fGOv tv qv yG #v f ^v *(v gv Av zv y J9v +v Gv +v @GQv Av S G iOv IE

?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG ?v v+v vF9v v"v vDv vyGh Ov v|}G {v v*(v vav vyG ?v vjv vzv vyG d9v vZv v@G J:9v vI ,v vp ,jQv vav vqv vyG
d9vJv* ,vAvyG ?v"v}v+v%v}vyG ?vjvzvyG #v| JGOQvqv| dGOv=vAvS: ?v+vGv+v@GQvAvSE ,v$ ,IQvWvAv"v}vyG
.(Relexification) y~vGvgv}vyG Ov*OvGv@ IO9vfEz IQhQv+vTvv J9v+v<O}G ,vp 9v%v+vzvf
,?vzv*QvwvyG ?vyGREh ?vzv*QvwvyG b9v+vS ,vp ~vGvgv}vyG Ov*OvGv@ IO9vfE ?vWvs9v"v| Bv}v@ Ovtvy
jPvyG (Language Shift) ?vjvzvyG d(vJv@ ?vzvDv|C ,vp ,xvyPvv ,IO(vF(v| 9v%v"vwvyh
?v v+v v !;v v vR;v v Av vyG J(v v $9v v "v vyG ?v v+v vgv v\h ,v v $h ,?v v +v vzv v s}G ?v vjv v y J(v v| )v vyE O(v vtv v *
.9%t+C(A< )27({+$h {+$ e9s ,AyG (Tlazcalan Nahuatl)
?@G(ZyG ,p fGOtqyG v v 3.4

JGQv+vjvAvyG #v}v]vAv@ )28(
#vSQOv!C 9v%vIQvAvsG ?v+vS9vSC ?vC;vC O9v=v| c9v"v$
M. Mithun, «The Incipient Obsolescence of Polysynthesis: Cayuga in )26(

Ontario and Oklahoma,» in: Dorian, ed., Ibid., p. 248.
Jane H. Hill and Kenneth C. Hill, «Language Death and Reflexication )27(
in Tlaxcalan Nahuatl,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 12
(1977).
Andersen, «Determining the Linguistic Attributes of Language )28(
Attrition,» in: Lambert and Freed, eds., The Loss of Language Skills.
577
(v$ dh}G COv=v}vyG .?vjvzvyG {vv5v@ J:9vI ,vp 9v%vAvdvI;v| Bv}v@ ,vAvyG ?v+v@G(vZvyG
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(East
)29(
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(Pepil) {v +v =v +v < #v | d9v Dv | c9v "v $h . f(v @hQv =v yG hC Sutherland Gaelic)
)30(
(Constrative Vowel Qv *9v jv Av }v yG Bv F9v Zv yG d(v _ fGOv tv qv y {v Dv }v * QhO9v qv zv Tv yG

bv+vTv=vAvyG fC (v$ ,v!9vDvyG COv=v}vyGh .?v+v!9v=vS G ,vp &vy Qv+vdv! : jPvyG Length)
,vAvyG J9vp;vAvL:G )vzvf X9vqvJvyG bvjv\ &vzv<9vtv* ,v@(vZvyG e9vdv"vy9v< uvzvgvAv}vyG
k
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?v +v y9v gv yG ?v +v qv +v c(v yG ?v y(v }v Jv yG JGP J9v p;v Av L:G fC (v $ ,Ev y9v Dv yG COv =v }v yGh
k
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,v p )(Markedness) ?v +v |(v S(v }v yG O9v =v |( ?v +v zv LGOv yG {v |G(v gv yG {v <9v tv | ,v p
J:9vJvyG ^vgv< ,vqvp .?v}vS9vI Qv+vi {vdv@ 9v%vAvdvI;v| ~vAv@ ,vAvyG JGQv+v+vjvAvyG
(vwv+vV ;vAvTvv(v+v@ ,vp ?v+vtvzvJvyG /k / )vyE ?v+vtvzvI rvzvMvyG /q / L9v|Ov!G {vDv|
{v |G(v gv yG )v yE AG(v S Qv +v jv Av yG Ov "v Tv * fC #v wv }v * (Tuxtla Chico Mam) e9v |
fCh ,J9v+vtvzvI rvzvL )vzvf Qvp(vAv@ : ?v+v!9v=vS 9vp :?v+vzvLGOvyG hC ?v+vFQ9vMvyG
k
{v Dv }v p .(Velars) )31(J9v +v tv zv Jv yG #v | Qv Dv vC 9v +v @G(v Y ~v S(v @ IQv +v L}G gPv $
H9v=vS} ?vGv+vAv! f(vwv* fC #v| ?vjvzvyG Qv+vjv@ f9vwv|E )vyE Qv+vWv@ J:9vJvyG gPv$
Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. )29(
Dressler, «On the Phonology of Language Death,» in: Peranteau, Levi )30(
[and] Phares, eds., The Chicago Which Hunt: Papers from the Relative Clause
Festival, April 13, 1972; a Paravolume to Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting.

Death,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language
578
q
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k
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,v p 1 v v v y ?v +v F9v %v "v yG (Devoicing) ?v +v @(v Zv yG ?v qv Zv yG >v zv S ,v LGQv @ ,xv yP
,vp ?v+v@(vZvyG 9v%vAvqvY ?v<(vzvTv}vyG l/l v v vy Qq vI Y(v"v@ )vyE ,v]vqv* jPvyG {v+v=v+v=vyG
,vp {vDv}vAv@ ?vjvzvyG ?v@G(vY J(v| )vzvf iQvLC ?v|;vf c9v"v$h .)32(Qv+vLC hvs(v|
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k
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~v zv wv Av | H9v av L ,v p {v Gv Tv }v yG (Glottalization) Rv +v }v %v Av yG xv yP d9v Dv |h
.(Xinca) )33(9w"+Tv
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U(v vZv vMv v< GPv vvh ,A9v v}v vS~v vy >v vS9v v"v v}v vyG (Case) HGQv vf Gh (Gender)
#v |Rv yG )v zv f f(v dv p9v Jv * 9v }v "v +v < ,WQv Wv yGh {v =v tv Av Tv }v yG (Affixes) uv YG(v y
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.189 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )32(

.&Tq! QOZCG )33(
Andersen, «Determining the Linguistic Attributes of Language )34(
Attrition,» in: Lambert and Freed, eds., The Loss of Language Skills, p. 97.
Dorian, «The Problem of the Semi-Speaker in Language Death». )35(
579
k k
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(v $ 9v }v v ))Sex( Uv "v Gv yGh )Animacy( ?v *(v +v Jv yG )v zv f Ov }v Av gv * Uv "v Gv zv y
9v vi(v v*9v vv 9v v|(v v$;v vvhC ,v vp ?v vjv vzv vyG {v vv5v v@ Pv vLzv v*h .)36(JOv v+v v}v vV ,v vp uv vC(v v|
dGhRv yG ?v zv IQv | ,v p >v +v vQv Av yG IOOv gvAv | ?v jvy ,v $h ,(Oklahoma Cayuga)
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G(vyGR9v| #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG fC ~viQh .d9vgvp~vy ?v+vqvzvMvyG J9v|(vzvgv}vyG QvY9v"vf ~vvGQv*
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?v "v $Qv =v yG (v $ gPv $ ?v jv zv yG ,v p fGOv tv qv yG ?v y(v tv }v y ,v wv +v S;v wv yG d9v Dv }v yGh

(Luiseno) (v "v*Rv *(vzv yGh (Cupeno) (v "v +v <(v v ,v p ?v zvZv yG {v }vF fGOvtv p )v zv f
Schmidt: Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from )36(

Australia, and 1989.
Mithun, «The Incipient Obsolescence of Polysynthesis: Cayuga in )37(
Ontario and Oklahoma,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in
Language Contraction and Death, p. 248.
580
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Kenneth C. Hill, «Subordinate Clause Density and Language )38(

Function,» in: Claudia, T. Corum, Cedric Smith-Stark [and] Ann Weiser, eds.,
You Take the High Node and I’ll Take the Low Node; Papers from the Comparative
Syntax Festival, The Differences between Main and Subordinate Clauses, 12 April
1973 (Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistic Society, [1973]).
Schmidt: Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from )39(

Australia, and «Language Attrition in Boumaa Fijian and Dyirbal,» in: Seliger
and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
581
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582
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Dorian: «The Problem of the Semi-Speaker in Language Death»; )40(

Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect, and «Gathering
Language Data in Terminal Speech Communities,» in: Fishman [et al.], eds., The
Fergusonian Impact: In Honor of Charles A. Ferguson on the Occasion of His 65th
Birthday, vol. 2: Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language; Schmidt, Young
People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from Australia; Dressler, «The
Sociolinguistic and Patholinguistic Attrition of Breton Phonology, Morphology,
and Morphonology,» in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition, and
Colette Craig, «A Constitutional Response to Language Development: The Case
of Nicaragua,» Language, vol. 68, no. 1 (1992).
584
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Hill, «Subordinate Clause Density and Language Function,» in: )41(

Corum, Smith-Stark [and] Weiser, eds., You Take the High Node and I’ll Take the
Low Node; Papers from the Comparative Syntax Festival, The Differences between
Main and Subordinate Clauses, 12 April 1973.
)42(
Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect.
Schmidt, Young People’s Dyirbal: An Example of Language Death from )43(
Australia.
Mithun, «The Incipient Obsolescence of Polysynthesis: Cayuga in )44(
Ontario and Oklahoma,» in: Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in
Language Contraction and Death.
585
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,9vtvzvav| 9v%v< KOvJvAv* Ovgv* ~vy hv}vAvGv}vyG fCh J(v}v@ ?vjvy 9v%v+vp K(vJv=v}vyG
R9v %v Gv y [v Zv s ?v *GhQ fhOv *Qv * :h fhQOv tv * : Q9v =v wv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG fCh
586
9v%vzvtv! )vzvf IOvf9vTv}vyG hv+vavAvTv* : #vwvyh {vgvqv* Ovs ~v%v]vgv< fC hC {v+vGvTv@
: #v +v I9vAv }v yG #v *Qv+v L}G #v +v }v zvwvAv }v yGh #v +v }v zv wv Av }vyG &v =vV fCh ,9v%v Av }v FQv @h
k
Y(v"vv xvyP hOv=v* Ovs &v!} xvyP f(vzvgvqv* : hC ,9v]v*C xvyP {vgvp ~v%v"vwv}v*
k
[vMvV f9vwv| ,vZvMvV {v*hzv@ A9vavfE 9v"vS Qv=vv}G AGRE eGQvAvI:G eOvf #v|
k
J9v v*:(v vyG ,v vp #v v+v v+v v!9v vTv vy #v vf hv v}v vTv v* ?GPE ?v v+v vGv v%v v"v v}v vyG #v vf GP9v v|h ?Qv vLB
f(vTvzvGv* ~v%v!C 9v+v!Q(vqv+vy9vv J9vjvy [vJvp ,vp f(v}v$9vTv* #v*PvyG IOvJv Av}vyG
J9v vf9v vTv vy #v vTv vyG ,v vp #v v+v v"v vf9v v_ Q9v v=v vv #v v*Qv v+v vLC #v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v| #v v| HQv vtv vy9v v<
k
J9v v}v vzv vwv vyG ^v vgv v<h ,GOv vF ?v vzv v+v vzv vs J9v v|(v vzv vgv v}v v< ~v v$hOhRv v+v vy ~v v%v v!hQv vdv vAv v"v v*
.?phPJ| ?+zgp J9}j*OGQ<h ?+}Gg}yG
k
EvJv=vyG ~q v@ GPE ?vjvzvyG J(v| IQhQv+vS ?vSGQO 9v+vGv%v"v| {v]vp}G #v| f(vwv*
k
,)9v}vFGO Q9vAvMv* fC AQv}vzvy #vwv}v* : #vwvy( IQv+vL}G {v=vs 9v| ?vzv+vzvtvyG 9v%vzvIGQv| ,vp
{vDv| ,vqvp ,j(vjvy d(vJv@ 9v%v!C )vzvf 9v%v+vyE Q9vWv* ,vv ?v+vgv\(vyG ?vSGQO Bv}v@ Ovsh
k
,9v"vS Qv=vv}G #v+vJv+vZvqvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG f9vwvS #v| ,vqvwv* 9v| c9v"v$ ?vy9vJvyG gPv$
k
)v zv f #v *QO9v tv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG &v =v Vh 9v "v S Qv jv Y}G #v +v Jv +v Zv qv yG #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yGh
k
Qv =v f J9v +v av gv }v yG hv }v F )v zv f GO9v }v Av fG ?v +v }v wv yG J9v +v Gv %v "v }v yG )v zv f H9v =v wv !:G
k
EvJv=vyG ?vFPv}v! f9vwv| 9v< f(vwv* 9v| GQO9v! #vwvy .)45( JGQ9v}vAvS:Gh J9v"v*9vgv}vyG
f6G )vyE &v< e9v+vtvyG ~q v@ jPvyG EvJv=vyG Y(v! Ovgv< ?v+v"vC G/?v+vzvs}G J9vjvy J(v| ,vp
J9v v*:(v vzv vy hC 9v v<hQh} IQv vF9v %v v}v vyG ?v v"v vv9v vTv vy9v v< U9v vMv vyG ?v vjv vzv vyG d(v vJv v@ d(v vI
)47(
f:9vpQ(vv v v 9vqvzv+vS hC )46(Rv"vAvzv*hh J(v< hO 9v%vWvs9v! ,vAvyG xvzvAvv IOvJvAv}vyG
.d9D}yG {+=S )zf (Silva-Corvalán)
Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect, )45(
and Schmidt, Ibid.
de Bot and Weltens, «Recapitulation, Regression, and Language Loss,» )46(
in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
C. Silva-Corvalán, «Spanish Language Attrition in a Contact Situation )47(
with English,» in: Seliger and Vago, eds., Ibid.
587
{v}vgvAvTv}vyG Y(v"vyG #v| ?v+v=v*QvGv@ ?v<Q9vtv| )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< fzvWvyG (v$ 9v}vvh
hC (Freed) )48(Ov *Qv ph JQv =v |: ,v p ?v |Ov tv }v yG ?v jv zv yG fGOv tv p J9v SGQO ,v p
#v| hOv=v* ,?v*(vJv"vyG e9vwvI}G )vzvf GhOv}vAvfG #v*PvyG )49(Rv"vAvzv*hh J(v< hO
k
,v !GOv +v }v yG Ev Jv =v yG J:9v I #v | OOv f ,v p ,9v ]v *C ,9v $Q(v Zv @ Ov gv =v Av Tv }v yG
.?jzyG J(}< U9MyG ,zgqyG
d(vI ,v!GOv+v| EvJv=vv ,(Salvage Linguistics) P9vtv! G J9v+v!9vTvy fE
k
9v%vZv+vZvMv@ ~vAv* ,9v!9v+vIC 9v%vAv+v}vTv@ ~vAv* 9v}vv ,J(v}v@ ,vAvyG J9vjvzvyG J(v|
k
IO9vtv"v| 9v}vFGO BvTv+vy ,vAvyG ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG WhQvV ?vavSG(v< xvyP >v=vTv<
,vph ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG Hv$9v"v| ,vp SQOv@ ,vAvyG EvJv=vyG J9v+vGv%v"v| (vJv!
.J9+!9TzyG >gV ,p ?+}*O9vC ?+G%"| ShQO
?v \Qv gv }v yG J9v jv zv yG d(v I ,v !GOv +v }v yG Ev Jv =v yG J9v +v s;v LC v v 6

QaMzy
?v*(vyhC Kv=vYC Ovs QvavMvzvy ?v\Qvgv}vyG J9vjvzvyG )vzvf d9vjvAvV:G fC 9v}v<
k
xv yPv v 9v *QhQv \ Kv =v YC Ov tv p ,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v "v %v }v yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < 9v %v < aQv Av gv |
k
J:9vI ?v%vFG(v| ,vp ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vzvy 9v+vfh QvDvvC ,vs;vLC LP(v}v! Qv*(vavAvy
k
.GQ+Dv Otg}yG ,!GO+}yG EJ=yG
QaMzy ?\Qg}yG J9jzyG ?y9Jy ?"%}yG HG(F v v 1.6

~v %v @ J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG ?v "v %v }v y Qv Dv vzv p Qv Dv vC ~v dv "v | HG(v Gv y JGQ9v VE c9v "v $
Kv =v YC Ov tv p ,~v y9v gv yG J9v jv y #v | ?v gv SGh ?v +v =v zv i} hv *Qv Tv yG d(v p}G ?v +v ]v s
f(v Yh ?v *9v }v Ih uv +v C(v @ ?v +v qv +v v d(v I T9v tv "v yG ,v p #v +v _Q(v Av | f(v +v !9v Tv zv yG
Lambert and Freed, eds., The Loss of Language Skills. )48(

de Bot and Weltens, «Recapitulation, Regression, and Language Loss,» )49(
in: Seliger and Vago, eds., First Language Attrition.
588
#v+v_Q(vAv| ~v%vzv=vs f(v+vF(vy(v+v=vyG Kv=vYC 9v| QGOvtv}v< QvavMvzvy ?v\Qvgv}vyG J9vjvzvyG
Q(vav @ Ovtv y .)50(Qv av Mv zvy ?v \Qv gv}v yG J9v =v"v yG YG(v !Ch J9v !G(v +vJv yG ?v *9v}v I ,vp
,vp KGOvI}G #v| ?vzvTvzvS Qv=vf ?v+vvQv+v|}G IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG ,vp T9vtv"vyG
IhOv "v yG hv | ?v *GOv =v yG Bv !9v vh ,(LSA) 9v vQv +v |} ?v +v gv }v Av Gv }v yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG
QGQvs 9v$;v@ Ev+vI ,1991 ,vp Qv avMvzvy ?v\Qvgv }v yG J9vjv zv yG d(vI ?vY9vMvyG
?v vSGQOv vyGh uv v+v vC(v vAv vyG hv v+v vGv vWv v@z v v v < ?v v+v vgv v\(v vyG gPv v$ #v vf ?v v<9v vF5v vy (LSA)
?v"vGvy A9vWv!{v<h ,)51(yIOOv%v}vyGh dGhRvzvy ?vzv*6G J9vjvzvyG ~vfOvy JGAGQvF Gh
f9v v( 1995 ?v "v S LSA A9v tv y ,v p Qv av Mv zv y ?v \Qv gv }v yG J9v jv zv yG d(v I LSA
rvs(v| d(vI T9vtv"vyG ?vgv<9vAv| f9vwv| 9v< f9vv Ovsh .){v+v$ #v+vv (v$ Uv+vFQvyG
Qv av Mv zv y ?v \Qv gv }v yG J9v jv zv yG )v zv f f(v zv jv Av Wv * #v *Pv yG #v +v +v !GOv +v }v yG #v +v +v !9v Tv zv yG
k
COv < Ev +v I ,(Language) ?vjvzvyG ?vzvGv| JGQ(vWv "v | #v| ?vzv Tvzv S ,v p 9v +vFRv F
,(Ladefoged) )53(Ov F(v qv *O: aQv _ #v | Xv s(v !h )52(#v *Qv LBh {v +v $ hv |
.)54(f9*QhO {=s #| ÎOh
Qv Wv ! #v +v +v !9v Tv zv y ?v }v FGOv yG ?v +v yhOv yG ?v "v Gv zv yG Bv fQ ,xv yP f(v ]v i ,v p
S. Wurm, «Language Death and Disappearance,» in: Robert H. Robins )50(

and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck, eds., Endangered Languages (Oxford; New York:
Berg, 1991), and Michael Krauss, «Abroad Outline to the Language
Endangerment Problem,» CIPSH International Council for Philosophy and
Humanistic Studies/UNESCO (1992).
Encouraging the Documentation, Study, and Measures in Support of )51(
Obsolescent and Threatened Languges,» Linguistic Society of America (LSA)
Bulletin, no. 131 (1991).
Ken Hale [et al.], «Endangered Languages,» Language, vol. 68 (1992). )52(
Peter Ladefoged, «Another View of Endangered Languages,» )53(
Nancy C. Dorian, «A Response to Ladefoged’s Other View of )54(
Endangered Languages,» Language, vol. 69, no. 3 (1993).
589
,vyhOvyG Qv}v@|v}vyG f9v<E )55(QvavMvzvy ?v\Qvgv}vyG J9vjvzvyG fh|vV ?vSGQO ?vy9vI
.QaMzy ?\Qg}yG J9jzyG ?+g\h d(I RvQ@ jPyG x+=+wy9< #++!9Tzy
Ev+vI 9v+vyGQvAvSC ,v$ Bv!9vv T9vtv"vzvy ?vp9vDvv QvDvv}Gh eOvs}G ?vI9vTvyG fE

&v zv wv Wv @ 9v }v < uv zv gv Av @ ?v +v ]v s J9v +q v "v +v !9v }v Dv yG ,v p f(v +v !GOv +v }v yG f(v +v !9v Tv zv yG &v FGh
?v v+v v|hQ}G J9v vjv vzv vyG )v v zv v f {v v }v v gv v yG b9v v +v v S ,v v p ?v vyh|v v Tv v }v v yG J9v v+v v !9v v Tv v zv v yG
J9v f(v }v Gv }v zv y ?v *(v jv zv yG b(v tv Jv yGz f9v +v < #v f ?v <9v F5v yh .(Aboriginal)
,1984 ?v"vS ?v+v|hQ}G ?vjvzvyG ?v+vgv}vF {v=vs #v| Z9vZv}vyG y?v+v|hQ}Gh ?v+vFRvGvyG
f9v+v< )vzvf 1990 ?v"vS ,vp BvsO9vY Ovs ?v+vyGQvAvS}G ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vgv}vGvyG f{vp
?v f(v }v Gv }v yG g9v Gv @ j(v jv zv yG ?v +v yh|v Tv | Kv \h jPv yG ?v +v "v %v }v yG J9v +v s;v L}G
.)56(?ShQO}yG ?*(jzyG
AGRv FC ~v dv gv | ,v p Qv av Mv zv y ?v \Qv gv }v yG J9v jv zv yG ?v +v ]v s JQv +v CC Ov sh

J9v *:(v yG ,v qv p ,f9v wv Tv yG #v | ?v +v zv YC J9v f(v }v Gv | {v =v s #v | e(v +v yG ~v y9v gv yG
#v| ?v*QvavqvyG ?v+vvQv+v|}G J9vjvzvyG ?v*9v}vJvy cQq vJvAvyG O9vs ?v+vvQv+v|}G IOvJvAv}vyG
?v"vTvy ?v+vzvJv}vyG ?v*QvavqvyG ?vjvzvyG f(v!9vs )vyE ,bvtvp ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G ?vvQvI Q9vavLC
q
Qv*(vav@h f(vYh ?v*9v}vI ,vp ?v*QvavqvyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG uvI NvSQ jPvyG 1990
q o
{v vwv yp jRv vQv }v vyG Q(v Jv v}v yG f9v vv ?v +v v"v +v v@;v yG 9v vvQv +v v|C ,v ph .?v v+v "v vC G 9v v%v @9v jv vy
q
1992 ?v"vTvy ?v+v"v+vTv}vMvyG J:9vqvAvI:G Ov\ #v+v+vzvJv}vyG ,vy9v$}G J9vF9vGvAvIG
BvvQOC jPvyG f9vwv}vyG :9v}v+v@G(vi Ovgv@h .y9vvQv+v|} e(vfRv}vyG a9vWvAvv;vyz
q
#v+v}vzvwvAv}vyGh #v+v+v!9vTvzvyG #v+v< 9vvQv+v|C {vv ,vp 9v%vMv+vSQv@ ~q v@ IOv*OvF ?vs;vf &v+vp
(Mayan) f9v *9v }v yG f(v }v zv wv Av }v yG bv <Q #v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG Ev +v I ,#v +v +v zv Jv }v yG
Robins and Uhlenbeck, eds., Endangered Languages. )55(

David P. Wilkins, «Linguistic Research under Aboriginal Control: A )56(
Personal Account of Fieldwork in Central Australia,» Australian Journal of
Linguistics, vol. 12, no. 1 (1992), p. 174.
590
.)57(?+!9*9}yG J9jzyG AGRE #++!9TzyG {}f )yE ?=T"y9< ~%@9gs(@
J9v jv zv yG g9v Gv @ ?v yh|v Tv }v yG ,v $h 9v $Ov *Ov Jv @ >v Gv * ?v }v %v | ?v av tv ! c9v "v $
J9v +v !9v Tv zv y 1992 QGQv s ,v p xv yP Kv +v \(v @ ~q v @ 9v }v v ,Qv av Mv zv y ?v \Qv gv }v yG
hv sG(v }v yGh JGO9v %v Wv yG Kv "v | hv +v Gv Wv @z {v }v Wv @ )LSA( 9v vQv +v |zv < ?v +v gv }v Av Gv }v yG
d(vtvzvy xvyPh ,y{v}vgvyG GPv$ {vDv}vy ?v+v}v*O9vv}G J9vTvS|v}vyG ,vp ?v+vsQvAvyGh
~v %v Zv Zv Mv @ bv +v Jv | #v f d;v tv Av SG ,v p IQv Zv Jv "v | Bv Tv +v y ?v +v yh|v Tv }v yG fzv <
,v }v *O9v v}G Qv p9v "v Av yG [v +v zv tv @ ,v p G(v }v $9v Tv * fC &v +v zv f A9v "v < ~v %v "v wv }v * Ev +v Jv <
k
QvavMvzvy ?v\Qvgv}vyG J9vjvzvyG )vzvf d9vjvAvV:G J9v=vzv_ #v+v< 9v}vFGO evI;v* jPvyG
k x
.9"w}| {}gyG {gFh ?*O+ztAyG ?+}*O9v}G Q+n TyG J9=z_ #+<h
:#v+v+v!GOv+v}vyG #v+vDvI9v=vzvy ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vzvy jQvdv"vyG Q9v_ G v v 2.6

#+ShQO}yG S9"yG g9G@ ?+yh|T}yG
,&v"v| ARvF ,vp ,,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG )vzvf ,v"v=v}vyG EvJv=vyG Ov+vtvgv@ #vwv}v*
S9v "v y9v v ,?v qv zv Av Mv | J9v !(v wv | g9v Gv @ IOOv gv Av }v yG J9v +v yh|v Tv }v yG ?v !RG(v | )v zv f
,vp Ov+vzvtv@ c9v"v$ Uv+vzvp ,#v+v"v]vAvJv}vyGh ?v+v}v*O9vv}G ?v"v%v}vyGh #v+vShQOv}vyG
O(v Fh ~v iQ ,gPv $ J9v +v s;v L}G 9v *9v ]v s {v Dv | ?v Wv s9v "v }v y J9v +v !9v Tv zv yG d9v Gv |
iQv LC J:9v Gv | ,v p ?v yzv Tv }v yG gPv $ ,v p ~v F;v | (v Jv ! )v zv f IQv pGh J9v +v <OC
~vzvgvy ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG YhQvqvyG {vDv| ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG )vzvf iQvL}G ,v$ Ov}vAvgv@
d(vI ?vDv*OvI J9vV9vtv! c9v"v$h .9v+vF(vy(v<hQvDv!}Gh )Sociology( Y9v}vAvF:G
#v | OOv gv y ?v "v +v gv | kv +v Y 9v %v Av Tv wv f ,v !GOv +v }v yG Ev Jv =v yG J9v +v s;v LC Y(v \(v |
D. Cojti, «Linguistica e idiomas Mayas en Guatemala,» in: Nora C. )57(

England and Stephen R. Elliott, eds., Lecturas Sobre la Lingüistica Maya (La
Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala: Centro de Investigaciones Regionales de
Mesoamérica; South Woodstock, Vt.: Plumsock Mesoamerican Studies, 1990),
and Nora C. England, «Endangered Languages: Doing Mayan Linguistics in
Guatemala,» Language, vol. 68 (1992).
591
IOv IGh [v Mv @ ,?v +v f9v }v Av F:G e(v zv gv yG ,v p J9v +v s;v L~v y ?v +v "v %v }v yG Ov fG(v tv yG
jPv yG b;v L}G b9v Dv +v | G(v gv FGQ #v *Pv yG #v +v +v !9v Tv zv yG ,U9v L {v wv Wv < ,9v %v "v |
k
.;D| 9+F(y(<hQD!~y ?+vQ+|}G ?+g}GyG &Ag\h
f9vv 9v}vv &v@GP Uv+vy e(v+vyG ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG ?vSQ9v}v| fC Kv\G(vyG #v|
q
,BvzvL ,vAvyG ?v"vS #v*QvWvgvyG )vAvI hC #v+vTv}vMvyG ,vp hC fQvtvyG rvavgv"v| ,vp
Ev*OvJvyG {v}vgvyG ,vp &v+vyE g9v=vAv!:G ~q v@ GPv$ ,v!GOv+v}vyG EvJv=vyG Q9v_E Q(vavAvp
#v +v < I(v tv yG ?v s;v f ?v +v ]v s )v zv f Rv +v vQv Av yG ~q v @ PE ,)58(#v *Qv LBh fhQv +v |9v wv y
e9v dv "v yGz :?v *Qv dv ! Qv _C ?v C;v C Q9v Zv Av LG ~v @h ,&v +v p K(v Jv =v }v yGh Ev I9v =v yG
{vZvI Ovsh ,S9v"vyG ,vp EvJv=vzvy jOv+vzvtv@ ,v}v*O9vvC e9vdv! (v$h y,vs;vL}G
yjOv +v *zv Av yG e9v dv "v yGz ~q v C ,?v "v %v }v yG J9v +v s;v L} )v yh}G Ov fG(v tv yG f9v <E GPv $
(v$h ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G J9vvQvJvyG IQv}vi ,vp J9v+v"v+vgv=vTvyG ,vp &vF9v|OE ~q v@ jPvyG
Ov +v s e9v dv ! (v $ y?v *(v tv Av yG e9v dv !z 9v }v "v +v < ,S9v "v yG {v F}h ,v p U(v Zv Mv <
,v !GOv +v }v yG Ev Jv =v yG J:9v Jv y ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G WhQv Wv yG #v f >v +v Gv * OGOv f G
.S9"yG h|h {F}h ,p EJ=yG U(ZM< ($h ,,y9JyG
k
#v+v< :O9v=v@ ~v+vtv@ ?v+vS9vSC ?v+vvQ9vWv@ ?v<Q9vtv}v< Qv+vL}G e9vdv"vyG GPv$ Rv+v}vAv*h
#v +v < ?v +v vQ9v Wv Av yG ?v s;v gv yG gPv $ {v Dv }v y LP(v }v "v vh .&v +v p K(v Jv =v }v yGh Ev I9v =v yG
,v =v yG(v $ YhQv Wv | Ov Gv ! ?v +v zv $}G J9v f(v }v Gv }v yGh #v +v +v }v *O9v v}G #v +v +v !9v Tv zv yG
n n n
(Watahomigie) ,v v Gv v +v v |(v v $9v v @Gh &v v qv v Yh jPv v yG )Hualapai Project(
(Yipirinya ,v |hQ}G 9v +v !Qv +v =v +v * YhQv Wv |h ,(Yamamoto) (v @(v |9v |9v *h
)59(
Deborah Cameron [et al.], «Ethics, Advocacy and Empowerment: Issues )58(
of Method in Researching Language,» Language and Communication, vol. 13, no. 2
(1993).
L. Watahomigie and A. Yamamoto, «Linguistics in Action: The )59(
Hualapai Bilingual/ Bicultural Education Program,» in: Donald D. Stull and Jean
J. Schensul, eds., Collaborative Research and Social Change: Applied Anthropology
in Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987).
592
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Account of Fieldwork in Central Australia».
Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical )61(
Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages.
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Maintenance Efforts Which Are Uunlikely to Succeed,» International Journal of
the Sociology of Language, vol. 68 (1987),
Craig: «A Constitutional Response to Language Development: The )63(
Case of Nicaragua,» and «Miss Nora, Rescuer of the Rama Language: A Story of
Power and Empowerment,» in: Hall, Bucholtz and Moonwomon, eds., Locating
Power: Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Women and Language Conference.
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Evolution,» in: William C. McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm, eds., Approaches
to Language: Anthropological Issues (The Hague; Paris: Mouton; Chicago, IL:
Aldine, 1978), p. 69.
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R. N. Agheyisi, «Minor Languages in the Nigerian Context: Prospects )8 (

and Problems,» Word, vol. 35, no. 3 (1984).
602
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H. Batibo, «The Fate of Ethnic Languages in Tanzania,» in: Matthias )9 (

Brenzinger, ed., Language Death: Factual and Theoretical Explorations with Special
Reference to East Africa (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992), p. 88.
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Morris Swadesh, «Sociologic Notes on Obsolescent Languages,» )10(

International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 14, no. 4 (October 1948).
Hill, «Language Death in Uto-Aztecan». )11(
Martin Gusinde, «Zur Geschichte des Yamana-English Dictionary by )12(
Thomas Bridges,» Anthropos, vol. 28 (1933).
604
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Matthias Brenzinger, «Language Loyalty and Social Environment,» in: )13(

Thomas Geider and Raimund Kastenholz, eds., Sprachen und Sprachzeugnisse in
Afrika: Eine Sammlung philologischer Beiträge Wilhelm J.G. Möhlig zum 60.
Geburtstag zugeeignet (Köln: R. Köppe, 1994).
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Denison, «Language Death or Language Suicide?» in: Dressler and )14(

Wodak-Leodolter, «Language Preservation and Language Death in Brittany».
Louis Jean Calvet, Linguistique et colonialisme: Petit traité de )15(
glottophagie (Paris: Payot, 1974).
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,?v+vy9vJvyG fGO(vTvzvy )vavS(vyG uv_9v"v}vyG #v| G(v@C Ovtvp ,#v*QvF9v%v}vyG LG(v|C
607
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5,000 )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v=vp ,?v+v<(v"vGvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC #v| ,9v]v*C ,#vwvyh ,9v+v<(v+vCC #v|h
?v+vzv+v"vyGh (Bantu) (vAv!9v=vzvy #v+vCOvJvAv}vyG f9vwvTvyG rvzvAvMv| )v@C IQv+vL}G ?v"vS
k
)vzvf 9v}vFGO GhQvWvAv!Gh ?v+vsQvWvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC #v| (Cushitic) ?v+vV(vwvyGh (Nilotic)
k
9v @(v |h ?v *(v jv y J:(v Jv @ xv yPv < #v +v COv Jv | ,#v +v +v zv Y}G f9v wv Tv yG H9v Tv I
k k
J9vjvzvy IQO9v"vyG Q9vC6G a9vWvAvvG )vzvf #v*QO9vs A9v}vzvgvyG f9vv 9v| GQO9v!h .9v*(vjvy
)v}q vTv* 9v| ?vjvy gOvTvGv! Y(v"vyG GPv$ d9vDv|h .?v+vJvyG J9vjvzvyG ,vp ?vyOv=vAvTv}vyG
JQv%v*E Qvp(vAvTv*Qvv 9v$OOvI 9v*9vtv< ,v$h ,(Taita Cushites) Bv+vV(vv 9vAv*9vAvy9v<
^v vgv v< ,v vp (Derek Nurse) )16(SQ(v v! xv v*Qv v*Oh (Christopher Ehret)
,v p 9v %v < KOv Jv Av }v yG (Taita-Taveta) 9v Av +v p9v @ v v 9v Av *9v Av yG jC ,(v Av !9v =v yG J9v jv y
.9+"+wy ,sQWyG ,<("GyG ARGyG
~vy ,vAvyG xvzv@ ?v*(v%vGvyG Y9v\h}G ,vp ?v+vy9vJvyG J:(vJvAvyG J9vSGQO fE

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Ov|}G ?vzv*(v_ J:9vZv@:G fC MQvAvtv@ ,?v+v@9vTvS|v}vyG W(vjv]vy9v< 9v+v=vTv! QvCzvAv@
?v *(v jv zv yG J9v IGR G #v f Bv Gv Av ! f(v wv @ Ov s IQh9v Gv }v yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG #v +v <
k
,vAvyG J9v+vzvs}G f(vwv@ Ovtvp ,?vqvzvAvMv| J9v+vqv+vwv<h ,9v|9v}v@ ?vqvzvAvMv| H9v=vS}
{v*(v_ Bvs(vy ?v"v}v+v%v}vyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG hv| e9vGvTv!G J9vs;vf ,vp Xv+vgv@ Bv!9vv
.?"+g| ?zIQ| ,p ?}*OtyG ?jzyG #f ,zMAyG )zf JQ=FC
?v +v V(v wv yG ?v jv zv yG ,v }v zv wv Av | ,(Aasáx) Uv v9v S~v y GPv $ {v Zv I Ov sh

Uvv9vS}9v< f(vCOv Jv Av}v yG fhO9v ZvJv yG fhO9v +vZv yG )v }vAv!G Ovs ,)17(?v +v<(v"v GvyG
k
,GPE ,9v +v !GRv !9v @ HQv jv y (Maasai) j9v S9v }v yG d(v %v S ,v p f(v Wv +v gv * #v *Pv yGh
1891 ?v"vS #v| ?v+vV9v}vyG f(vf9v_ JGQv+vCzvAvp ,#v+v"v}v+v%v}vyG j9vS9v}vyG I9vfQ )vyE
Christopher Ehret and Derek Nurse, «The Taita Cushites,» Sprache )16(
und Geschichte in Afrika (SUGIA), vol. 3 (1981).
J. Christoph Winter, «Language Shift among the Aasáx, a Hunter- )17(
Gatherer Tribe in Tanzania,» Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, vol. 1 (1979).
608
Ovs j9vS9v}vyG >vzvizvp ,j(vSzv| {vwvWv< ?v+vgv\(vyG gPv$ Qv+vi Ovs 1896 )vyE
J9v | Ov sh ,?v *O9vZv Av s:Gh ?v +vf9v }vAv F:G ~v %v @9v +v I S9vSC ,~v%v Av +vV9v | GhOv tv p
gPv $ d;v L jQOv Gv yGh Y(v Gv yG #v | j9v S9v }v yG #v | ?v 8v }v yG ,v p 50 ,v yG(v I
fGQv v+v vGv vyG IOv vf9v vTv v| )v vzv vf f(v vF9v v"v vyG ~v v"v vjv vyG I9v vfQ d(v vf Ov vsh .JG(v v"v vTv vyG
J9vf(v}vGv}vyG 9v}v"v+v< .#v*O9vZvJvyG #v*O9v+vZvyG J9vf(v}vGv| )vzvfh #v+vI;vqvyG
J9vf(v}vGv| f{vp ,j9vS9v}vyG #v+vIR9v"vyG )vzvf IQvav+vTvyG ,vp BvJvGv! ?v+vI;vqvyG
{vFGh}G j9vS9v}vyG A:Rv"vyG d(vJv@ Ovsh .9v%vqvzvMv@ ~vy #v*O9vZvJvyG v v #v*O9v+vZvyG
)v zv f ?v zv |9v wv yG ~v %v @Qv av +v S bv Tv =v yh .d;v Av IG bQv p )v yE Bv s(v yG QhQv | hv |
Bvs(vyG ,vph .~v%v+vqv+v]v}vy e}G f9vTvzvyG d9v}vgvAvSG G(v|QvI ,Ov*OvGvyG ~v%vav+vJv|
J9vf9v}vF A9v"v=vy Uvv9vS}G J9v"v_(vAvTv| cQv@ ,vp j9vS9v}vyG &v+vp YQvV jPvyG
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.~v %v gv | ?v }v +v }v I J:9v Zv @G G(v |9v sC Ov s Uv v9v S}G #v | GQv +v Dv v f{v p ,IOv *Ov F
OGQvp}G {v=vs #v| ?vzv}vgvAvTv| dGRv@: ?vjvzvyG Bv!9vv Ev+vI IQv+vZvs IQvAvp Ovgv<h
,1910 ,v yG(v I Uv v9v S}G ?v jv zv y ,v F9v %v "v yG d(v p}G COv < ,~v $Ov +v Y bQv p ,v p
~v%vF9v|Ov!G >v=vTv< ,vy9vAvyG OvtvgvyG ,vp O(vF(vyG )vzvf Uvv9vS}G rvs(v@ Ovtvp
k
^v gv < ev qv Av IG xv yP Ov gv <h .9v ]v *C ?v *(v fQv yGh ?v +v I;v qv yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG ,v p
1973 ?v"vS ,vph .Uvv9vS}G ?vjvzv< ?vY9vMvyG ?vpQvgv}vyG ^vgv=v< ,bvtvp ,OGQvp}G
,?v jv zv y Qv +v L}G ~v zvwv Av }v yG aQv _ #v| Uvv9vS}G Nv *Q9vAv < Qv Av"v *h OhR 1975h
?v "v S ,v p(v @ jPv yG (Kimı́ndet ole Kiyang’ú) (v jv !9v +v v ,v yhC Bv *Ov "v }v +v v
.?"S 88 ,yG(I kz=* f9v jPyGh ,1976
,v p #v }v wv *h J9v jv zv yG dGOv =v Av SG &v +v p ~q v @ Qv LB jOv +v zv tv @ hv \h c9v "v $

{v |9v gv Av yG ?v jv zv p ,J9v +v |9v gv yG Bv \(v f ,v Av yG ?v +v zv $}G {v |9v gv Av yG ?v jv y Q9v Wv Av !G
k
{v v =v v s 9v v | ?v v "v v |RC ,v v p 9v v qv v zv v S Bv v }v v ! Ov v s ?v v +v v zv v Y}G (Lingua Francae)
,?v+vzvIG(vTvyG {vDv| J9vjvzv< KOvJvAv*o f9vv ?v+vtv*Qvp}G IQ9vtvyG ,vqvp ,Q9v}vgvAvS:G
,(Hussa) 9v S(v %v yGh ,(Songhai) j9v jv !(v Tv yGh ,(Manding) kv "v *Ov !9v }v yGh
~q v@ Ovs ?v+v|9vgvyG J9vjvzvyG #v| OOvfh ,hvSGh {vwvWv< (Amheric) ?v*Qv%v|}Gh
609
^vgv< ~vS9vtvAv* ?v+vzvY}G J9vjvzvy J9vgv+vS(vAvyG gPv$ ^vgv<h .9v%v< 9v%vyGOv=vAvSG
.?+y9AyG Y9\h}G h| J9}TyG
?+y9*Q=| G Y9\h}G
?v jv zv yG fC {v gv qv < Rv +v }v Av @ ?v +v y9v *Qv =v | G Y9v \h}G ,v p ?v jv zv yG ?v IGRE fE
~v%vTvqv!C fhQv=vAvgv* #v*PvyG #v+v}vJvAvtv}vyG ?vavzvTvyG H9vJvYC ?vjvy ,v$ ?vyOp v=vAvTv}vyG
,v\GQC )vyE ~v$Qv+vCzv@ hv+vS(v@ ,vp ~v%vI(v}v_ hv| f(vgvS(vAv* #v*PvyGh ,i(vsC
{vDv| ,vp hvtv@ ?vphQvgv}vyG ?v*(vjvzvyG J9vIGR5vy ?v}vMv]vyG ?v+v=vzvi}9vp ,iQvLC
hvS(vAvyG #v| IQv+vL}G ?v"vS 2,000 )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< {vs}G )vzvf Y9v\h}G gPv$
,?v+v"v*OvyG J9vfGRv"vyG {v=vs #v| IQQv=v}vyG J9vI(vAvqvyG QvC|v@ 9v}vzvDv| ,jQ9v}vgvAvS:G
.~y9gyG AGRFC ~dg| ,p ?jzyG d9Z@G Y9\hC ,p
Bv!9vv Ovsh ,#v*QvL6G J:9vGv| ?v"v}v+v%v}vyG ?vzv+vLOvyG JG(vtvyG bQvMv@

f{vp J:9vJvyG ^vgv< ,vph ,IO(vF(v}vyG ?v|9vgvyG ?v}vTvyG ,v$ ?v}vV9vjvyG I(vtvyG
?v+v F9v<(vyG VGQv|}G >vI9vZv@h .IO9v<5vy Y(v\(v}vv xvzv%v* hRvjv}vyG >vgvWvyG
k k k k
;vgvp hvtv@ VGQv|}G Bv!9vv GPE 9v| 9v}vFGO 9vJv\Gh Uv+vy #vwvyh ,9v}vFGO {vAvtvyG
o
J(v v}v v@ J:9v vJv vyG ~v vdv vgv v| ,v vph .IO9v v< G A9v v%v v! ?v vgv v*QP Pv vMv vAv v@ Bv v!9v vv eC
e}G f9v Tv zv yG Qv Gv $ )v zv f 9v $(v }v zv wv Av | Qv =v Gv * fC {v =v s ,xv yP hv | ,J9v jv zv yG
IRvF(v| ?vzvDv|C #v+v=v@ fC >vGv*h .Kv@9vqvyG ?vjvy )vyE xvyPv< d(vJvAvyGh ,~v*OvtvyG
.Y9\h}G gP$ ,p ?jzyG ?IGRE hS(@ ~y9gyG AGRFC rzAM| #|
Qv}vgvAvTv}vyG ehOvs hv| 9v+vtv*QvpC H(v"vF ,vp ?v+vzvY}G J9vjvzvyG d(vpC AOv<
(KhoeKhoe) j(v wv *(v wv yG ,v }v zv wv Av | f9v wv S Y(v }v Gv | f9v v Ov sh .^v +v <}G
Q9v%v!G Ovsh .200,000h 100,000 #v+v< 1650 ,vyG(vI ,vp ?v+v<(v"vGvyG 9v+vtv*Qvp}
Ovgv< ?vzv+vzvs O(vtvf ,vp ?v+vS9v+vTvyGh ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+v"v=vyGh jOv+vzvtvAvyG O9vZvAvs:G
q
d(vJv@ GPvvh jQOvGvyG ?v8v<hC #v| {vv O9vs Ovsh .dh}G ,v<hQh}G d9vZv@:G
J(v| )vyE (Xhosa) 9vS(vLh (Khoe-Dutch) ?v*Ov"vy(v$ v v j(vv )vyE ?vjvzvyG
610
.QWf hS9AyG fQtyG ,p {}AvG jPyG ?+<("GyG 9+t*QpC j(w*(v
,v p (San-Speaking) f9v Zv yG f(v COv Jv Av * #v *Pv yG f9v wv Tv yG Qv Wv Av !G Ov tv y

Ovsh .IQv+vL}G ?v"vS 8,000 v v vy {vs}G )vzvf ?vDv*OvJvyG ?v+v<(v"vGvyG 9v+vtv*QvpC {v|9vv
k
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q
,v p (’Auo) (v *h}G ?v jv y jC f9v Zv yG ?v jv zv y #v +v }v zv wv Av | 10 bv tv p {v c Ov sh
Ov v+v vs )v vzv vf (Kalahari Gemsbok Park) jQ9v v$:9v vv ?v vv(v v<Rv v}v vF ?v vtv v*Ov vI
y?v!(vzv}vyGz J9vf(v}vGv}vyG {vLGO G(vZvAv|G hC GhOv+v<C #v*QvL6G {vvh ,I9v+vJvyG
.(Afrikans) )18(?+!9w*Qp}9< ?COJA}yG (Colored)
Qv vDv vv}G Nv v *Q9v v Av v yG (v v $ {v v *RGQv v =v v yG ,v v p ?v v*(v v jv v zv v yG ?v vIGR G Nv v *Q9v v @ fE

k
,vp .f6G )vyE 9v+vF9v*Rv+vp IOOv%v| BvyGR9v| ?v*(vjvy(v"vC G J9v+vzvs}G fCh ,?v+vWvIh
{vIG(vTvy S(v=v|(vy(vv a9vWvAvvG #v| bvtvp #v+vAv"vS Ovgv<h ,?v*O;v+v| 1500 ?v"vS
(Pero Vaz de Caminha) 9v "v +v |9v v hO R9v p hQv +v < rv Yh ?v Dv *Ov Jv yG ;v *hRv "v p
9v*GOv%vzvy jO(vyG dO9v=vAvyG d9vjv@Qv=vyG xvzv| (Manuel) {v*(v!9v| )vyE ?vy9vSQ ,vp
,xvyP hv|h .f6G {v*RGQv=vy9v< )v}q vTv* 9v}vy ~v%v|hOvs Ov"vf O(v"v%vyG f9vwvTvyG hv|
?v "v }v +v %v zv yh #v +v +v zv Y}G O(v "v %v yG f9v wv Tv y ,v Wv I(v yG hv }v tv zv y ?v *GOv < gPv $ Bv !9v v
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k
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5 #v | O(v "v %v yG OGOv fC [v +v zv tv @ ,v p >v +v Zv ! 9v %v y f9v v ?v +v |9v dv "v yG ?v *Qv wv Tv gv yG
?v *O9v }v yG ?v Jv zv Zv }v yG Bv !9v v Ov tv y .f6G bv tv p 200,000 ,v yG(v I )v yE #v +v *;v |
JGhQv Dv yG hOv F9v Y dGR9v |h ,IQ9v tv yG gPv $ hRv jv y Ov *Ov gv yG O9v s jPv yG Rv p9v Jv yG
&v< Kv}vTv@ jPvyG O(v"v%vzvy ~v%vzvAvtv< >v$PvyG #vf f6G )vAvI f(vDvJv=v* I9vTvtvyG
)vzvf #v+v+v!(v!9vtvyG Qv+vi >v$PvyG hO9v+vY 9v%v+vp {vAvs ,vAvyG IQRvGv}vyGh .?v|(vwvJvyG
A. Trail, «The Khoesan Languages of South Africa,» in: Rajend )18(

Mesthrie, ed., [Forthcoming].
611
k k
?v "v S GQv L|v | Bv gv sh Ov s (Yanomami) ,v |9v |(v !9v +v yG #v | GOQv p 73 {v s}G
rvs(v| jC (vwv!GQvp Q9v|9vAv*C ?vS9vFQv< ?v+vzv*RGQv=vyG ?v|(vwvJvyG PvMvAv@ ~vyh ,1993
.9$OOZ< jOF
f9v wv S Nv *Q9v @ e(v +v yG ?v +v <(v "v Gv yG 9v vQv +v |} ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v gv \(v yG Uv wv gv @h

k k
Ovsh .?vyRvgv"v}vyG J9vjvzvyG #v| 9vgvSGh GOOvf OvGv! Ev+vI ,#v+v+vzvY}G O(v"v%vyG
k
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,ahQv gv | ,v pGQv jv Gv yGh ,v sQv gv yG 9v %v zv YC {v s}G )v zv f 9v %v ]v gv < )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <
,v p I9v +v Jv yG Ov +v s )v zv f ?v +v s9v < {v *RGQv =v yG ,v p ?v +v I ?v *Ov "v $ ?v jv y 170 ,v yG(v Jv p
k
OOvf ?v+vqvZv@ Bv}v@ #v+vAv"vFQ}Gh {v*RGQv=vyG ,vqvp ,GOvF IQv+vjvY ?v*(vjvy QvF9vWvf
k
?v+vqvZvAvyG Bv!9vv jG(vihQh}G ,vph ,9v*OvTvF #v+v+vzvY}G f9vwvTvyG #v| Qv+v=vv
aQvZv<h .9v%v+v}vzvwvAv| J(v}v< JQvCOv!G J9vjvzvyG #v| Qv+vDvvh .?v+vzvv ?v*OvTvGvyG
(Quechua) G(vWv@(vwvy9vv ?v+vzvY}G {v|9vgvAvyG J9vjvy ^vgv=vp ,GPv$ #vf Qvdv"vyG
Q9v }v gv Av S:G ~v fOv < JQv Wv Av !G Ov s (Guarani) ,v !QG(v jv yGh (Tupi) ,v <(v Av yGh
.)19(?+zs}G J9jzyG H9TI )zf
9v v+v vyGQv vAv vSC (James Cook) c(v vv Uv v}v v+v vF f9v vav v=v vtv vyG uv vJv vyC 9v v|Ov v"v vf
#v| QvDvvC Bv!9vv ,1770 UvavTviC/HB 27 ,vp ?v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG ?v*Q(v_GQv=v| 9v<
?v "v S 200 Ov gv <h .9v +v yGQv Av Szv < ?v +v |hQC Qv F9v Wv f {v =v s #v | ?v zv }v gv Av Tv | ?v jv y 250
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70h ,I9v +v Jv yG Ov +v s )v zv f ?v jv y 90 bv tv p Bv zv c ^v +v <}G d9v Zv @G #v | 9v =v *Qv tv @
,v p 10 ,v yG(v I bv tv ph .>v *Qv tv yG {v =v tv Av Tv }v yG ,v p VGQv tv !:9v < IOOv %v | 9v %v "v |
jC ,?v +v vzv vYC J9v vjv y f(v }v vzv vwv Av v* G(v yGR9v | #v v+v +v |hQ}G f9v wv vTv yG #v | ?v 8v v}v yG
Qv vF9v vWv vgv vyG ?v vjv vy ,v v\9v v}v vyG ,v vp Bv v!9v vv 9v v}v v"v v+v v< .300,000 #v v| OQv vp 30,000
,vyG(vI bvtvp c9v"v$ e(v+vyGh .~vzvwvAv| 5,000 )vyE 4,000 #v| rvyzvAv@ ?v+v|hQ}G
W. F. H. Adelaar, «The Endangered Languages Problem: South )19(

America,» in: Robins and Uhlenbeck, eds., Endangered Languages.
612
9v| rvZv@ ?vjvy 45 ,vyG(vI .~vzvwvAv| 1,000 #v| QvDvvC )vzvf Qvp(vAv@ J9vjvy 8
k
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y?v }v +v zv Tv yGz J9v jv zv yG fC ~v iQ #v wv yh .100h 10 #v +v < 9v | jC ,#v +v }v zv wv Av }v yG
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~v y ?v +v |hQ}G J9v jv zv y9v p ,Ov *GRv Av * dGR9v | ,v \9v }v yG ,v p ?v +v |hQ}G J9v jv zv yG
k
~vFGQvGvzvy ?vGv+vAv"vv 9v]v*C #vwvyh ,(Assimilation) ?vzvC9v}v}vyG Qv=vf bvtvp rvAvMv@
.)20(VGQ|}Gh
J(v yC f9v wv S OOv f kv zv =v * f9v v Qv Wv f hv <9v Tv yG fQv tv yG J9v +v "v +v gv <QC ,v p
f9v v Ov sh ,15,000h 12,000 #v +v < 9v | 9v }v <Q 9v wv S:Bh 9v *Qv +v =v +v Tv < (Aleut)
q
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kv zv =v * f9v v jPv yG J(v y}G >v gv Wv y j(v Szv }v yG a9v gv \ G #v f #v +v yh|v Tv }v yG
?v +v !9v <9v +v yG JG(v tv y9v p ,1820 ?v "v S 3,000 )v yE 2,000 ,v yG(v I bv tv p gOOv f
.9v%v!9vwvS BvzvtvAvfGh ,1942 (v+v!(v* /fGQv*RvI ,vp ?v+v@(vy}G QRvGvyG Bv}vF9v$
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Annette Schmidt, The Loss of Australia’s Aboriginal Language Heritage )20(

(Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1990).
613
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K. Bergsland, «The Aleut Language of Alaska,» in: Dirmid R. F. )21(

Collis, ed., Arctic Languages: An Awakening (Paris: Unesco, 1990).
Coulmas, Language and Economy, p. 170. )22(
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E. M. Ishaq, «Coptic Language, Spoken,» in: Aziz S. Atiya, ed., The )23(
Coptic Encyclopedia, 8 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1991), vol. 2, pp. 604-606.
616
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Nancy C. Dorian, ed., «Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in )24(

Language Contraction and Death,» Language, vol. 66 (1990) (R. Hudson), p. 834.
617
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)28(
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Schmidt, The Loss of Australia’s Aboriginal Language Heritage, pp. 20-21. )25(
Joshua A. Fishman [et al.], Language Loyalty in the United States: The )26(
Maintenance and Perpetuation of Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic
and Religious Groups (The Hague: Mouton, 1966); Fishman, ed., Advances in the
Study of Societal Multilingualism, and Veltman, Language Shift in the United
States.
Michael Clyne, Multilingual Australia: Resources, Needs, Policies )27(
(Melbourne, Australia: River Seine Publications, 1982).
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Bilingual Austria.
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J(v | ,v vp Ev Jv =v yG {v vtv vI ,v vp OGhQv vyG #v | )Dorian( f9v *QhO Ov vgv v@
.J9v+v"v+vgv=vTvyG Pv"v| ?v*Ov!;v @(vwvS:G ?v+vzv+vjvyG )vzvf 9v %v zv }v f d;vL #v| ?vjvzvyG
)32(
#v v Tv v wv v *O .h .e .Q &v v zv v Dv v }v v * Ov v |}G {v v *(v v _ Ev v Jv v =v v y LP(v v }v v ! c9v v "v v $h
Robert Leon Cooper, Language Spread: Studies in Diffusion and Social )29(
Change (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics, 1982), and Lowenberg, ed., Language Spread and Language
Policy: Issues, Implications, and Case Studies.
Ronald Wardhaugh, Languages in Competition: Dominance, Diversity, )30(
and Decline (Oxford; New York: B. Blackwell; London: A. Deutsch, 1987).
Joshua A. Fishman, «Language Spread and Language Policy for )31(
Endangered Languages,» in: Lowenberg, ed., Ibid., p. 3.
R. M. W. Dixon, «A Changing Language Situation: The Decline of )32(
Dyirbal, 1963-1989,» Language in Society, vol. 20 (1991).
619
?v v+v v|hQ}G ?v vjv vzv vyG ,)Dyirbal( d9v v<Qv v+v v*Ov vyG d(v vpC SQO jPv vyG ,(Dixon)
q
d(vpC #vf J:9vtv| QvWv! Ovs QvzvTv*QOh .?v+v\9v}vyG ?v"vS 30 IOv| ?v+vyGQvAvS}G
cGOhh hv v | cGQv v Av v V:9v v < QOv v YC Ov v sh .1972 Pv v "v v | )Breton( f(v v @hQv v =v v yG
k k
?v v +v v yhOv v yG ?v v zv v Gv v }v v y9v v < y?v v jv v zv v yG J(v v |z d(v v I 9v v *Q(v v Jv v | GOOv v f Qv v Av v yhO(v v +v v y
«Spracherhalt- v v < f(v"vgv}vyG &vzv}vf ,vqvp ,1977 ?v"vS ?vjvzvyG 9v+vF(vy(v+vS(vTvy
?v zv Zv Av }v yG JGQ(v Wv "v }v yG )33(Qv zv Tv *QO [ q v Mv y Sprachverfall-Sprachtod»
k
c9v "v $h .?v qv zv Av Mv | J9v <Q9v tv |h Qv dv ! J9v %v F(v y 9v tv ph 9v %v Av Wv s9v "v }v < Y(v \(v }v y9v <
q k
{vv eOvs Ovsh .9vDv*OvI 9v$QvWv! ~q v@ Y(v\(v}vyG d(vI J:9vtv}vyG #v| Ov*OvgvyG
)36(
xv v v +v v v =v v v "v v v zv v v $hCh Rv v v "v v v <hQh ,(Beck) )35(xv v v +v v v <h )34(f9v v v *QhO #v v v |
.?+p9\E iQLC J9SGQOy ?"+A| IOf9s ,)37(Qj"*R!Q<h ,(Uhlenbeck)
Wolfgang Dressler, «Spracherhalt-Sprachverfall-Sprachtod,» in: )33(

Ammon, Dittmar and Mattheier, eds., Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook
of the Science of Language and Society.
Dorian, ed., Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language )34(
Contraction and Death.
Heinrich Beck, ed., Germanische Rest- und Trümmersprachen (Berlin; )35(
New York: W. de Gruyter, 1989).
Robins and Uhlenbeck, eds., Endangered Languages. )36(
Matthias Brenzinger, «Patterns of Language Shift in East Africa,» in: )37(
Herbert, ed., Language and Society in Africa: The Theory and Practice of
Sociolinguistics.
620
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,v p ?v +v S9v S}G 9v *9v ]v tv yG ?v sQ(v yG gPv $ ,v p Xv s9v "v !h (Contact Linguistics)
#v +v < J9v fGQv Zv yG rv zv Av Mv | SQOv !h ,?v jv zv yG d9v Zv @: Qv Y9v gv }v yG Ev Jv =v yG
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Uriel Weinreich, Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems, )1 (

Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York; no. 1, with a Preface by André
Martinet (New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953).
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#v +v < fh9v gv Av yGh e;v Tv yG ,v p {v }v gv Av Tv * fC #v wv }v * ,?v Dv y9v Dv yGh ?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v jv zv yG
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)5(
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.iQLC ?%F #| 9%z+zJ@ ~q @ Os
J9v +v "v +v gv =v Tv yG J9v +v !9v Tv zv y hv *Qv Tv yG Q(v av Av yG f{v p ,?v tv *Qv av yG gPv %v <h
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gO9v v}v vAv vfGh ,IOv vF9v vTv vyG ?v v+v v!hQv vwv v!9v Tv vyG J9v v}v vTv vyG >v v!9v vF )v vyE ?v v+v v!hQv vv9v v*Ov vyG
,?v zv Zv Av }v yG J9v Zv Zv Mv Av yG #v | OOv f hv | (Interdependence) uv pG(v Av }v yG
k
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Harald Haarmann, Multilingualismus, 2 vols. (Tübingen: Narr, 1980), )2 (

vol. 1.
L. Auburger, «Zur Theorie der Sprachkontaktforschung: Ist die )3 (

«Linguistique externe» keine «linguistique»,» in: Leopold Auburger and Heinz
Kloss, eds., Deutsche Sprachkontakte inÜbersee: nebst e. Beitr. zur Theorie d.
Sprachkontaktforschung (Tübingen: Narr, 1979); R. Breton, «Indices numériques
et représentations graphiques de la dynamique des langues,» and N. Labrie,
«Commentaires,» in: Lorne Laforge et Grant D. McConnell, dirs., Diffusion des
langues et changement social: Dynamique et mesure = Language Spread and Social
Change: Dynamics and Measurement (Sainte-Foy: Presses de l’Université Laval,
1990).

624
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d9Z@G J9+!9Ty O*OJ@ v v 2

Qv }v v@|v v}v vyG ,v p IQv v| dhC yd9v Zv v@G J9v v+v v!9v vTv vyz Kv zv vav vZv v| d9v LOE ~q v v@
?v "v S {v +v Tv vhQv < ,v p ~v +v sC jPv yG YGRv "v yGh ?v jv zv yG d9v Zv @G d(v I ,v }v y9v gv yG
9v %v qv Yh #v wv }v * J9v Y9v Zv Av L:G IOOv gv Av | ?v =v gv V d9v Zv @G J9v +v !9v Tv zv p ,1979
{v }v gv Av Tv }v yG ,?v jv zv yG :?v +v y9v Av yG aGQv Wv Av S:G bv tv ! #v | K(v y9v C 9v %v !C )v zv f
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IQv Gv %v yGh ,(Boundaries) ?v jv zv yG OhOv Ih ,?v *(v jv zv yG IQv +v Wv gv yGh (Nation)
k v
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zeitgenössischer Forschung = Contact Linguistics: An International Handbook of
Contemporary Research (Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1996-1997).
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= Research on Problems of Ethnic, Racial, and Religious Group Relations, Social
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{v Dv | v v ?v jv zv yG 9v +v F(v y(v +v S(v Sh J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv zv y hv *Qv Tv yG Q(v av Av yG (v Jv !
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Xv*Qv"v*9vp Qvdv"v* 9v}v"v+v< .Qv%vdv* 9v}vzvs YGQvY KvzvavZv| f{vp ,f9v}vWv+vph Xv*Qv"v*9vp
Q9v=vAvf9v< ?v=vI9vZv}vyG {vLGOvAvyG IQv$9vch )?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG( j(vjvzvyG OOvgvAvyG )vyE
#v+v < YGQv Zv yG )v yE Qvdv "v yG fhO #v | ,?v jv zv yG d9v Zv @: ?v+v }v $C Qv Dvv}G {v wv WvyG
,?v +v p9v tv C hC ?v +v "v *Oh ?v +v "v CE J9v \Q9v gv @ S9v SC )v zv f ?v *(v jv zv yG J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG
Matthias Hartig, Soziolinguistik für Anfänger ([Hamburg]: Hoffmann )14(

und Campe, 1980), p. 182.
E. Oksaar, «Mehrsprachigkeit, Sprachkontakt, Sprachkonflikt,» in: )15(
Peter Hans Nelde, ed., Sprachkontakt und Sprachkonflikt = Languages in Contact
and Conflict (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1980).
Haarmann, Multilingualismus, vol. II, p. 191. )16(
632
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q
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Fishman, The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary Social )17(

Science Approach to Language in Society, p. 14.
Einar Ingvald Haugen, Language Conflict and Language Planning: The )18(
Case of Modern Norwegian (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966).
Sprachkonflikt = Languages in Contact and Conflict, p. xi.
Weinreich, Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems, 1953, p. 151. )20(
633
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Klaus Mattheier, «Sprachkonflikte in einsprachigen )21(

Ortsgemeinschaften,» in: Els Oksaar, ed., Spracherwerb, Sprachkontakt,
Sprachkonflikt (Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 1984), p. 200.
Peter Hans Nelde, ed., Gegenwärtige Tendenzen der Kontaktlinguistik = )22(
Current Trends in Contact Linguistics, Plurilingua; 1 (Bonn: Dümmler, 1983).
634
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EvJv< LP9v}v! ?v+v\9v}vyG ?vzv+vzvtvyG JG(v"vTvyG JOv%vV Ovtvp ,rvs(v}vyG ?vdvI;v|h
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?v v +v v tv v +v v =v v av v Av v yG J9v v +v v !9v v Tv v zv v yG ?v v +v v gv v }v v F ,v v p J(v v < hO .c v v )Ov v zv v +v v ! f(v v !9v v s(
#v vjv v"v v+v v@(v vi ,v vp eOv vs jPv vyG )Gesellschaft für angewandte linguistik(
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Peter H. Nelde, «Sprachkontakt als Kulturkonflikt,» in: Wolfgang )23(

Kühlwein, ed., Sprache, Kultur und Gesellschaft (Tübingen: Narr, 1984), and
Werner Enninger and Lilith M. Haynes, eds., Studies in Language Ecology
(Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1984).
W. Wölck, «Beyond Community Profiles: A Three-Level Approach to )24(
Sociolinguistic Sampling,» in: Peter Hans Nelde, ed., Methoden der
Kontaktlinguistik = Methods in Contact Linguistic Research, Plurilingua; 5 (Bonn:
Dümmler, 1985).
635
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(v $h .y?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yGz Bv Jv @ e9v f {v wv Wv < rv "v Zv * 9v | 9v =v y9v i j(v jv zv yG
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,c9v"v%vp ,jO9v+vAvfG {vwvWv< #v+vAvjvy #v| QvDvvC f(vzv}vgvAvTv* #v*PvyG U9vMvV}G
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Language in a Plural Society (Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass; Shimla: Indian
Institute of Advanced Study, 1988), and Bent Sfndergaard, «Switching between
Seven Codes within One Family,» Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol.
12 (1991),
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,J9v jv zv yG ,v p ?v *h9v Tv Av | IQOv s )v zv f d(v Zv Jv yG ?v jv zv yG jOOv gv Av | hC ,v +v F9v "v Dv <
BvqvWvwv@ Ovs J9vs9v+vTvyG Uvqv! ,vp 9v%vy9v}vgvAvSG hC ,#v|GRvAv| {vwvWv< 9v%v<9vTvAvvGh
?v |9v f f(v wv @ fC )v yE e(v +v yG {v +v }v @ rv *Q9v gv Av y9v p ,GPv wv $h .)3(?v +v gv sGh Qv +v i
OOvgvAvzvyz hvF9vWvyG rv*QvgvAvyGh )xv+v<QvpC f9vp &v+vavgv* jPvyG )v"vgv}vy9v< y?v+vGv%v"v|z(
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,v y9v Jv yG rv Y(v yG ,v p ,v p9v \E uv +v sOv Av < Kv }v Tv * GPv $h .y?v jv y #v | Qv Dv vzv <
.?qzAM| J9jy d9}gASGh #w}@ #| ?qzAM| J9*(AT| ?+ajAy
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(De yhv vsG(v vyG ~v vwv vJv v< ~v vF9v vtv vyG OOv vgv vAv vyGzh (Official) y,v v}v vSQv vyGz j(v vjv vzv vyG
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,v Av yG )Cantons( J9v !(v Av !9v wv yG ,v p ?v jv zv yG ,v *O9v IC fhzv Wv "v * S9v "v yG ~v dv gv |
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?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v C ?v yhO ,v $ GOv "v vh .IOv IGh ?v +v }v SQ ?v jv y )v zv f 9v +v FP(v }v ! Qv p(v Av @
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jOv "v wv yG Q(v Av SOv yG ,v p f9v Av c(v qv Jv | ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! Gh ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG f} 9v +v }v SQ
d9v Zv @G )v zv f fhQv p(v Av * G(v yGR9v | #v +v *Ov "v wv yG ~v dv gv | #v wv y ,?v +v }v SQ J9v jv zv v
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,xvyP #vf ;v]vph .#v+vAvjvzvyG #v+v@9v$ #v| bvtvp IOvIG(v< ),vSQOv| :( ~vdvAv"v|
?v jv y ?v 8v | #v | Qv Dv vC e(v +v yG GOv "v v ,v p ?v zv }v gv Av Tv | iQv LC J9v jv y IOv f c9v "v $
Maurits van Overbeke, Introduction au probléme du bilinguisme, étude )2 (

publiée par l’AIMAV, Association internationale pour la recherche et la diffusion
des méthodes audio-visuelles et structuro-globales (Bruxelles: Editions «Labor»;
Paris: F. Nathan, 1972).
Einar Haugen, «Bilingualism, Languge Contact and Immigrant :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v s )3(

Languges in the United States,» in: Thomas A. Sebeok, ed., Current Trends in
Linguistics. 10, Linguistics in North America (The Hague; Paris: Mouton, 1973).
650
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{v |G(v f ?v av SG(v < )Societal( ,v gv }v Av Gv }v yG j(v jv zv yG OOv gv Av yG zv Wv ! Ov tv y

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J:9vGv}vyG( J:9vGv|h ,?v*(vjvy rvF9vch hv| )U( J9vjvzvv ,vzv|9vwv@ hv*R(v@
hv |h .Q9v +v Av L;v y IOOv Jv }v yG ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v tv =v av yGh ,))5({v YG(v Av zv y ?v +v s9v +v Tv yG
hv | ,v }v SQv yG hv \(v yG Xv Av +v iQ(v =v Tv Av +v zv yG Bv }v S9v tv @ 1984 Pv "v |h ,xv yP

651
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,?v+v}vSQ J:9vGv| ,vp (H Languages) d J9vjvzvv ?v+vzv+v|9vAvyGh ,?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG
(Hokkien) f9v v+v vv(v v%v vyGh ,?v vav v+v vSh ?v vjv vzv vv ?v v*Q9v v+v vgv v}v vyG Qv v+v vi ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! Gh
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Gerald Newton [et al.], Languages of Europe at the Crossroads - The )6 (

Luxembourg Example (Oxford, [Forthcoming]), and Michael Clyne, English as a
Lingua Franca at Work (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press,
[Forthcoming]).
John Talbot Platt and Heidi Weber, English in Singapore and Malaysia: )7 (
Status, Features, Functions (Kuala Lumpur; New York: Oxford University Press,
1980), p. 12.
652
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k
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J:9v Gv }v <h ,?v jv zv yG d9v }v gv Av S9v < ?v jv zv yG d(v Jv @ ~v jv *OGQv < ~v Av $G Ov sh

)v vyE IOv vIGh ?v vjv vy d9v v}v vgv vAv vSG #v v| J:(v vJv vAv vyG JGQv v+v vTv vqv v@h ,d9v v}v vgv vAv vS:G
.)11(e9f {wW< hC J:9JyG ^g< ,p ,iQLC ?jy JGQ+Tq@
Clyne, Community Languages: The Australian Experience, pp. 159- :fQ9v s )9(
160.
k
Weinreich, Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems, 1953; :;v v v v v Dv v v v v | )10(
Einar Ingvald Haugen, Bilingualism in the Americas: A Bibliography and Research
Guide, Publication of the American Dialect Society; no. 26 (Alabama: University
of Alabama Press, 1956); John Joseph Gumperz, «The Sociolinguistic Significance
of Conversational Code-Switching,» in: J. Cook Gumperz and J. J. Gumperz, eds.,
Papers on Language and Context, Working Paper; no. 46 (Berkeley, CA: Language
Behavior Research Laboratory, University of California, 1976); Giles, Bourhis
and Taylor, «Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations,» in:
Giles, ed., Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup Relations, and Jir̆ı́ V. Neustupný,
«Language Norms in Australian-Japanese Contact Situations,» in: Michael G.
Clyne, ed., Australia, Meeting Place of Languages (Canberra, A.C.T., Australia:
Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National
University, 1985).
k
Fishman [et al.]: Language Loyalty in the United States: The :;v v v v v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v v v v v| )11(
= Maintenance and Perpetuation of Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic
653
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and Religious Groups; The Rise and Fall of the Ethnic Revival: Perspectives on =
Language and Ethnicity, Assisted by Silvia Burunat [et al.] (Berlin; New York:
Mouton, 1985); Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical
Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages, and Veltman, Language Shift
in the United States.
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and Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect, and Dressler and
Wodak-Leodolter, «Language Preservation and Language Death in Brittany».
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Bert Weltens, Kees de Bot and Theo van Els, eds., Language :;v Dv | Qv dv !G )13(
Attrition in Progress (Dordrecht, Holland: Foris, 1986).
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Heinz Kloss, The American Bilingual Tradition (Rowley, MA: :;vDv| Qvdv!G )14(
Newbury House, 1977); Fishman [et al.], The Rise and Fall of the Ethnic Revival:
Perspectives on Language and Ethnicity, and Clyne, Community Languages: The
Australian Experience, chap. 1.
655
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Martin Pütz, «The Present and Future Maintenance of German in the )16(
Context of Namibia’s Official Language Policy,» Multilingua, vol. 11, no. 3
(1992).
657
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{v v}v vgv vAv vTv v@ 9v v%v v!{v vp ?v v+v v}v vSQ ?v vjv vy #v vf #v vzv vgv v@ : 9v v+v vyGQv vAv vSC fC ~v viQh
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?v jv zv yG d9v Gv | ,v p ?v +v yGQv Av S}G ?v S9v +v Tv yGh )18( J9v jv zv y ?v +v "v _(v yG ?v S9v +v Tv yG #v |
(The Australian Language and Literacy Policy)
)19(
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E. Glyn Lewis, Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of )17(

Language Policy and Its Implementation (The Hague; Paris: Mouton, 1972), p. 209.
Joseph Lo Bianco, National Policy on Languages: Report (Canberra: )18(

Government Printer, 1987).
Australia. Dept. of Employment, Education, and Training, Australia’s )19(

Language: The Australian Language and Literacy Policy (Canberra: Australian
Govt. Pub. Service, 1991).
658
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Clyne, Community Languages: The Australian Experience. )20(

Michael Clyne, «Australia’s Language Policies: Are We Going )21(
Backwards?,» Current Affairs Bulletin, vol. 68, no. 6 (1991).
David F. Marshall, «The Question of an Official Language: Language )22(
Rights and the English Language Amendment,» International Journal of the
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?v jv zv yG b9v Dv +v | (v $h ,101 {v +v < {v gv F Ov sh .)25(?v +v F9v ]v tv yGh ?v +v gv *Qv Wv Av yGh
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Canada. Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Report )23(

of Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer,
1967-1970).
Official Languages Act, Statutes of Canada (1969). )24(
D’Iberville Fortier, «Official Languages Policies in Canada: A Quiet )25(
Revolution,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vols. 105-106
(1994).
Charter of the French Language (Bill no. 101) with Regulations = )26(
Charte de la langue française (Projet de loi no. 101) et règlements (Don Mills,
Ont.: CCH Canadian, 1977).
660
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= Schweiz,» in: Richard Watts and Franz Andres, eds., Zweisprachig durch die
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Schule. Französisch und Deutsch als Unterrichtssprache = Le Bilinguisme à travers =

l’ećole. L’Allemand et le français comme langues d’enseignement (Bern: Paul Haupt,
1990).
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Anthea Fraser Gupta, The Step-Tongue: Children’s English :;v v v Dv v v | fQ9v v v s )28(
in Singapore (Clevedon [England]; Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters, 1994).
W. Volz, «Deutsch im Übersetzungsalltag der EG-Kommission,» in: )29(
Joachim Born and Gerhard Stickel, eds., Deutsch als Verkehrssprache in Europa
(Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1993).
662
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Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin )30(

and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
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Elie Kedourie, Nationalism, 2nd revised ed. (London: :;v v v v v vDv v v v v | Qv v v v v vdv v v v v v!G )31(
Hutchinson, 1961), and Wsevolod W. Isajiw, «Definitions of Ethnicity,» Ethnicity,
vol. 1, no. 2 (1970). Reprinted in: Jay E. Goldstein and Rita M. Bienvenue, eds.,
Ethnicity and Ethnic Relations in Canada: A Book of Readings (Toronto:
Butterworths, 1980).
663
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Joshua A. Fishman, «The Social Science Perspective: Keynote,» in: )32(

Bilingual Education: Current Perspectives (Arlington, VA: Center for Applied
Linguistics, 1977-1978).
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Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies (Amsterdam;
Ferguson, «Diglossia». )34(
Sankoff (1971). )36(
664
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Bilingual Austria.
Robert Leon Cooper, «How Can We Measure the Roles Which a )39(
Person’s Language Plays in His Everyday Behavior?,» in: L. G. Kelly, ed.,
= Description and Measurement of Bilingualism: An International Seminar, University
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.&Tq! QOZCG )42(
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Heinz Kloss, «German-American Language Maintenance Efforts,» in: )46(
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.>T"yG IOf9=A|
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Guide.
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Clyne, Community Languages: The Australian Experience, pp. 176-186; )59(

S. Gonzo and M. Satarelli, «Pidginization and Linguistic Change in Emigrant
Languages,» in: Andersen, ed., Pidginization and Creolization as Language
Acquisition, and C. Bettoni, «Italian Language Attrition: A Sydney Case-Study,»
in: Clyne, ed., Australia, Meeting Place of Languages.
Myers-Scotton: Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence :Qv v v v dv v v v v!G )61(
from Africa.
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haben’s/mußten sie ’raus von New Guinea at the time of the
)65(
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Conversation (Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 1984), and Myers-Scotton, Duelling =

Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching.
Clyne, Community Languages: The Australian Experience, pp. 193-196. )64(
.195 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )65(
S. Rot, «On the National Variety of Australian English,» Annales )66(
Universitates Budapensiensis Ling., vol. 16 (1985), p. 203.
676
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Henrik Becker, Der Sprachbund (Leipzig: G. Mindt, [1948]). )67(

Jir̆ı́ V. Neustupný, Post-Structural Approaches to Language: Language )68(
Theory in a Japanese Context ([Tokyo]: University of Tokyo Press, 1978).
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Ethnicity, chap. 6, and Andrée Tabouret-Keller, «Langue, miroir, discours, les =

lieux du même et du semblable,» Cahiers de praxématique, no. 17 (1991).
Renée Balibar, Histoire de la litte´rature française, 2ème éd. corr (Paris: )9 (

Presses Universitaires de France, 1993), p. 26.
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Frederic Gomes Cassidy and R. B. Le Page, eds., Dictionary of )10(

Jamaican English, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1980).
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Uriel Weinreich, «Unilinguisme et multilinguisme,» in: André Martinet, )11(

dir., Le Langage..., Encyclopédie de la Pléiade; v. 25 (Paris: Gallimard, [1968?]),
p. 648.
687
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Andrée Tabouret-Keller and R. B. Le Page, «The Mother-Tongue )12(

Metaphor,» Grazer Linguistische Studien, vol. 27 (1986), p. 252.
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Wolfgang Ladin, Der Elsässische Dialekt-Museumsreif?: Analyse einer )13(

Umfrage, Vorwort von Eugène Philipps (Strasbourg: SALDE [Société Alsacienne
et Lorraine de Diffusion et d’Edition], 1982), p. 185.
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L. Dabène and J. Billiez, «Le Parler des jeunes issus de l’immigration,» )15(
in: Geneviève Vermes et Josiane Boutet, dirs., France, pays multilingue (Paris:
L’Harmattan, 1987), p. 76.
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Howard Giles, «Ethnicity Markers in Speech,» in: Scherer and Giles, )17(
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Howard Giles and Jane L. Byrne, «An Intergroup Approach to Second )18(
Language Acquisition,» Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,
vol. 3, no. 1 (1982), p. 105.
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.122 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )20(

W. E. Lambert: «Culture and Language as Factors in Learning and )21(
Education,» in: Frances E. Aboud and Robert D. Meade, eds., Cultural Factors in
Learning and Education ([Bellingham? Wash.: n. pb., [pref. 1974]), and «Effects of
Bilingualism in the Individual,» in: Peter A. Hornby, ed., Bilingualism:
Psychological, Social and Educational Implications: [Papers] (New York; San
Francisco, CA; London: Academic Press, 1977).
Jim Cummins, «Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational )22(
Development of Bilingual Children,» Review of Educational Research, vol. 49, no.
2 (1979).
J. Hamers and M. Blanc, «Towards a Social Psychological Model of )23(
Bilingual Development,» in: Peter Hans Nelde, ed., Theorie, Methoden und
Modelle der Kontaktlinguistik = Theory, Methods and Models of Contact
Linguistics (Bonn: Dümmler, 1983).
.H9AwyG GP$ ,p )17( Oz+!h )18( #+zv \Zp U(ZBG ^f Qd!G )24(
Giles and Byrne, «An Intergroup Approach to Second Language )25(
Acquisition,» p. 105.
694
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Le Page: «Problems of Description in Multilingual Communities,» and )26(

Projection, Focussing, Diffusion or, Steps Towards a Sociolinguistic Theory of
Language, Illustrated from the Sociolinguistic Survey of Multilingual Communities
Stages I: Cayo District, Belize (Formerly British Honduras) and St. Lucia, School
of Education, Occasional Paper; no. 9 (St. Augustine, Trinidad: Society for
Caribbean Linguistics, 1978).
Approaches to Language and Ethnicity, p. 181.
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R. B. Le Page [et al.], «Further Report on the Sociolinguistic Survey of )29(

Multilingual Communities,» Language in Society, vol. 3 (1974), p. 14.
Tabouret-Keller, «Séminaire d’anthropologie du langage, (1986-1987),» )30(
pp. 15-17.
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August B. Hollingshead, «Cultural Factors in the Selection of Marriage )3 (

Mates,» American Sociological Review, vol. 15, no. 5 (October 1950).
Carson McGuire, «Social Stratification and Mobility Patterns,» )4 (
American Sociological Review, vol. 15 (1950). The term «ethnicity» occurs on
p. 199.
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?v *(v jv y(v "v C G ?v *(v %v zv y 9v +v s;v LC 9v }v Gv I ,v ]v Av tv * ?v +v "v C G v v #v *Ov yG v v ?v jv zv yG
k
hC yMhQz v v v< 9v }v FGO ?v jv zv yG bv =v @Qv @ 9v %v Av av SG(v =v p ,)5(j(v jv y(v "v C G ,v f(v zv yh
I9v +v vJv vzv y S9v vSzv vvz 9v %v +v vzv f d9v Jv v* )6(?v v+v ShQ;v v+v v=v y9v p ,?v v+v vTv "v vGv vyG yUv vqv !z
Stuart Mews, ed., Religion and National Identity (Oxford: Blackwell, )5 (

1982).
Letters to Gorbachev: New Documents from Soviet Byelorussia, 2nd ed. )6 (
(London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1987).
k
#v| ?v8CG ,vp 10 9v=v*Qvtv@ {vwvWv@ ?vjvy 48 #v| I9vtvAv"CG ?vsQ(vyG gPv$ ,vp IQ(vvPCG JGO9v%vWvAvS:G
(The Beloved N9v vK G P9v vTv vy(v v"v vC G ,v vf(v vyG f(v v}v v]v v| :?v v<(v v=v vJCG ?v vjv vzv vyG ,v vp ?v v"v v}v v]v vACG xv vzv v@
QOv v vZv v v+v v vS jPv v vyG ,Language: The Content of Positive Ethnolinguistic Consciousness)
k k
.?jy 76 #| 9s;a!G JGO9%WAS:G {+z; ~q @ E+I ,9tI:
708
OvF(v@ fC #vwv}v* : ?v+v"v_(vyG MhQvyGz fC 9v"vgv"vtv@ )7((v"v+v=v+vzvqvyGh ,y?v+vIhQvyG
q
(v $ A9v fO:G f{v p ?v *Qv =v gv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h .y?v vQv Av Wv | ?v jv y Ov F(v @ : 9v |Ov "v f
,yS9v"vyG MhQ &v"v| BvtvDv=v!G jPvyG >v%vAvzv}vyG fQvqvyG Uvqv! #v| BvtvDv=v!Gz 9v%v!C
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Bv |GO9v |h .yQv Wv =v yG MhQv < :9v Zv @Gz 9v %v y f{v p )8(?v +v !9v <9v +v yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h
#v| QvDvvC A,vV : e(v+vyG f(vwv@ Ovs ?v+v"v_(vyG yUvqv"vyGzh yMhQvyGz IQ9vgvAvSG
?v"v}v]vAv| 9v%v!(vv iOv| #vf Qvdv"vyG aQvZv<( ?vzv}vGvzvy ?vgvFGQ ?vi9v+vY jC ,GPv$
k
Uv+vy &v!C )vyE ,9v]v*C ,IQ9vV G >vGv@ ,)?v+vWv!9v|hQvzvy 9v+vzvgvyG ?vFQOvyG ,vp
?v+vSOvs IO9v}v< IQvV9v=v| {vZvAv* ,v"vC G f9vTvzvyG fzv< Y9v"vAvs G ,vp [vtv! c9v"v$
q
)10(
?v*Ov"vyQv* Gh y9v"vy ?vSOvtv|z 9v%v!zv< )9(Rv!9vwv*Qvp}G BvqvYh .9v%v@GP OvI ,vp
.yuv+v}vf {vwvWv< ?v+vJv+vTv| ,v$ ,vAvyG I9v+vJvyG #vf Qvdv! ?v%vF(vy ?vzv|9vIz v v vv
,vS9vSC {vwvWv< ?vav=v@Qv|z 9v%v!C )vzvf xv+v=v+vwvyG ,vp )11(?v+vTv!QvqvyG #vf hvpGOv*h
q o q o
~q v @ Ov sh .ySOv tv | (v $ 9v | {v wv <h ,9v "v +v zv f Rv *Rv f (v $ 9v | {v wv <h .9v "v F:(v <
Manuel Luis Quezon, President Quezon: His Biographical Sketch, )7 (

Messages and Speeches, Edited by Eulogio B. Rodriguez (Manila: Publishers
Incorporated, 1940).
Tetsujiro Inoue, «[Time for a Decision Regarding a New Script],» in: )8 (
Nanette Twine, Language and the Modern State: The Reform of Written Japanese
(London; New York: Routledge, 1991).
Anon, [Our Afrikaans Nation and Language], 1876, Reprinted in: G. S. )9 (
Nienaber, ed., Die Afrikaanse patriot 1876: ’n faksimilee-weergawe van die eerste
jaargang (Kaapstad: Tafelberg-uitgewers, 1974).
Eamonn de Valera, Speeches and Statements by Eamon de Valera, 1917- )10(
1973, Edited by Maurice Moynihan (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan; New York: St
Martin’s Press, 1980).
Joachim Du Bellay: La De´fense, et illustration de la langue française )11(
(Paris: Arnoul L’Angelier, 1549), Reprinted in: The Defence and Illustration of the
French Language, Translated by Gladys M. Turquet (London: J. M. Dent, 1939).
709
&vzvyG 9v"vJv"v| ,vAvyG ?vjvzvyGz 9v%v!C S9vSC )vzvf )12({vwv+vWvv9vv 9v*9v| #vf Y9vpOvyG
#v+v+vtv+vtvJvyG #v+vTv*OvtvyG {v=vsp #v|z ?vSOvtv| 9v%v!C )vzvf )13(Xv*Ov+v+vyGh .y9v$9v*E
k q o
IQhQv+vSh IGQ(vAvyG ?vSGOvs GQv+vDvv BvZvAv|G ,)Ovsh( ,{v+vF {vwvyp #v+v}v+vtvAvTv}vyGh
q
>v y9v i ,v p ,9v %v @GP Ov I ,v p ?v +v s;v L}G Bv av =v @QG Ov tv p .yO(v }v zv Av yG ~v zv gv @
#vf f(vgvpGOv}vy9vp ,GPvwv$h .{v]vqv}vyG ,v"vC G ,v"v_(vyG f9vTvzvy9v< ,f9v+vI}G
#v f Qv =v gv Av S 9v %v !} ,iQv LC ?v jv y jC ,v "v =v @ IOv Wv < fhOv tv Av "v * )14(?v +v !hOv tv }v yG
fCh ,y~v%vAv+v<Qv@h ,vIhQvyG ~v%v|9v}vAv$G {v<9vtv| 9v"vF9v<B g9vGv@ {v+v}vGvyG fGQvwv!z
,f(v !9v tv yG ?v pQv gv |h ?v jv zv yG fC f(v gv "v Av tv | )15(GQ9v Gv +v zv +v Gv +v "v zv y #v *Qv Y9v "v }v yG
k
~v vdv vgv v| ,v vp ,GQv v+v vLCh .Ov vIGh A,v vV 9v v%v vzv vv ,v v$ Ov v+v vy9v vtv v Av vyGh aGQv vf}Gh
q
,vp J(v}vyGh ?v+vf9v}vGvyG I9v+vJvzvy Qvdv"v* ,9v%v< MQvZv}vyG ?v+vs;vL}G JGA9vfO:G
q
#v+vgvpGOv}vyG ^vgv=vp ,?vjvzvyG #vf f;vtvAvTv| 9v}v%v!C S9vSC )vzvf 9v}v%v@GP OvI
#vyh #v_(vyG Qv|Ov+vS )16(?v+vwvS9v=vyG d;vJv}v\Gz fzv< #v+vgv"vAvtv| ?v+vwvS9v=vyG #vf
Bv vgv v\h Ov vsh ,yj(v vTv vyG hv v\(v vyG )v vyE IO(v vgv vyG ,v vp {v v|C c9v v"v v$ f(v vwv v*
BvV;v@ hC BvzvJv}v\G GPEz &v!} ,vy9vgvyG eGQvAvI:G hv\(v| )17(?v+vTv+v!hOv! G
k
:9vDv| Uv+vy j(vjvy(v"vC G ,vf(vyG fC Kv\G(vyG #v}vp ,yxvzv%v+vS ,v=vgvV f{vp
Departamento de Investigaciones Culturales, El Idioma, centro de )12(

nuestra cultura (Chimaltenango, Guatemala, CA: Ediciones COCADI, 1985).
Sore Robin, «Ascend Higher: Speak Mame-loshn [= Ascend Higher )13(
(in Virtue) - Speak Yiddish!],» Dos yidishe vort, vol. 52 (March-April 1992).
Krste P. Misirkov, «A Few Words about the Macedonian Literary )14(
Language,» in: Todor Dimitrovski, Blaz̆e Koneski and Trajko Stamatoski, eds.,
About the Macedonian Language (Skopje [Yugoslavia]: «Krste Misirkov» Institute
of the Macedonian Language, 1978).
Billy Gibbs, in: S. Davenport, ed., Yintakaja-lampajuya (Port Hedland: )15(
Western Desert Puntukurnuparna and Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre, 1988).
Sabino Arana Goiri, «El proyecto del Academia Bascongada del Sr. de )16(
Artinano,» Euskal-Erria, no. 227 (1886).
S. Yudho, «[My Language],» [The New Post], vol. 1 (1933). )17(
710
~vF;v@ ,vAvyG J9vf9v"vtvzvy iQvI}9v< {v< ,>vTvJvp I(vtv< ?vy(v}vJv}vyG J9vf9v"vtvzvy
J(v}vyGh I9v+vJvyGh ?v+v"vC G ?vp9vtvDvyGh ,?v+vs;vL}Gh ,?vSGOvtvzvy Qv+vL}G ~vy9vgvyG
,GP9v }v y Kv \G(v yG #v | Kv =v Zv * ,gPv $ Qv dv "v yG J9v %v Fh >v Tv Ih .,v Zv Mv Wv yG
k
Rv*RvgvAvy 9v}vFGO d9vgvp}G QvV9v=v@ ,,vy9vgvyG j(vjvy(v"vC G RhQv=vyG ahQvc BvJv@
k
~q v @ {v }v gv yG (v $ ?v jv zv yG IOv F9v qv y {v }v gv yGh .9v +v "v CE f(v zv }v yG f9v Tv zv yG #v +v Tv Jv @h
.9%Tq! I9+JyG Rh9GA@ ,AyG uF9tJyG ^g=< 9%}++t@
?zv v ]q}o yG ?jzy ,"C G #*(zAyG

k x no
?v vjv vzv vyG fE ,:hC .?v vjv vzv vyG ,v vfh f(v vzv v@ 9v v| IO9v vf ?v v+v v"v vC G ?v v!(v vtv v*C fE
,?v v <GQv vtv v yG J9v v s;v vgv v < f9v v+v v I}G >v vy9v v i ,v v p cQOv v @ ?v v+v v "v vC 9v v< ?v vav v =v v@Qv v }v vyG
k o
?vf9vGvWvyG ?v*Pvjv@ )vzvf IQO9vs )..( 9v|q C 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< 9v%vqvYh ~vAv* )18(?v+vzv+v|9vAvy9vp
(vJv! )vzvf )19(?v+vwv<Rh}G bQvjvAvTv@h ,ybQvgvzvy ?v+vzvY}G [vF9vZvMvyG {v+vDv}v@h
,vAvyG ?vjvzvyGz 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< )20(xvSQ(v"v+v"vyG OvGv}v@h .ye}G IOv*(v%v@z v v v< {vZvAv|
?v jv yz v v vv )21(,v v9v +v yGh .y9v "v +v <Ch 9v "v |C #v f IQGQv Jv < )v "v jv Av @ fC 9v %v Av f9v av Av S9v <
Annadurai, C. N. Open Letter to Party Members, September 26, 1960. )18(

Subsequently [1981] Published in His [Letters of an Older Brother to His Younger
Brother] (Madras: Paarinilayau, 1981).
Babamurad Daminov, Ozbekistan adabiyati va san’atti = Uzbekistan’s )19(
Language and Literature (26 May 1989).
Bernt Stoylen, «[The Norwegian Language Strengthens What Is Best in )20(
the Life of Our People],» Norsk Aarbok, vol. 12 (1931).
Maria Martinez, «The Implementation of the Pascua Yaqui Tribe )21(
Language Policy and the Impact on the Development of Bilingual/ Bicultural
Education Programs for Yaqui and O’odham Students in a Public School
District,» Proceedings of the Eighth Annual International Native American
Languages Institute (Temple: INALII, 1989).
711
k
: 9vfGOv<E 9v$Q9v=vAvf9v< )22(?v+vzvIG(vTvyG OvGv}v@h .y?vzv+v=vtvyG A9v}vfRvyh ..9v"vF9v<6
k
)23(
9vS(v%vyGh ,y(vAv!9v=vyG 9v"vp;vSC #v| )vZvJv@ : ,vAvyG d9v+vF}Gz v v y 9v+vfGh
,)9v "v y( ?v CQ(v }v yGh a;v S}G {v =v s #v | ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ?v jv zv yGz 9v $Q9v =v Av f9v <
#v wv y ,>v Tv Jv p IQv +v Wv gv y9v < fQv tv @ : ?v +v "v C G #v wv y y9v %v "v | #v *QOv Jv "v }v zv y
Qv=vf IQv+vWvgvyGh Bv+v=vyGz v v v< ,)24((vF9vp9v"vyG ?vi9v+vY xvyP Qv=vgv@ 9v}vv fQvAvtv@
q
)vAvI ,,vS9vS}G Bv+v=vyG )v"vgv}v< ?vjvzvyG f{vp ,{vgvqvy9v<h .y(vF9vp9v! #v_(vyG
fC #vwv}v* QvLB A,vV ~v%vy Uv+vy #v*PvyG xv8vyh} ~vFGOvyG Bv+v=vyG Bv!9vv (vy
9v %v *C aQv Zv !Gz )25(?v +v y9v jv "v =v yG Ov *|v | >v y9v av * aQv Zv !G .~v %v wv zv | &v !(v }v Tv *
k q
.9v +v gv }v S S9v "v yG &v zv gv Gv * 9v | ,v $ ?v jv zv y9v p ,yxv yRv "v | )v yE Ov f ,&v zv <}G
fzv < f(v IQv Zv * #v *Qv +v Dv v #v }v \ #v | Ov IGh (v $ )26(,v !9v wv !(v wv yG Ov *|v |h
#v| OvIGh (v$ )27(?v+v<QvgvyG #vf hvpGOv}vyGh ,y9v"vgv}vAvGv}vy IBQv| ,v$ 9v"vAvjvyz
#v| 9v!Rv+v}v@ ,vAvyG Ov+vy9vtvAvyGh ~v+vtvyGz {vDv}v@ 9v%v!C #v| uvCG(vyG #v*Qv+vDvv #v}v\
k
?v*Rv+vzvGv! G Qv+vZv! xvyP QvvPv* 9v}vv 9v|9v}v@ yiQvL}G ?v*QvWv=vyG J9v"vF9vwvyG
Abdallah Khalid, The Liberation of Swahili from European )22(

Appropriation (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1977).
«[National Language]» Gaskiya ta Fi Kwabo (26 August 1989). )23(
Peterson Zah, Proclamation; Proclaiming the Week of September 13-16, )24(
1993, Dine’ [=Navajo] Language Week (Tuba City: Navajo Tribal Council, 1993).
Madhusudan Data, «The Bangla Language,» in: [Fourteen-Lined )25(
Poems]: The Sonnets (Calcutta: Sree Iswar Chandra Basu, 1866).
Manohar Sardesai, Amsi bhas amka dzay [=We Want Our Language] )26(
(Margao, Goa: Konkani Bhasha Mandal, 1962).
jO9v> fhOvgvS :,vp y,S9v"vyG I9v+vI ,vp ?+v<QvgvyG ?vjvzvyG ?v+vGCz ,V9v+vqvyG Qv<9vF Ov}vI )27(
RvvQv| 9v%v}vdv! ,vAvyG ?v*QvwvqvyG IhOv"vyG J9vWvs9v"v|h K(vJv< :,v|(vtvyG ,vf(vyGh ?+v<QvgvyG ?vjvzvyG ,].NBh[
J9vSGQOvyGh K(vJv=vyG Ov%vgv| ,,vsGQvgvyG ,v}vzvgvyG hv}vGCG hv| cGQvAvV 9v< ?+v<QvgvyG IOvI(vyG J9vSGQO
[M. J. Al-Fayad, «The = )1984 ,?+v v v<Qv v vgv v vyG IOv v vI(v v vyG J9v v vSGQO Rv v vvQv v v| :JhQ+v v <( ?+v v <Qv v gv v yG
Importance of the {Arabic} Language in Human Life,» in: S. Hamadi [et al.], eds.,
The Arabic Language and Arab Nationalism (Beyrouth: Publications of the Center
for Arabic Studies, 1984)].
712
~v%v!9vwv| (vJv! S9v"vzvy 9v%vzv}vJvy ~v+vdvf R9vGv!Ez ,v$ ?vjvzvyG fC #v| )28(AGO(vTvyG
?v +v Zv Mv Wv yG 9v "v Av +v "v _(v y ?v |;v fz v v v v )29(,v !GQG(v wv yG )v yE Qv dv "v *h .y,v y9v Jv yG
,hv pGOv v}v vyG QPv vJv v* y?v v+v v"v v+v p(v zv vTv vyG cQv @z .yjG(v viGQ9v v=v yG >v vgv vWv vy IRv +v }v v}v vyG
.y,"_(yG ,fh;y ?t<9TyG &Ay9I )yE hFQ+Sh ,9"=gV h+]"Shz
k
,,v"vC G ,vf(vyGh ?vjvzvyG #v+v< 9v+vy9vI ?v+v$9vGv@:G ?v+v=v=vTvyG ~v+v$9vqv| MhGQvAv@
c9v "v $h ,,v f(v yG )v yE ?v jv zv yG #v | Qv +v L}G A9v fO:G {v Dv | ,JGA9v fOG c9v "v $h
k k
,vph .>vTvJvp ?v+v"vC G 9v%vAvp9vtvDvy 9vgvFGQ 9vS9vwvgv!G ?vjvzvyG iQv@ iQvLC JGA9vfOG
q q
.IOv|| ?s;f ?+"C Gh ?jzyG #+< ?s;gyG J:9JyG {v
k
HQ9vGvAvy IQ9vgvAvS9vv yNv*Q9vAvyGz Qv]vJvAvTv* 9v|Ov"vf 9v]v*C Kv\Gh GPv$h
{v*(vavyG 9v"v"v_h Nv*Q9v@z v v < G(vjv!(vAv=vyG bv<Qv* )30(?v+v"v+vZvyG ~vzvwvAv}vp ,?vf(v}vGv}vyG
k
OvtvAvgv* ,GQv+vLCh .y9v!Ovzv< Nv*Q9v@z v v y ?vTvv9vgvv )31(?v*Ov"v%vzvy Qvdv"v*h .yhv|;vyGh
IOv +v qv }v yG ?v *Q(v gv V(v "v C Gh ?v +v vGQOE(v "v C G [v F9v Zv Mv yG )hv Gv Wv @( ?v jv zv yG fC
)32(
?v +v Gv *hQv "v yG d9v }v v(v =v yG fC ~v fRv * .9v %v < ?v av =v @Qv }v yG ?v +v "v C G 9v %v Av f(v }v Gv }v y
James Baldwin, «If Black English Isn’t a Language, Then Tell Me, )28(
What Is?,» New York Times (29 July 1979). Reprinted in: Geneva Smitherman,
ed., Black English and the Education of Black Children and Youth (Detroit, MI:
Center for Black Studies, Wayne State University, 1981).
v o
,v|(vtvyG jQ(vAvSOvyG QvE|CG ,vp Ov* ]E Om v* #v| YRhh Ovfp C )hvs(v| Qv+vih Y(v=vav|( f9+v< )29(
.1967 e9f ,p Otg!G jPyG
Shen Yenbing, Kwanming Daily (23 November 1955). Reprinted in: )30(
[Collected Documents of the First National Writing Reform Conference] (Peking:
Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe, 1957).
Seth Govind Das, in: Lakshmi Chand, ed., [Hindi Language Movement] )31(
(Allahabad: Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, Prayag, 1963), pp. 288-289.
[Om sprogstriden = On the Language Conflict], 1989, Subsequently )32(
Published in: Sophus Bugge, Populaer-videnskabelige foredrag, efterladte arbeider
(Kristiania: H. Aschehoug, 1907).
713
Rv+v qv Jv @h V9v %v "vAv SG )vzv f ?vqv %v zv Av | ,?v *Qv tv=v gv zv y ?vgv FGQv yG Uv qv "v yGz #v }v ]vAv @
?v}vgvqv|h ?vIQv|h ?v=v%vAvzv|z ,v$ )33((vAv"v+v|9v+v<9v=vyGh ,ye9v|C )vyE Qv+v$9v}vGvyG
9v v !Qv v =v v gv v * fC #v v wv v }v v * L9v v %v v Av v <G :h fRv v I :z xv v yPv v yh ,y?v v *(v v +v v Jv v y9v v <
,y?v +v |9v "v *Ov yGh ?v *(v +v Jv yGh ?v S9v }v Jv yGz )34(?v +v vQv Av yG Qv +v Dv @h .y9v %v Av av SG(v <
,yQ(v vgv vWv vzv vyh ?v v+v vIhQv vyG I9v v+v vJv vzv vyz S9v vwv vgv v!9v vv )35(?v v*Qh9v v}v vyG rv vY(v v@h
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.y?+!9|QGyG
?v jv zv yG #v +v < hv SGh (v Jv ! )v zv f ?v \Qv Av qv }v yG ?v s;v gv yG fC Kv \G(v yG #v |h

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&vAvjvyh &v=vgvV OQvqvyG ~v%vqvy ,bvtvp ,Uv+vy 9vtv*Qv_ Kv"v}v@ ?v\QvAvqv}vyG ?vs;vgvy9vp
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xvyh J9vjvzvyG {vwvyh S9v"vyG {vwvyp Qvdv"vyG ,vp #vwvyh ,YGOv< G ,vp 9v}v%v!9vwv|h
,IQv Y9v gv }v yG 9v tv *Rv +v p9v Av +v }v yGh Qv Y9v gv }v yG J9v +v !(v wv yG ~v zv f fE .J9v fGOv < G
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Luis Daal, «Flor di boka = [Flowers of the Mouth],» in: Kosecha di )33(
Maloa = [Harvest of Scraps] (Curacao: Boekhandel van Dorp, 1963).
Press Release, 1990. )34(
Veronica Hauraki, «Language Key to Cultural Survival,» Te Maori, )35(
vol. 2, no. 4 (1971).
Adolf Bach, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, 7. durchgesehene Aufl. )36(
(Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer, 1961).
714
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Shigeru Kayano, Yasashii Ainu-go = [Easy Ainu] (Hokkaido: Shiratori )38(

Nibutani Ainu-go Kyoshitsu, 1987).
Letters to Gorbachev: New Documents from Soviet Byelorussia. )39(
Winston Churchill: «The Joys of Writing,» in: Winston S. Churchill: )40(
His Complete Speeches, 1897-1963, 8 vols., Edited by Robert Rhodes James (New
York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1974), vol. 1: 1897-1908.
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Eugene O’Growney, «The National Language,» Irish Ecclesiastical )42(
Record, vol. 11 (1890).
Oh-Tuk Lee, [Using Our Language Properly] (Seoul: Hankil, 1992). )43(
Koro Dewes, «The Pakeha veto,» Te Maori, vol. 2 (1970). )44(
Zah, Proclamation; Proclaiming the Week of September 13-16, 1993, )45(
Dine’ [=Navajo] Language Week.
716
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)48(
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Noregs Mallag: «[The Fundamental Principles of Noregs Maallag],» )46(

Resolution Adopted and First Published in 1976 and Reprinted in: Noregs
Maallag Prinsipprogram Arbeidsprogram 1968-1989 [= The Principles and
Accomplishments of Noregs Maallag] (Oslo: Noregs Mallag, 1976).
Khalid, The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation.)47(
Lee, [Using Our Language Properly]. )48(
Ivar Aasen, «Om vort Skriftsprog [= On Our Language],» Syn og )49(
Segn, vol. 12 (1909).
Khalid, The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation. )50(
717
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#v | )Xv y(v yGh( ?v *Ov "v yQv * Gh ,?v *Ov "v y(v %v yG aQv _ #v | (Frisian) ?v *Rv *Qv qv yGh
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jR9v vjv vyG ?v vjv vyz #v v| (v vwv vWv v@ )51(,v v!GQG(v vwv vyG f{v vp ,(Bokmal) )d9v v}v vv(v v<(
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Sa’idu Muhammad Guseau, «Harshenka Abin Tinkahonka: )52(
= Muhimmancin Harshen Uwa Kan Na Aro [= Your Language, Your Pride; The
718
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Importance of a Mother Tongue over a Borrowed Tongue],» Gaskiya Ta Fi =

Kwabo (26 January 1985).
Hussein M. Adam, The Revolutionary Development of the Somali )53(
Language, Occasional Paper; no. 20 (Los Angelos, CA: African Studies Center,
UCLA University of California, 1980).
G. M. Syed, A Case for Sindhi Desh (Bombay: Babani, 1985). )54(
Afeworq Gebreyesus, Dagimawl Minllik, Nuguse Negest Zeltyop’ya [= )55(
Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia] (Rome: [n. pb.], 1909),
(Asmara: II Poligrafico). :,p &g=_ O+fC
Richard Mulcaster, The First Part of the Elementary (London: )56(
Vautroullier, 1582). (Spelling and Punctuation Modernized: JAF). Reprinted in:
Manfred Görlach, Introduction to Early Modern English = Einführung ins
Frühneuenglische (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1991).
Du Bellay: La De´fense, et illustration de la langue française, and The )57(
Defence and Illustration of the French Language.
719
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(Telugu)
)58(
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9v=vFGh Ovgv* 9v$Rv*Rvgv@ fE Ev+vI y?vSOvtv| ?v+v"v_h ?v!9v|Cz Qv=vAvgv@ )60(?v*Ov"vyQv* 9vp
?vMvTv"vy QvWvf hv<GQvyG fQvtvyG rvZvAv"v| ]E O(vgv@ ?v=Qv@ ,v$h ,9v*GQ9v<:9vp GOv!(vv("+vp #v| )58(
.IQ$ORCG (i(z@ ?*Q(_GQ=|E #f KOJA@ ?+zYC ?+A*QwT!9S
Yenbing, Kwanming Daily. Reprinted in: [Collected Documents of the )59(
First National Writing Reform Conference].
O’Growney, «The National Language». )60(
720
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)63(
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9v %v zv gv Fz v v vy a;v S}G eGQv Av IG )v yE (Manyjilyjarra) )64(?v *Q9v +v zv +v +v "v }v yG (v fOv @h
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9v%v+vzvf X9vqvJvzvy 9v"vTvqv!C Ov%vGv! fC 9v"v+vzvfz &v!C #vzvgv@ )66(Xv*Ov+v+vyGh ,y9v"vp9vAvvC )vzvf
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#vwvyh ,i(vtv@ fCh 9v%v+vzvf evp9vJv* fC >vGv* : ,vtv+vtvJvyGh dO9vgvyG ,vs;vL}G
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Horace Philippon, Me´moires du deuxième congre`s de la langue française )61(

au Canada (Québec: Imprimerie du Soleil, 1938), vol. 2.
Yaakov Nakht, «[A Time for Action],» Ha-olam, vol. 30 (1908), pp. )62(
501-502.
Departamento de Investigaciones Culturales, El Idioma, centro de )63(
nuestra cultura.
Gibbs, in: Davenport, ed., Yintakaja-lampajuya. )64(
Daminov, Ozbekistan adabiyati va san’atti = Uzbekistan’s Language )65(
and Literature.
Arye Shamir, «[About Yiddish and Jewish Children in Byalistok],» )66(
Yerushelayemer almenakh, vol. 22 (1992).
721
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,v p ?v jv zv yGz d9v }v gv Av SG #v f KOv Jv Av @ (Serbian) )67(?v +v <Qv Zv y9v p ,xv yPv v
)68(
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fGQv +v Gv yG hv | I(v tv yG #v f JGQv +v =v gv Av yGh J9v =v I9v Zv }v yG gPv $ {v Dv }v y ,v F9v tv zv Av yGh
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Isidora Skulic, «Vuk Karadzic,» Zavicaj /Homeland, vol. 34 (1987). )67(

Philippon, Mémoires du deuxième congre`s de la langue française au )68(
Canada.
and Literature.
Syed, A Case for Sindhi Desh. )70(
722
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(Corpus Planning) #A}yG b+aM@

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9v]v*C #vwvyh ,?vjvzvyG Ov*OvGvAv< Qv|}G uvzvgvAv* 9v|Ov"vf f(vdvp9vJv| xvyPvv ~v$
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723
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k
9v%v!C 9vS9vSC Bv"vzvfC Ovs )71(?v+v"v+vZvy9vp ,9v%v"v+vTvJv@ hC 9v$Qv+v+vjvAvy &vzvgvp #vwv}v*
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?vzvYzvAv}vyG ahQvJvyG #v| OOvgv< evqvAvJv@ ),vAvyG( ...ahQvJvyGz 9v=v!9vF hv]v@
,?v+vvGQvAvV:G ?vyhOvyG A9v"v<z Q(vav@ b(vgv@ ,vAvyGh ,y)?v+v<QvjvyG J9vjvzvyG AGRE(
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U9vtvAv!9v< {v}vgvAvTv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v|9vgvyG ?vGv%vzvyGz Q9v=vAvfG >vGv* : &v!C #vf hvpGOv@
.?v+v!9vav*Qv=vyG ?v*Rv+vzvGv! G jQvY9v"v}vy y?vzv|9vJvAv}vyG Qvdv"vyG ?v%vFhz ,v$ ,ybvtvp
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O;v =v yG Bv }v wv I ,v Av yG ?v *Qv Tv *(v Tv zv y IOv *|v }v yG ?v =v Mv "v yG ?v av SG(v < yrv s(v }v yGh
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~q v @ ,v Av yG ?v +v <Qv jv yG #v Tv y~v y rv y9v Tv yG Q(v Zv tv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < fzv Wv yG (v $
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#v zv gv @h .yj(v av zv Tv yG d9v }v gv Av S:Gz Qv =v f ,Ov *Ov Jv Av y9v < ,GQv wv =v | 9v %v Dv *Ov Jv @
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?v s;v f ,v p( )v "v ih ?v YQv pz 9v ]v *C (v $ ,v Gv %v zv yG 9v $OOv gv @ fC )74(?v *Qv <Qv =v yG
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)75(
(v Av "v +v |9v +v <9v =v yG f(v wv @ Ov sh .y9v =v +v f &v "v | Qv Dv vC ),v zv =v tv Av Tv }v yG 9v %v Dv *Ov Jv Av <
Chou En-Lai, «Current Tasks of Reforming the Written Language,» in: )71(
Reform of the Chinese Written Language (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1958).
Rupert Hughes, «Our Statish Language,» Harper’s Magazine (May )72(
1920).
[National Language]. )73(
Salem Chaker, Textes en linguistique berbère: Introduction au domaine )74(
berbe`re (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1984).
Daal, «Flor di boka = [Flowers of the Mouth],» in: Kosecha di Maloa )75(
= [Harvest of Scraps].
724
9v%v!9vwv|{v=vp xvyPvv Bv!9vv fEh #vwvyz ?v+v!9v=vSE ?vGv%vy bvtvp (Papiamentu)
?v vzv vC9v v}v v| iQv vLC J9v vGv v%v vy #v v+v v< ,yaQv vWv v}v vyG 9v v%v v!9v vwv v| )v vzv vf ev vp9v vJv v@ fC
f9v v *Q(v v Av v S}Gh ,(Callego) (v v jv v +v v y9v v wv v yGh ,(Catalan) ?v v +v v !:9v v @9v v wv v yG(
q
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k k
hv | eD;v@ ,vp GQv+v +vgv @h 9v =v*Pv %v @ ,v ]vAv tv * #vAv }vyG bv+v avMv @ fC ~v iQ ,xvyP
>vGv*h ,L9vAvJv@ : ?v<(v=vJv}vyG ?vjvzvyG ?vy9vYC f{vp ,?vpQvAv}vyG ?v*(vjvzvyG IQv=vMvyG
k
9v %v Av =v y(v yz #v | :Ov <h .IQhQv +v Tv yG gPv $ A9v "v CC hv +v ]v @ fC ,L9v Av Jv @ : fC
)76(
9v+v"v*Qvjv+vAvyG 9v"vJvZv"v@ y9v$9v"v}vzvgv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v=v"vF}G J9vjvzvyG &v=vWvAvy 9v$Qv*hOv@h
?v*Ov+vzvtvAvyG QhPvGvy9vp ,y9v$Q9vTv| d(v_ )vzvf 9v%vgv=vAv@ 9v"v+vzvfz &v!C (Tigrinya)
k k k
)v zv f X9v qv Jv yG ,v p ,9v gv | 9v *(v Jv !h 9v +v }v Gv gv | Ov +v qv @ fC 9v %v "v wv }v * d9v wv V}G
k
^v pQv @ 9v }vzv Dv | ?v+vzv Y}G 9v%v Av gv+v =v_ #v f OhQvWv yG #v| 9v +v"v CE ?v zv ]v qv }vyG ?vjv zvyG
.&D*OJ@ #w}* : jPyG A>gyG Q+=v {wW<
q
{v v f9v tv Jv Av Tv *h 9v }v %v y Qv +v dv ! : ?v <(v =v Jv }v yG ?v jv zv yG )v "v ih d9v }v F fE
f(v |Rv Av gv * jPv yG xv 8v yhC #v +v < )&v +v yE f9v gv zv av Av *h( &v !9v =v zv av * jPv yG e9v }v Av $:G
y?vfGOh QvDvv}Gh HPvgvyG #v+v!QvyG hP f9vTvzvyGz ,v$ )77(Rv!9vwv*Qvp}9vp ,9v%vDv*OvJv@
,Xv$Ov}vyG d9v}vGvyGh ,HPv%v}vyG d9v}vGvyGz v v < &v=v vWv@ (Bengali) )78(?v+vy9vjv"v=vyGh
Q9vDv+vtvyGz v v < )79(?v*Ov"vy(v=vyG fQn9vtv@h .y?v+v|9vTvyGh ?vtv+v}vgvyG ,?v!9v!QvyG ?v+v!(vqv}v+vTvyGh
A. Ma. Ha, Siwasiw Tigrinya Qeddamay Metshaf = [Tigrinya )76(

Grammar, Book I] (Asmara: Francescana Printing, 1958).
v x
rv y|CG ~v S: ?+yh}G ahQv AG {v Dv }v * 9v }v !Eh ,,v tv +v tv AG ~v S:9v < U+y = [A. Ma. Ha]
.?+q <(+C}G ?*(jzyG h_9tC9<
G. Schoeman Preller, «[Let Us Be Serious about It],» 1905, Reprinted )77(
in: Deon Geldenhuys, Uit die wieg van ons taal: Pannevis en Preller: met hul
Pleidooie (Johannesburg: Voortrekkerpers, 1967).
Humayun Azad, [The Bangla Language] (Unpublished, 1984). )78(
Lucjan Rydel, «[Mother Tongue Speech],» Straz Polska, vol. 1 (1908). )79(
725
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Qv Dv v}G g9v qv V )v zv f )v Av I ~v i9v "v Av | {v wv Wv < YGPv @ (Telugu) )80((v i(v zv Av yGh
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A9v qv Zv y9v p ,d9v }v Gv zv y ,v Jv av Tv yG >v !9v Gv yGh 9v I(v \h Qv Dv v}G >v Tv Jv p ,v $
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K. Paul, 1890).
Ziya Gökalp, Türkçülüğün Esaslari = The Principles of Turkism )81(
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Mulcaster, The First Part of the Elementary. (Spelling and Punctuation )86(
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Guseau, «Harshenka Abin Tinkahonka: Muhimmancin Harshen Uwa )87(
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Tongue over a Borrowed Tongue]».
John Lynch, «Letter to the Editor,» Papua New Guinea Post Courier (1 )88(
June 1976).
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Language and the Modern State: The Reform of Written Japanese.
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Linguistics: Volume 12: Linguistics and Adjacent Arts and Sciences].
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q
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Hymes, Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. )3 (

.4 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )4(
.197-195 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )5(
738
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.Q+L}G )"g}yG
aQv _ #v | {v YG(v Av zv y ?v +v pGQv i(v "v C G Rv }v *9v $ ?v <Q9v tv | ,v "v =v @ ~q v @ Ov sh

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9v v +v v pGQv v i(v v "v v CE ,v v p (Saville-Troike) )7(xv v *hQv v @ v v {v v +v v p9v v S .e ,v v p xv v yP
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f9v pOv $ Qv +v L}G rv y|v }v yG GPv $ >v Tv I {v YG(v Av yG 9v +v pGQv i(v "v C h .{vYG(vAv yG
y?v Y9v L ?v +v p9v tv C Y9v \hC ,v p ,v zv YG(v Av yG c(v zv Tv yG ~v %v ph rv Yhz (Foci)
?v *Qv dv !9v Av +v | A9v "v < ~v Av * 9v %v S9v SC )v zv f ,v Av yG J9v *Qv dv "v yGh ~v +v $9v qv }v yG ?v i9v +v Yzh
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)vyE ?v=vTv "vy9v < M(v }vav yG Rv}v *9v$ Hv |9v !Qv < 9v =v*Qvtv@ VQv* ~v y xv yP f{v p gR9vGv !E
.?jzyG OhOI AGQh 9| )yE ?gSG(yG ?|9gyG )"g}yGh {YG(AyG ?*Qd!
Gumperz [and] Hymes, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics: The )6 (

Ethnography of Communication.
Muriel Saville-Troike, The Ethnography of Communication: An )7 (

Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982).
.2 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )8(
739
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rv +v v #v +v =v @h j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG J9v qv *Qv gv @ IQv tv qv yG gPv $ [v Jv qv @
hC hv}vAvGv}vyGh ?vjvzvyG )vzvf Rv+vvQvAvyG f9vv GPE 9v| >vTvI &v+vF(vAvyG ,vp MhGQvAv@
.J9S9+TyG
b9v av "v yG 9v +v F(v y(v +v S(v S #v +v < bv <Qv yG )v yE g;v fC 9v !Qv VC fC uv =v S Ov tv y
hC j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG )v yE Qv dv "v yG #v wv }v *h .j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yGh {v |9v Wv yG
k
&vF(v| &v!E jC ,{v|9vV b9vav! #v| AG(vS IOOvgvAv| bvtv! #v| 9vs;vav!G gOv*OvJv@
k k k
?vqvzvAvMv}vyG J9v%vF(vAvyG gPv%vp ,9v+vS9v+vS &vF(v| hC 9v+vf9v}vAvFG &vF(v| hC ,9v*(vjvy
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f(vwv* fC #vwv}v* ,?v+vf(v\(v|h ?v*Ov*OvJv@ ?vavtv! #v| 9vs;vav!G ,Ov*OvWvAvyG #vwvy
k
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Qv +v jv Av yG b(v gv @ ?v +v S9v +v Sh ?v +v f9v }v Av FGh ?v *(v jv y {v v9v Wv }v y Qv $9v tv v &v +v yE Qv dv "v *
q o
9v%v"v| OvIGh {vwvyp ?vC;vC J9vqv*QvgvAvy ?vzvDv|C &vAvJv@ OvF(v@ .O(vWv"v}vyG Q(vavAvyGh
.,S9+S )iii(h ,,f9}AFG )ii( ,j(jy )i ( :U9L &F(@
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Kv v zv v av v Zv v | fEz )9(S(v v zv v wv v y (v v $ 9v v *(v v jv v y &v v F(v v }v v yG rv v *Qv v gv v Av v yG )i(
J9v vjv vzv vy9v vp ,yQ(v vav vAv vy9v v< ?v vjv vzv vyGz v v v v aQv vgv v* fC #v vwv v}v v* Ausbausprache
JOv +v fCh Bv jv +v Y 9v %v !} xv yPv v 9v %v < aQv Av gv * ?v y(v tv }v yG gPv $ )v yE ?v +v }v Av "v }v yG
xvyPh hv\(vyG &v+vzvf f(vwv* Ovs 9v}vv 9v%vzv+vwvWv@ Ov+vfCh BvzvwvWv@h ,9v%vAvi9v+vY
.)10(y,<O}G Q+=gAzy ?*Q9+g| IGOC K=ZAy
k
{vdv* ,vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<z :)11(f9v}vWv+vqvy 9v+vf9v}vAvFG &vF(v}vyG rv*QvgvAvyG )ii(
Heinz Kloss, «Abstand Languages and Ausbau Languages,» )9 (

Anthropological Linguistics, vol. 9, no. 7 (1967).
.29 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )10(
Joshua A. Fishman, «Conference Comments: Reflections on the )11(
= Current State of Language Planning,» in: Lorne Laforge, ed., Actes du colloque
740
?v jv zv yG hv \h aGOv $C Z(v zv < QO9v Zv }v y ?v +v }v SQv yG ?v Zv Jv yG j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG
W9v =v @Q9v < AG(v S )Language Corpus( ?v jv zv yG #v Av |h )Language Status(
,v Av yG ?v }v *Ov s rv F9v c(v < W9v =v @QG ,v p hC ,9v %v +v yE Kv }v av * IOv *Ov F rv F9v ch hv |
.)12(y?|A;| QDvC {wW< ZQq@ fC )yE L9AJ@
k
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J9v f(v "v @ hC J9v jv zv yG #v +v < Uv p9v "v Av yG [v +v zv tv @ (v $ &v y bv av Mv | j(v jv y Qv +v jv @
.)14(yh}AG}yG {LGO 9}%W*9g@ ,ta"| {wW< ~+d"@h ?*(jy
q
,v p ?v jv zv y Qv dv "v *h ?v jv zv yG #v Av | J9v *9v i )v zv f S(v zv v rv *Qv gv @ Ov v|v *
hv v}v Av vGv v}v vzv vy ?v v<(v vAv wv v| IGOzv vv U(v vZv vMv vyG )v vzv vfh ,?v v*Q9v v+v vgv v}v vyG 9v v%v vAv v+v vY9v vL
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k
,vp xvyPh 9vgv| #vAv}vyGh hv\(vyG aGOv$C )vyE IQ9vVE c9v"v$ f9v}vWv+vp rv*Qvgv@
q
{v I (Abou) (v <C rv *Qv gv @ #v }v ]v Av *h .?v Y9v L ?v +v f9v }v Av FG rv F9v c(v < ?v s;v f
q
?v +v qv +v c(v yG ?v Zv Jv yG )v zv f Ov v|v *h ,v S9v +v Tv yG i(v Av Tv }v yG )v zv f {v wv Wv }v yG
.,S9+S(+S(TyG h\(yG {LGO J9jzyG J9f("@ hC ?jzyG Y(}G}y
international sur l’ameńagement linguistique: 25-29 mai 1986, Ottawa =

Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Language Planning: May 25-29,
1986, Ottawa (Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval, 1987).
.409 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )12(
Selim Abou, «Eléments pour une théorie générale de l’aménagement )13(
linguistique,» in: Laforge, ed., Ibid.
.11 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )14(
n
«L’Objectif de tout changement linguistique planifié étant de :#v v v v f ~v v v v FQv v v v Av v v v |
réduire la concurrence entre les langues ou les variantes d’une langue et
d’ordonner rationnellement leur coexistence au sein de la société»
741
,IQhQv+vS gQ9v=vAvf9v< J9v+v<O}G ,vp j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG rvYh ~q v@ Ovsh
#v+v<hQh ,)16(f9v}vWv+vph ,(Haugen) )15(#vi(v$ aQv_ #v| hvSGh {vwvWv<
OOvf ,vp #vi(v$ MQvAvsG Ovsh .#v*QvLBh ,(Jernudd) )17(O(v!QvFh (Rubin)
bv +v av Mv Av zv y (Fourfold Model) y,v f9v <Qv yG &v FP(v }v !z )18(J9v =v S9v "v }v yG #v |
Q9v v v qv v v V G )2(h (Selection) A9v v v tv v v Av v v !:G )1( )v v v zv v v f ,v v v "v v v =v v v }v v v yG j(v v v jv v v zv v v yG
uv v v +v v v tv v v Jv v v Av v v yG )4(h (Elaboration) Qv v v *(v v v av v v Av v v yG )3(h (Codification)
q
bv+vavMvAvzvy ?vyOvgv| ?v+vwvzvS ?vjv+vY 1.21 {vwvWvyG eOvtv*h .(Implementation)
LP(v }v "v yG Ov *Qv *h .Qv wv =v }v yG #v i(v $ LP(v }v ! ?v av SG(v < ?v }v %v zv Av Tv }v yG j(v jv zv yG
k k
GRv+v}v| ,?v+v"v=vyG Ev+vI #v| 9v+vwv+v|9v"v*O f(vwv* fC &v@Q(vY d;vL #v| ,vwvzvTvyG
,j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av zv y {v IGQv }v v )?v qv +v c(v yG( hv \(v yGh )IQ(v Zv yG( #v Av }v yG
k
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Haugen, «Dialect, Language, Nation». [Reprinted in: Pride and )15(

Holmes, eds., Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings].
Joshua A. Fishman, ed., Advances in Language Planning (The Hague; )16(

Paris: Mouton, 1974).
Joan Rubin and Björn H. Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?: )17(
Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for Developing Nations (Honolulu, HL:
University Press of Hawaı̈, 1971).
Haugen: «Dialect, Language, Nation»; «The Implementation of Corpus )18(

Planning: Theory and Practice,» in: Juan Cobarrubias and Joshua A. Fishman,
eds., Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives (Berlin; New York;
Amsterdam: Mouton, 1983), and «Comments on Selim Abou’s Paper,» in:
Laforge, ed., Actes du colloque international sur l’ameńagement linguistique: 25-29
mai 1986, Ottawa = Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Language
Planning: May 25-29, 1986, Ottawa.
742
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IQ(ZyG
)Q9+g|( Q9qVE )2(
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?q+ch
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?v av tv ! ?v <9v Dv }v < ,v $h ,?v gv <Q}G ?v +v ]v <Qv yG JG(v av Mv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ?v *Rv vQv }v yG
?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av SE #v }v ]v Av * GPv $h .iQv L}G JG(v av Mv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < hv FQv |
q o
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.?+wzTyG IQhQ+TyG ,p I(aL
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hC ?v v+v vGv v%v v"v v}v vyG ,v v$ 9v v| d(v vI dG|v vS #v vf ?v v<9v vF5v vy ?v vyh9v vJv v| ,v vp
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k q k
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IGOC Bv Jv =v YC ?v jv zv yG 9v +v F(v y(v +v S(v Tv y IQv wv =v }v yG Q(v av Av yG {v IGQv | ,v p
GPv $ f9v v Ov sh .?v I9v Av | ?v ]v Jv }v yG ?v +v Mv *Q9v Av yGh ?v +v qv Y(v yG ?v y9v Jv yG v v ?v SGQO
743
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k
9v+vzvv IQvwvAv=v| Bv!9vv 9v%v!C hC hvSGh {vwvWv< ?vphQvgv| #vwv@ ~vy ?vgv+v=vavyG gPv$
Bv v Jv v v=v v YC 9v v v|Ov v v"v v f ,J9v v +v v "v v +v v Av v vTv v yG #v v | )v v yh}G JG(v v "v v Tv v yG xv v zv v v@ ,v v p
k k
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#v+v< hC {vLGO AG(vS J9vjvzvy ?v+vqv+vc(vyG QGhO}G rvY(v< f(vzvjvWv"v* uv<9vTvyG
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o k
?v *OGQv qv yG Q(v Zv yGh .?v jv zv yG ?v qv +v c(v y (Axiomatic) 9v +v |(v +v Tv vC f9v v ?v jv zv yG
#v| ARvGvv 9v%v"vwvyh ?v=v*Qvi 9v%v!C )vzvf 9v%v+vyE Qvdv"v* Ovgv* ~vy (Idiosyncratic)
fC #vwv}v* rvF9vc(vyG hv+v}vGv@ hC ?vqv+vc(vyG ,vp Qv+vjvAvy9vp ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vqv+vc(vyG
k
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(i) :,vqvY(vyG Ov+vzvtvAvyG GPv$ ,vp ?vI9vAv| JGhO}G #v| f9vav}v! c9v"v$h
(Portrait-Type) IQ(vY v v bv}v!h ?vy9vJvyG ?vSGQOh ?v+vMv*Q9v@h ?v+vZvZvs IO9v|
(ii)h {v =v s #v | ?v phQv gv | #v wv @ ~v y hv F9v sh #v f rv Wv wv @h y?v *9v wv I jhQv @z
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9v %v qv F9v chh J9v jv zv yG )v yE Qv dv "v y9v < ?v +v zv <9v tv @h ?v !Q9v tv | ?v gv +v =v _ JGP J9v s;v f
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Heinz Kloss, «Notes Concerning a Language-Nation Typology,» in: )19(

Joshua A. Fishman, Charles A. Ferguson [and] Jyotirindra Das Gupta, eds.,
Language Problems of Developing Nations (New York: Wiley, [1968]).
Charles A. Ferguson, «National Sociolinguistic Profile Formulas,» in: )20(
William Bright, ed., Sociolinguistics: Proceedings of the UCLA [University of
California, Los Angeles] Sociolinguistics Conference, 1964 (The Hague; Paris:
Mouton, 1966).
744
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.5 IQtqyG ,p xyP iQ"S 9}v ,}wyG O+ztAzy IO+q|
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?v*OQvqvyG ?v+v|;vwvyG J:O9v=vAvyG RGQvp{v< &v!} U9vL {vwvWv< {v+vzvJvAvy9v< Qv*OvF (v$
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)vzvf ?v+v!9vC ?vzvIQv| ,vp yJ9v*9vi j}zh y)vAv|z dG|vTvyG #v| ARvGvyG {v+vJv*h
hC hv\(v|z )vzvf hC rvsG(v}vy9v<h c(vzvTvy9v< bv<Qv* fC #vwv}v* jPvyG yOvZvtvyGz
Bv v}v v@ 9v v}v vvh ,hv vsG(v vyG ,v vph .(Inference) L9v vAv v"v vAv vS:G ?v vav vSG(v v< yf9v vwv v|
&vF(v@ #v| QvDvvC ,jOQvqvyG ~vzvwvAv}vzvy &vF(v@ v v hQvwv| dG|vTvzvy ,xvyP ?vi9v+vY
.,q+c(yG ,f9}AF:G Q9+g}zy jQ=v
William Stewart, «An Outline of Linguistic Typology for Describing )21(

Multilingualism,» in: Frank A. Rice, ed., Study of the Role of Second Languages in
Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics
of the Modern Language Association of America, 1962).
D. A. Rustow, «Language, Modernization, and Nationhood - an )22(
Attempt at Typology,» in: Fishman, Ferguson [and] Das Gupta, eds., Language
Problems of Developing Nations.
745
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Fishman, The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary Social )23(

Science Approach to Language in Society. [Reprinted in: Sebeok, ed., Current
Trends in Linguistics: Volume 12: Linguistics and Adjacent Arts and Sciences].
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Giles, Bourhis and Taylor, «Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic )27(

Group Relations,» in: Giles, ed., Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup Relations.
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Grant D. McConnell, A Macro-Sociolinguistic Analysis of Language )29(

Vitality: Geolinguistic Profiles and Scenarios of Language Contact in India (Sainte-
Foy [Canada]: Presses de l’Université Laval, 1991).
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Grant D. McConnell et Jean-Denis Gendron, dirs., Dimensions et )31(

mesure de la vitalite´ linguistique (Québec: Centre International de Recherche sur le
Bilinguisme, 1988-).
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linguistique = International Atlas of Language Vitality.
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international de la diffusion de l’anglais et du français: L’Enseignement =
International Atlas on the Spread of English and French, Travaux du Centre
International de Recherche en Aménagement Linguistique; A24 (Sainte-Foy,
Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval; Paris: Klincksieck, 1994).
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K. Nelson, «A Matter of Time,» in: Susan A. Gelman and James P. )2(
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(Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 278ff.
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in: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marx Engels Werke (Berlin: Dietz, 1960),
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Formen, und ihren Einfluss auf die Ideenentwicklung,» Abhandlungen der
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Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected )7 (

Writings, Edited and with an Introduction by John B. Carroll; Foreword by
Stuart Chase (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1956).
.213 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )8(
Max Black: «Linguistic Relativity: The Views of Benjamin Lee Whorf,» )9 (
The Philosophical Review, vol. 68, no. 2 (1959), and Models and Metaphors;
Studies in Language and Philosophy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962).
Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings, pp. 213-214. )10(
.252 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )11(
764
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Williams, Sociolinguistics: A Sociological Critique. )12(

Deborah Cameron, Feminism and Linguistic Theory, 2nd ed. )13(
(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 134ff.
George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories )14(
Reveal about the Mind (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 304-
337.
Lucy: Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the )15(
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, and Grammatical Categories and Cognition: A
Case Study of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Cambridge [England]; New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
765
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Qv vdv v"v vyG J9v v%v vFh ,v vp 9v v$QhOv v< JQv vCC Ov vs ?v v+v v@GQv v$9v vdv vy9v vp ,(Wittgenstein)
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.9}%Tq! fGQOZCG )16(

Michel Foucault, Power/ Knowledge: Selected Interviews and other )17(
Writings, 1972-1977, Edited by Colin Gordon; Translated by Colin Gordon [et al.]
(New York; London; Toronto: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1980), and Williams,
Sociolinguistics: A Sociological Critique, pp. 248-258.
766
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Bernstein, Class, Codes and Control, vol. 3: Towards a Theory of :{v v v Dv v v v| )18(
Educational Transmissions.
.94 U ,1990 ,&Tq! QOZCG )19(
k k
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Atkinson, Understanding Ethnographic Texts. :Qd!G ,?jzyG
.&zqSC 3.2 IQtqyG Qd!G )21(
Fishman (1982). :Qd!G )22(
767
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Rv v*Qv vpEh ,(Avalanche) jOv v+v vzv vF Q9v v+v v%v v!G ,(Blizzard) ?v v+v vGv vzv vC ?v vqv vY9v vfh
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bv s9v Tv @ {v Dv | (Compounds) J9v =v vQv }v yG )v yE Qv +v Wv ! : )v Av I ,(Cornice)
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Hv v v zv v v Dv v v yG IQv v v vh ,(Snowstorm) ?v v v +v v v Gv v v zv v v C ?v v v qv v v Y9v v v fh ,(Snowdrift)
,(Snowshoe) ,vGvzvC H9vtv=vsh ,(Snowman) HvzvDvyG {vFQh ,(Snowball)
gPv v $ {v v Dv v | #v v +v v =v v @ ,{v v gv vqv vy9v v <h .Nv vyE ...(Snowplow) Hv v zv v Dv v yG KGQv vJv v |h
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Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings, p. 210. )23(

Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax, and Other )24(
Irreverent Essays on the Study of Language (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press, 1991), p. 171.
768
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(Grammaticalization) ?!(J"yG v v 3.1

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Laura Martin, «Eskimo Words for Snow: A Case Study in the Genesis )25(
and Decay of an Anthropological Example,» American Anthropologist, vol. 88, no.
2 (1986),
Pullum, Ibid., p. 162. :e(y(< &< O%WASG jPyG
769
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,v ph )yf6G Uv +v y #v wv yz( Ev *Ov Jv yG ,v \9v }v yGh ,)Bv ]v | ,v Av yG hv +v <9v S}G
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KGOvI}G Q9vqvV ?v%vGvyG {v}vgvAvTv@ fC hC ,~vzvwvAvyG e(v* #v| Qvwv=v| Bvsh
{v Dv }v p ,9v %v f(v sh QQv wv @ hC IOv IGh IQv | bv =v ]v y9v < Bv gv sh ,v Av yG )Events (
IQ(v Y ?v *Rv +v zv Gv !5v y #v wv y ,y?v =v *Qv iz hOv =v @ fC #v wv }v * JGRv +v +v }v Av yG gPv $
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(He / >v $P( ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G ,v p bv +v Tv =v yG ,v \9v }v yG Q(v Y {v <9v tv }v yG ,v ph
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.?v +v \9v }v yG KGOv I}9v < ?v zv Zv yG uv +v C(v yG Qv \9v Jv yG ))He Has Gone( >v $P
Paul J. Hopper and Elizabeth Closs Traugott, Grammaticalization )26(

(Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal )27(
about the Mind, p. 319.
770
)vzvf >vGv* IOQvqv}vyG ?v+v\9v}vyG KGOvI}G )vzvf ?vy9vI G ~vAv@ 9v|Ov"vf ,GPvwv$h
?v vDv v*Ov vJv vyG ?v vzv vZv vyG ?v vs9v vCh e(v v%v vqv v| :#v v+v v@Q(v vY #v v+v v< Q9v vAv vMv v* fC ~v vzv vwv vAv v}v vyG
?v+v!9v}vy}G fC ~viQ( .?vpGQq vZvyG ,vp QvqvWv* fC >vGv* )Current Relevance(
.))v"vgv}vyG ,vp bQvqvyG GPv$ QvqvWv@ : 9v%v!{vp ,#v+vAv%v<9vWv| #v+v@Q(vY )vzvf Qvp(vAv@
QOv Zv | {v gv qv yG ?v pGQq v Y {v LGO Q9v qv VE jQhQv ]v yG #v | J9v jv zv yG #v | Qv +v Dv v ,v qv p
GPE 9v | Qv qv Wv @ fG(v <9v =v yG ?v jv y )Fasu( (v S9v qv y9v p ,&v y9v s 9v | )v zv f ~v zv wv Av }v yG ?v Gv I
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jQOC :( 9v| [vMvVz )I Infer It( y9v%vGvAv"vAvSCzh ,)I Hear It( y9v%vgv}vSCzh
hC ,yxv yPv v d(v tv * )(v $ #v | aQv fC( 9v | [v Mv Vz ,yxv yPv v d(v tv * )(v $ #v |
~v v+v vdv v"v vAv vyG ,&v v<9v vWv v| {v vwv vWv v< ,)29(a(v vv: Xv vs9v v"v v*h .)28(yxv vyPv vv VQv vAv vpCz
.?+"+j"|(@hC ?jy ,$h )Mixtec( ?+w+ATw+}yG ,p A9]qzy jQ(ZAyG
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)30(
f(vTv zv +v ! dOv Av Tv *h( .J:(v tv }v yG gPv %v < ~v y9v gv yG ,v p ?v +v yB ?v tv *Qv av < ~q v C #v |
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?v vS(v v}v vzv v}v vyG JGQv v+v vCzv vAv vyG ,v v$ 9v v| cGQOE >v vgv vZv vyG #v v| #v vwv vy .)d9v vqv v_}G
.c(zTyG )zf f(w@ fC #w}* ,AyG ?dI;}yGh
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Robert Lawrence Trask, A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in )28(

Linguistics (London; New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 95.
Lakoff, Ibid., pp. 313ff. )29(
Nelson, «A Matter of Time,» in: Gelman and Byrnes, eds., Perspectives )30(
on Language and Thought: Interrelations in Development, p. 292.
771
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.)Berk-Seligson( )31(#Tj+z+S
f(vwv@ bvtvp ?v*(vJv"vyG J:(vtv}vyG ^vgv< fC )vyE )32(aQhh Q9vVC Ovtvy

IQv vqv vWv v}v vyG YG(v v!}G 9v v%v v+v v}v vTv v* ,v vAv vyG iQv vL}Gh .Kv v*Qv vY {v vwv vWv v< ?v v|(v vS(v v|
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9v%vAvf9vavAvS9v< f(vwv* : :Eh ,?v+vy:O J:(vtv}vv )Internalized( Jhv Pv@ fC
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,v p (o v Jv "vv yG 9v %v < 9v "v zv gv Gv * ,v Av yG ?v tv *Qv av yG >v =v Tv < y9v "v +v fh ,v p IQ(v qv Jv |z
?v tv =v Tv | JGQ(v Zv @ jC 9v "v *Ov y #v wv @ ~v y GP9v p ,?v zv 8v S}G MQv av ! ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G
kv zv =v * ~v v Uv +v yh ?gQv =v v kv zv =v * ~v v d(v tv ! ,A,v Wv yG d(v _h ~v Gv I d(v I
9v}v<Q ,iQvLC IQv|h ?gQvZvs kvzv=v* ~vv Uv+vyh &vy(v_ kvzv=v* ~vv hC ?gQvjvY
J9v\GQvAvp:G rvWvv ~vAv* IQvV9v=v| ~v+v$9vqv}vyG gPv$ {vDv| Q9vqvVE ~vAv* : #v+vI
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?GJzy ?+!9Ty(+S(TyG ?j+ZyG v v 2

fC VQvAvpCh ,?v$9vAv}vzvy ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ?vi9v+vZvyG )vzvf ,f6G ,RvvQzvS
,v$ ?vjvzvyG OhOvI fC OvtvAvfC fC ,v"v"vwv}v* : .9v%v"vf Y9vpOvyG QPvgvAv* ?v+v}vAvJvyG ?v*Qvdv!
Susan Berk-Seligson, The Bilingual Courtroom: Court Interpreters in the )31(

Judicial Process (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings, pp. 88-89. )32(
M. A. K. Halliday, «New Ways of Analysing Meaning: The Challenge )33(
to Applied Linguistics,» Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol. 6 (1990).
Halliday and Martin, Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v s )34(
Power, pp. 9 and 13.
772
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?v <Qv Gv @ 9v %v +v p 9v "v *Ov y f(v wv @ : ,v Av yG ?v *Qv Wv =v yG I9v +v Jv yG #v | J:9v Gv | IOv f c9v "v $
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?{}gyG O"f ?*(jzyG J9+y6G B+=D@ 9""w}* {$ :($ dG|TyGh
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: GQvv9v< {vqvavyG 9v%v=vTvAvwv* ,vAvyG ?v+vp9vtvDvyG ~v+v$9vqv}vyG #v| GOOvf fCh ,?vjvzvyG
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k k k
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.jQ+$9}GyG d9Z@:G {F9Sh ?aSG(< bS(AyG GP%y ?*(jy {+y9J@
GPE aQhhh Qv+v<9vS VGQvAvpG #vf Y9vpOvyG QPvgvAv* ,xvyP )vzvf Ih;vfh
#v | Jh9v qv Av @ ?v jv zv y9v p ,#v v9v Sh Uv !9v Gv Av | Y(v \(v }v v ?v jv zv yG )v yE Qv dv "v yG ~q v @
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k k
,9v =v F9v Y :G|v S MQv _ Ov s aQhh fC ~v fRzv S .J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv y9v < ?v zv Y
Nelson, «A Matter of Time,» in: Gelman and Byrnes, eds., Perspectives )35(
on Language and Thought: Interrelations in Development.
Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the )36(
Late Modern Age (Cambridge, GB: Polity Press, 1991).
.&zqSC Qd!G )39(
773
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)v vzv vf ?v vjv vzv vyG J:9v v}v vgv vAv vSG Qv v+v vCzv v@ #v vf KOv vJv vAv v! fC 9v v"v v"v vwv v}v v* ,Qv vwv vqv vyG
k
:Xs9"! fC #w}* .:OF 9%< ~zT}yG J9\GQAp:G
H9aMyG ,p ?jzyG d9}gASG #wyh ,?jzyG ?+"< U+y !

(J"yG #| ?+tT"yG JGA9tA!:G {< (J"yG U+y !
J9%+F(AyG Q9qVE {< ,?+pQg}yG ?+}AJyG U+y !
QwqyG JGO9f {< ,pQg}yG f9w| G U+y !
bS(AyG {< ?+==TyG U+y !
Bv Tv +v zv p ,#v +v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < IQv }v Dv | JGOv +v vzv @ c9v "v $
)vzvf OOvWv@ ,vAvyG kv+vZvyG {v< aQhh VGQvAvp: ?v+vZvMvWvyG ?v+vTvqv"vyG kv+vZvyG
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d9v Jv * ,v Av yG J9v SGQOv yG gPv $ {v Dv | #v | Qv +v Dv v c9v "v %v p ,)Corpus( #v Av }v yGh
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k k
.)41(&+fO=| #| OIGh ?aSG(< {tJyG GP%y 9s(C(| 9q*Qg@ )40(Qyh(p
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9v !9v +v ICh IOv tv gv }v yG Hv Gv Jv yG ?v +v "v < )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ,GPE xv yP #v | Qv Dv vC
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#v | 9v s;v av !G ?v S(v }v zv | ?v zv Dv |C ,f6G ,Xv s9v !zv S .d9v f {v wv Wv < IOQv Gv }v yG
.?+f9}AF:G ?+I9"yG #| ?}%| ?g<QC J:9G|
Roger Fowler, «Critical Linguistics,» in: Kirsten Malmkjaer, ed., The )40(
Linguistics Encyclopedia (London; New York: Routledge, 1991).
Bob Hodge and Gunther Kress, :y9v v v +v v v F(v v v y(v v v *Ov v v *}Gh ?v v v jv v v zv v v yGz d(v v v I Qv v v dv v v !G )41(
Language as Ideology, 2nd ed. (London; New York: Routledge, 1993),
Fairclough, Language and Power, :y?azTyGh ?jzyGz d(Ih
Fowler, :Qv dv !G ,yJGOv tv Av gCGh Q9v wv p}G {v wv Wv @z fC Ov FGQv @G ?v jv zv y #v wv }v * rv +v v d(v Ih
Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press, p. 1.
774
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k
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Uvqv"vp :,vS9v+vTvyG T9vtv"vyG ,vp U9vL (vJv! )vzvf ?v}v%v| f(vwv@ fC #vwv}v*
{v FC #v | ?v zv @9v tv | hC ?v +v <9v $QE 9v %v !zv < 9v %v +v zv f ?v y9v I G #v wv }v * J9v f(v }v Gv }v yG
hC QGQv tv Av SG #v f KOv Jv Av * fC 9v | Ov I} #v wv }v * ?v *DQv yG >v Tv Ih .?v *Qv Jv yG
aQv _ #v | e9v "v Av +v qv yG hRv i hC ?v *9v }v Ih ,^v +v =v yG aQv _ #v | 9v +v yGQv Av SC hRv i
.#++zY}G #++vQ+|~y ?+sQgyG IO9< G hC 9vQ+|C a9WAvGh ,#++vQ+|}G
Ov tv y .?v +v "v gv | J9v Jv zv av Zv }v yG ?v f(v }v Gv | f(v wv @ f9v +v I}G ^v gv < ,v p
HRv Jv yG ?v av Wv !C 9v +v !9v }v yzv < ,v Av gv |9v Gv < ?v Dv *Ov I ?v +v <;v _ ?v qv +v Jv Y JOv tv Av !G
BvJv=vYC ,vAvyG IQvGvJvAv}vyG Qv+v<9vgvAvyG ~v%v@ Bv!9vv HvGvJvyG iOvIEh :evp9vJv}vyG
,v v =v v y9v v _(h ,)Fremdenhass ( )>v v !9v v F}G gQv v v( :{v v Dv v | ,OOQv v Av v yG IQv v+v v Dv v v
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,v vAv vyG )Collocations( J9v vp9v vZv v@Q:9v vp ,)Feind( yhOv vgv vyGzh y,v v=v v"v vF}Gz
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Ruth Wodak: «Antisemitismen imösterreichischen Alltag,» )42(

Germanistische Linguistik, vol. 112, no. 13 (1992), and «Critical Discourse
Analysis and the Study of Neo-Racism in Contemporary Austria,» Discourse and
Society, vol. 4, no. 2 (1993).
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Contemporary Austria,» p. 226.
Konrad Ehlich, ed., Sprache im Faschismus (Frankfurt am Main: )44(
Suhrkamp, 1989).
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776
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777
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Elizabeth F. Loftus and John C. Palmer, «Reconstruction of )47(

Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction between Language and
Memory,» Journal of Verbal Learning and Behavior, vol. 13 (1974).
778
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Collocation,» in: Mona Baker, Gill Francis and Elena Tognini-Bonelli, eds., Text
and Technology: in Honour of John Sinclair (Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1993).
779
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George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live by (Chicago, )68(

IL: Chicago University Press, 1980).
Carolyn D. Baker and Peter Freebody, Children’s First School Books: )69(
Introductions to the Culture of Literacy (Oxford; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell,
1989).
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?dI;|
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Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society )70(

(London: Fontana, 1976), p. 21.
791
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)v v v v v v v v v v yE )2((Erasmus of Rotterdam’s De civilitate morum puerilium)
HGOB d(v v I Bv v zv v <Qv v *Ov v !9v v p ,v v |6 {v v |9v v wv v yG H9v v Av v wv v zv v y IQv v +v v L}G ?v v gv v =v v av v yG
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Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, [Editor in Chief Paul )1 (

Procter] (Harlow [Eng.]: Longman, 1978), p. 373.
Desiderius Erasmus, De civilitate morum puerilium. ab autore recognitus )2 (
et novis scholiis illustratus, per G. Longolium (Coloniae: J. Gymnicus, 1530).
Amy Vanderbilt, The Amy Vanderbilt Complete Book of Etiquette: A )3 (
Guide to Contemporary Living, Rev. and Expanded by Letitia Baldrige; Drawings
by Mona Marks (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978).
793
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KvzvavZv}vp ,MQvAvtv}vyG rv*QvgvAvyG #v}v\ xvyPvv LQOv"v@ ,vAvyGh ,)4(#v+v*QvavqvyG
MQvav* ,IQvDvwv< {v}vgvAvTv}vyGh &v< {vZvAv}vyG ),v!9vTvzvyG( (Politeness) >v*Pv%vAvyG
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eQ9v Y {v wv Wv < (Leech) )8(Xv +v yh )7(f(v Tv "v +v qv yh fhGQv < #v +v < ~v S9v tv Av }v yG
H9v Av wv yG Uv qv ! .?v jv zv yG d9v }v gv Av SG b9v av ! ,v p ,v !9v Tv zv yG c(v zv Tv yG HGOB
William Labov, «Rules for Ritual Insults,» in: Sudnow, ed., Studies in )4 (
Social Interaction.
Georgia M. Green, «The Cooperative Principle, Rationality, and :{v v v vDv v v v| )5(
the Nature of Politeness,» (Unpublished Manuscript, University of Illinois, 1992).
d9v}vgvAvSG ,vp J9+zvwvyG ^vgv< :f(vT"+vqvyh fhGQv< Ov"vf >v*Pv%vAvzvy ,vfQvqvyG fG(v"vgvyG fQ9vs )6(
(P. Brown and S. Levinson, «Politeness: Some Universals in Language ?v v v v v v v jv v v v v v vzv v v v v v vyG
Usage»).
Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson: «Politeness: Some Universals in )7 (
Language Usage,» in: Esther N. Goody, ed., Questions and Politeness: Strategies
in Social Interaction (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1978), and Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage (Cambridge
[Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
Geoffrey N. Leech, Principles of Pragmatics (London; New York: )8 (
Longman, 1983).
794
b9v v v+v v vTv v vyG #v v vf ?v v vy(v v vZv v vqv v v}v v vyG e;v v vwv v vyG d9v v vgv v vpC ,xv v vyPv v vv ,G(v v vqv v v"v v vY
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,)Language Use( j(v jv zv yG d9v }v gv Av S:G ,v ph ,)Language Usage(
.?jzyG ,p >*P%AyG :~$OzG| fG("f d;L #| )]At| ($ 9}v
Bruce Fraser, «Perspectives on Politeness,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. )9 (

14 (1990), p. 233.
Florian Coulmas, «Linguistic Etiquette in Japanese Society,» in: )10(
Richard J. Watts, Sachiko Ide and Konrad Ehlich, eds., Politeness in Language:
Studies in Its History, Theory, and Practice (Berlin; New York: Mouton de
Gruyter, 1992), p. 321.
R. J. Watts, S. Ide and K. Ehlich, «Introduction,» in: Watts, Ide and )11(
Ehlich, eds., Ibid.
795
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c(v vzv vTv vyG ?v v*Qv vdv v! {v vLGO {v vJv v*h ,9v v*Qv vdv v! ,v v"v v=v v| ?v v+v v!9v vDv vyG ?v v=v v@Qv vyG >v v*Pv v%v v@
&v !} ,,v Gv %v "v | Rv +v +v }v Av y9v p xv yPv <h .j(v jv zv yG d9v }v gv Av S:Gh ,v f9v }v Av F:G
q
,vp ,v!9vTvzvyG c(vzvTvyG HGO5v< ?vtvzvgvAv}vyG J9vJv*QvZvAvyG #v+v< ?vs;vgvyG [vZvMv*
J9v +v av gv | #v | )v av gv | ,v $ ?v s;v gv yG fE .{v +v zv Jv Av yG J9v *(v Av Tv | rv zv Av Mv |
,vf9v}vAvFG Q(vdv"v| #v| (Hobart) JQ9v<(v$ xvyP )vyE Q9vVC 9v}vv ,?v*Qvdv"vyG
ARvF ,v$ d9v}vgvAvS:G Ov+vs #v+v+vzvY}G f9vwvTvyG J9vqv+v"vZv@z( ,vF(vy(v<hQvDv!C
9v %v !(v v ,)v yh}G ?v =v @Qv yG #v | >v *Pv %v Av yG IQv $9v c .)14()y?v +v =v *Qv Gv @ ?v Gv I #v |
x k k
?v+vp9vtvC ~v+v$9vqv|z v v vv IQ(vzv=vAv| {v}vgvzvy ?v%vF(v| aQ9vgv| hC 9vdvI;v| 9vv(vzvS
Qv+vi 9v%vzvwvV ,vph .~v$Qv+vdv"v@ f(vDvI9v=vyG 9v%v+vzvf UvS|v* IGOC ,v$ ,)15(yIG(v!
9v%vy BvTv+vy :S9v"vyG {vv JGOvtvAvgv| IG(v"vyG ?vp9vtvDvyG ~v+v$9vqv| &v=vWv@ ,{vzvJv}vyG
q
d;vL #v| IQvTvqv| f(vwvAvy L9vAvJv@ #vwvyh ,9v%v@GP OvI ,vp ?v*Qv+vTvqv@ ?v}v+vs jC
.3 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )12(

Fraser, «Perspectives on Politeness». )13(
M. Hobart, «Summer’s Days and Salad Days: The Coming of Age of )14(
Anthropology,» in: Ladislav Holy, ed., Comparative Anthropology (Oxford:
Blackwell, 1987), p. 36.
Anna Wierzbicka, «Japanese Keywords and Core Cultural Values,» )15(
Language in Society, vol. 20, no. 3 (September 1991).
796
k
e9vwvI}G hC ?v+v!9vTvzvyG J9vF(vAv"v}vy9vv 9v|9v}v@ v v ?v+v!9vDvyG ?v=v@QvyG #v| >v*Pv%vAvyG ?v*Qvdv!
{vzvJv@ 9v|Ov"vfh .?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v*Qvdv"vyG d;vL #v| Qv+vTvqvAvzvy L9vAvJv@ ,vAvyG ?v*(vJv"vyG
IG(v "v yG ~v +v $9v qv }v yG gPv $ >v zv av Av @ ,,v p9v tv C(v +v S(v Tv yGh ,v Mv *Q9v Av yG 9v %v s9v +v S ,v p
k
)16(
h9v| #v+q v< xvyPvy .IQv+vWvgvyG ,vp j(vjvzvyG W9vWv"vyG J9vSQ9v}v| Qv+vTvqvAvy :9v}vfC
&vF(vyG ~v+v$9vqv| g9vGv@ ~v%vTvqv!C f(v+v"v+vZvyG fhQh9vJvAv}vyG &vF(v* rv+vv (Mao)
{v vY(v vAv vyG hC )Offers( VhQv vgv vyGh JG(v vfOv vyG ~v v *Ov vtv v@ ,v vp mianzih lian
k k
#v | >v *Pv %v Av y 9v +v qv Yhh 9v +v @9v dv I;v | ?v =v S9v "v }v yG JGQ(v Zv Av yG f(v wv @h .)17(9v %v <
k
,v p 9v |9v }v @ ?v Av =v Dv | >v *Pv %v Av yG ?v *Qv dv ! f(v wv @ ,v wv y ?v F9v Av Jv | )v yh}G ?v =v @Qv yG
.?*(jzyG QF9Wgzy e(%q| A9afE ,ph ?+zYG(AyG J9SQ9}}yG
?v f(v "v Av | QO9v Zv | #v | )v yh}G ?v =v @Qv yG #v | >v *Pv %v Av yG J9v +v av gv | ,v @zv @

k
?vp(vyzv}vyG JGQ9vTv}vzvy ?v+v=v*QvGv@h ?v+v@9vdvI;v| J9vSGQO #v| 9v%v}vdvgv| ,GQv+vDvv
{vLGO IPvqv"v}vyG ,)18(?vgvSG(vyG QvF9vWvgvyG {vLGO J9vf(v}vGv}vyG hC QvF9vWvgvyG ,vp
,?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v+vgvFGQPvyG :J9vZvZvMvAvyG rvzvAvMv}vy ?v+vGv%v"v}vyGh ?v*Qvdv"vyG JGO9vgvyG
Uv qv "v yG ~v zv fh ,?v jv zv y ,v f9v }v Av F:G Uv qv "v yG ~v zv fh ,J9v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGh
.9v v+v vF(v vy(v v<hQv vDv v!}Gh ,{v vYG(v vAv vyGh ,jQ(v vav vAv vyG Uv vqv v"v vyG ~v vzv vfh ,j(v vjv vzv vyG
,v!9vTvzvyG c(vzvTvyG HGOB ,vp ,vMv*Q9vAvyG Q(vdv"v}vyG )v"v=vAv@ ,vAvyG J9vSGQOvyGh
LuMing Robert Mao, «Beyond Politeness Theory: ‘Face’ Revisited and )16(
Renewed,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 21 (1994).
:Qv vdv v!G ,jQG(v vAG {v vf9v vqv vAv vyG ,v vp mianzi v v v y Qv vLB {+zv v; ^v vf Y;v v_:G {v vFC #v v|h )17(
Victoria Chen, «Mien Tze at the Chinese Dinner Table: A Study of the
Interactional Accomplishment of Face,» Research on Language and Social
Interaction, vol. 24 (1990),
Gabriele Kasper, ed., Pragmatics of Chinese as Native :Qvdv!G ,e;vwvyG {vgvp uvtv; ,vph
and Target Language, Technical Report/ Second Language Teaching &
Curriculum Center; 5 (Honolulu, HL: University of Hawaı̈ Press, 1995).
.&zqSC Qd!G )18(
797
,v p >v *Pv %v Av yG jC ,?v }v %v | Bv Jv =v YC HO}G ,v ph ?v Y9v Mv yG Qv F9v Wv gv yG ,v p
?vDv*OvJvyG IQvAvqvyGh ,)vavS(vyG fhQvtvyGh ,9v|hQh ,f9v!(v+vyGh ,~v*OvtvyG HQvjvyG
,(Nibelungenlied) )20(Ov v +v v zv v "v v Gv v !(v v zv v =v v +v v ! ,v v p .)19(9v v +v v !9v v }v v y} IQv v wv v =v v }v v yG
)22(
Qv v v+v v v=v v vwv v vWv v vy ?v v v+q v v vTv v v+v v vFQv v vyG hv v v<Q}G J9v v v*Ov v v+v v vFGQv v vAv v vyGh ,)21(Qv v vS(v v vVh
,(Lessing) )24(
kv"v+vTv+vy d9v}vfC ,vph .)23(VIII jQv"v$h ,(Shakespeare)
Konrad Ehlich, «On the Historicity of Politeness,» in: Watts, Ide :Qv vdv v!G )19(
and Ehlich, eds., Politeness in Language: Studies in Its History, Theory, and
Practice, and Manfred Beetz, Frühmoderne Höflichkeit: Komplimentierkunst und
Gesellschaftsrituale im altdeutschen Sprachraum [= Early Modern Politeness. The
Art of Complimenting and Social Rituals in the Old German Area] (Stuttgart: J. B.
Metzlersche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1990),
Norbert Elias: Über den Prozess der Zivilisation. :h ,IQv+vL}G IQvAvqvyG ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v<
1, Wandlungen des Verhaltens in den Weltlichen Oberschichten des Abendlandes, 4.
Auflage (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp-Verlag, 1977), and The Civilizing
Process, Translated by Edmund Jephcott (New York: Urizen Books, 1978), vol. 1:
The History of Manners,
.9<hQhC ,p (Manners) J9+q+wzy ,f9}AF:G N*Q9AyG ]E ?=T"y9<
Lana Naslov Rings, «Kriemhilt’s Face Work: A Sociolinguistic Analysis )20(
of Social Behavior in the Nibelungenlied,» Semiotica, vol. 65, nos. 3-4 (1987).
Hyesoon Lim Eun, «Polite Speech: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of )21(
Chaucer and the Gawainpoet,» Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 49 (1987),
and Roger D. Sell: «Tellability and Politeness in «The Miller’s Tale»: First Steps
in Literary Pragmatics,» English Studies, vol. 66, no. 6 (1985), and «Politeness in
Chaucer: Suggestions Toward a Methodology for Pragmatic Stylistics,» Studia
Neophilologica, vol. 57, no. 2 (1985).
Roger Brown and Albert Gilman, «Politeness Theory and )22(
Shakespeare’s Four Major Tragedies,» Language in Society, vol. 18 (1989).
A. Lynne Magnusson, «The Rhetoric of Politeness and Henry VIII,» )23(
Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 43 (1992).
Madeleine Claus, Lessing und die Franzosen: Hoeflichkeit, Laster, Witz )24(
[= Lessing and the French Politeness - Vice - Joke] (Rheinfelden: Schauble, 1983).
798
)27(
jG(v v jv v "v v +v v }v v $h ,(Stendhal) )26(dGOv v "v v Av v Sh ,(Rabelais) )25(&v v +v v zv v <GQh
fQvtvyG ?vqvS;vph )28(QvWvf hv<9vTvyG fQvtvyG ,vp 9v+v!9vav*Qv<h 9vTv!Qvp .(Hemingway)
?vp9vtvDvyG ,(Shaftesbury) )29(jQ(v=vTvAvp9vVh (Berkeley) ,vzvvQv+v< ,QvWvf #v|9vDvyG
?v v+v v!9v v!(v v+v vyGh ,)32(?v v+v vTv v!Qv vqv vyGh ,)31(?v v+v v"v v+v vZv vy9v vv J9v vjv vy ,v vp ,)30(?v v+v v|;v vS G
Ian R. Morrison, «Remarques sur les pronoms allocutifs chez Rabelais )25(
[= Remarks on the Allocative Pronouns in Rabelais],» Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, vol. 104, nos. 1-2 (1988).
Michel Crouzet, «Polémique et politesse ou Stendhal pamphlétaire [= )26(
Polemic and Politeness, or Stendhal as Pampheleteer],» Stendhal Club: Revue
internationale d’e´tudes stendhaliennes, vol. 23, no. 89 (1980).
D. E. Hardy, «Strategic Politeness in Hemingway’s «the Short Happy )27(
Life of Francis Macomber,»» Poetics, vol. 20 (1991).
Lawrence E. Klein, «Politeness in Seventeenth-Century England and )28(
France,» Cahiers du Dix-Septième Sie`cle, vol. 4 (1990).
Lawrence E. Klein, «Berkeley, Shaftesbury and the Meaning of )29(
Politeness,» Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture, vol. 16 (1986).
J. østrup, J. Orientalische Höflichkeit, Formen und Formeln im Islam: )30(
Eine Kulturgeschichtliche Studie = Orientalske hfflighedsformler og
hfflighedsformer [= Oriental Politeness. Forms and Formulas in Islam], [aus dem
Dfnischen übersetzt von K. Wulff] (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1929).
Ji Feng Yuan, Koenraad Kuiper and Shu Shaogu, «Language and )31(
Revolution: Formulae of the Cultural Revolution,» Language in Society, vol. 19,
no. 1 (1990), and Song-Cen Chen, «Social Distribution and Development of
Greeting Expressions in China,» International Journal of the Sociology of
Helene Kremos, Höflichkeitsformeln in der französischen Sprache. )32(
Aufforderungs- und Bittformeln, Dankesbezeugungen. (Mit historischem Rückblick
bis ins 16. Jahrhundert.) Diss. phil. I Zürich 1955 [= Politeness Formulae in the
French Language: Request and Petition Formulae. Expressions of Gratittude (With
a Historical Review from the 16th Century)] ([Zürich: Schippert, 1955]); Hans
Krings, Die Geschichte des Wortschatzes der Höflichkeit im Französischen
= (Dissertation) [= The History of the Vocabulary of Politeness in French] (Bonn:
799
(Old ?v}v*OvtvyG ?v*Ov"vy(v=vyGh ,)35(?v*Q(vwvyGh ,)34(?v+v!9v<9v+vyGh ,)33(?v}v*OvtvyG
)36(
(Classical
)38(
?v v *Ov v +v v zv v tv v Av v yG ?v v +v v Av v *Qv v wv v Tv v !9v v Tv v yGh )37(?v v +v v ShQv v yGh ,Polish)
.Sanskrit)
fh9gAyG CO=|h >*P%AyG

k
?v+v!h9vgvAvyG COv=v}v< >v*Pv%vAvyG ?vs;vf ,v$ :OvF aQvgv@ ,vAvyG ?v+v]vtvyG fE
BvJv@ j(v]v"v* >v*Pv%vAvyG {vgvF #v| AGQ6G rvzvAvMv@h .)39(Uv*GQvjvy )J .e(
Romanisches Seminar der Universität Bonn, 1961), and Gudrun Held, «Danken - =
semantische, pragmatische und sozio-kulturelle Aspekte eines höflichen Sprechakts
(gezeigt am Beispiel des Französischen) [= Thanking - Semantic, Pragmatic, and
Sociocultural Aspects of a Polite Speech Act (Demonstrated by Reference to
French]),» Klagenfurter Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, vols. 13-14 (1987-1988).
Henrik Zilliacus, Untersuchungen zu den abstrakten Anredeformen und )33(
Höflichkeitstiteln im Griechischen [= Investigation of Abstract Terms of Address
and Politeness Titles in Greek] (Helsingfors: [n. pb.], 1949).
James Wenger, «Variation and Change in Japanese Honorific Forms,» )34(
Papers in Linguistics, vol. 16 (1983).
J.-C. Soh, «Social Changes and Their Impact on Speech Level in )35(
Korean,» in: J. Douglas Woods, ed., Language Standards and Their Codification:
Process and Application ([Exeter, Devon]: University of Exeter, 1985).
Maria Wojtak, «Grzeczność postaropolsku w wietle «Pamietników» )36(
Jana Chryzostoma Paska [= Politeness in Old Polish in the Light of the Diaries
of Jan Chryzostom],» Poradnik Jezykowy, vol. 8 (1989).
Paul Popov, «On the Origin of Russian «vy» as a Form of Polite )37(
Address,» The Slavic and East European Journal, vol. 29, no. 3 (Autumn 1985).
L. C. Van de Walle, «Pragmatics and Classical Sanskrit: A Pilot Study )38(
in Linguistic Politeness,» Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 53 (1991).
H. P. Grice, «Logic and Conversation,» in: Peter Cole and Jerry L. )39(
Morgan, eds., Syntax and Semantics. 3, Speech Acts (New York; San Francisco,
CA; London: Academic Press, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975).
800
k k k
)v v yE GO9v v "v v Av v SGh .9v v *h9v vTv v Av v | 9v vgv v \h >v v *Pv v %v v Av v yGh J .e Kv v "v v | )v v yE J .e
(Considerateness) y#v*QvL6G I9vfGQv|z v v vv aQvgv}vyG >v*Pv%vAvyG , #v*Qvi
)40(
{v vDv v}v v@ ,v vAv vyG (Maxims) ?v v+v vS9v vS}G O9v v=v v}v vyG #v v| Qv v+v vDv vv #v v| Ov vIGh (v v$
S9v v S}G Uv v qv v ! )v v zv v f ,)41(y?v v +v v !h9v v gv v Av v yG COv v =v v | b9v v +v v S ,v v p J:9v v Iz
,>vS9v"vAvyGh ,?v+v}vwvyGh ,IO(vGvzvy ?v+vS9vS}G O9v=v}vyG hv| ,vF(vy(v}v+vAvTv< G
k
9vDvf9v< >v*Pv%vAvzvy ,vS9vS}G COv=v}vyG bQvL f(vwv* ,xvyPvy ?vGv+vAv!h .?v+vqv+vwvyGh
k
v v QvLB ,vS9vSC COv=v| jC ?vy9vI ,vp 9v}vv 9v|9v}v@ ,jQG(vJvyG L9vAv"vAvS:G )vzvf
)vyE Qv dv"v y9v< (Matsumoto) )42((v @(v|(vTv @9v | {v =v s #v| xvyPv v ?v |9vtv| ?v avtv!
.?+!9<9+yG ,p )Honorifics( r*QWAyG JGQ9=gy >S9"}yG Q+i d9}gAS:G
f(vTv"v+vqvyh fhGQv< ~vzvTv* ,e(v+vyG Q9vWvAv!:G IOv+vGvyG >v*Pv%vAvyG ?v*Qvdv! ,vp
y,v \GQv Av pG Q9v _Ez ?v +v S9v S}G ?v gv <Q}G &v FO9v =v |h ?v +v !h9v gv Av yG COv =v | fC )v zv f
a;v vMv v<h .)43(Ev v*Ov vJv vyG ?v vgv v+v v=v v_ #v vf #v v+v vCOv vJv vAv v}v vyG aQv v_ #v v| e(v vfRv v|
jQG(v I ,v S9v SC COv =v | &v !C )v zv f >v *Pv %v Av yG fGQ(v Zv Av * : 9v }v %vp ,)44(#v *Qv i
COv =v }v yG bQv L )v zv f IRv qv Jv | I(v s (v $ xv yP dOv < ,#v wv yh ,xv yPv v Qv LB
Q9v Tv }v yG ?v gv <9v Av | eOv gv y ?v jv zv yG ,v zv }v gv Av Tv | )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < hv pGOv yG .,v S9v S}G
?v +v S9v S}G O9v =v }v yG ?v dv I;v | d;v L #v | f(v zv gv qv +v S 9v }v v ,{v gv qv zv y d9v gv qv yG
Green: «The Cooperative Principle, Rationality, and the Nature of )40(

Politeness,» and «The Universality of Gricean Accounts of Politeness: You Gotta
Have Wa,» (Unpublished Manuscript, University of Illinois, 1992).
Green, «The Cooperative Principle, Rationality, and the Nature of )41(
Politeness,» p. 6.
Yoshiko Matsumoto, «Politeness and Conversational Universals: )42(
Observations from Japanese,» Multilingua, vol. 8, nos. 2-3 (1989).
Brown and Levinson, Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, )43(
p. 4.
Green, «The Universality of Gricean Accounts of Politeness: You )44(
Gotta Have Wa».
801
I9v v fGQv v | fC 9v v }v v <h .(Face) )45(&v v F(v v y9v v < ~v v %v v |9v v }v v Av v $G (v v $ ,Uv v *Qv v jv v y
k
{v v=v vs #v v| fGOv v*|v v| 9v vgv v| 9v v}v v$ &v vF(v vy9v v< e9v v}v vAv v$:Gh J .e )Observance(
o
?vqvzvAvMv| Y9v\hC #v| J9v%v+vF(vAvyG gPv$ f{vp ,H9vAvwvzvy ?v+v!;vtvgvyG J9v%vF(vAvyG
k
hC ,~vzvwvAvyG ?v"v%v| hv| e9vGvTv!;vy #v+vvQ9vWv}vyG &vF(v@ J .e {vDv}v*h .GQv+vDvv
?vy9vgvph ?v*O9vZvAvsG ?vtv*Qvav< ,,v!9vTvzvyG ){vf9vqvAvyG( W9vWv"vyG #v| QvLB Y(v! jC
dO9v =v Av }v yG aGQv Av f:G {v }v Wv * :e9v gv yG g9v "v gv | ,v p ,&v F(v y9v p ,{v Dv |C {v wv Wv <
,v p f(v wv @ fC #v wv }v * &v F(v y9v < ?v *9v "v gv yG .#v +v +v f9v }v Av FG A9v ]v fzv v #v +v vQ9v Wv }v zv y
,v S9v S}G COv =v }v yG ~v zv wv Av }v yG bQv Mv * 9v |Ov "v f ~v Av * 9v }v v ,J .e hv | YGRv !
fhGQv< Q(vZv@ fC e9v%vyG #v| .QvV9v=v| Qv+vi &v!(vv ?vavSG(v< ?v+vqv+vwvyG hC ?v+v}vwvzvy
?v *9v "v gv yG J9v |9v }v Av $G hv | OGOv Av |:G ,v p ih9v Tv Av * : >v *Pv %v Av zv y f(v Tv "v +v qv yh
q k
9v|Ov"vf bvtvp >v*Pv%vAvyG KOvJv* :Ov+vgv< OvI )vyE GQv+vDvv uv+v\ &v"vwvyh &vF(vy9v<
)vzvf #v+v}viQv| xvyPv< f(vzvf9vqvyG f(vwv*h ,QvavL ,vp &vF(vyG Kvy9vZv| f(vwv@
xv +v Vh Ov *Ov %v @ hv | {v |9v gv Av yG ?v +v qv +v v d(v I ?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av SE JGQ9v +v Av L9v < e9v +v tv yG
,v Av yG ,v $ bv tv p &v F(v yG Ov *Ov %v Av y ?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av S G JGQ9v +v Av L:G gPv $ .&v F(v zv y
Bv }v @ 9v }v %v IGQv Av s9v p ,f(v Tv "v +v qv yh fhGQv < ?v *Qv dv ! ,v p y>v *Pv %v Av yGz )v }v Tv @
evqvI Q(vZv@z &v!C )vzvf )46( QRGQvp {v=vs #v| xvyP )vzvf Ak9v"v< &v+vzvf ?vy9vI G
.>*P%Azy (Face-Saving View) y&F(yG
,v p J .e )v yE Qv dv "v y9v < j(v !9v C hv \h &v y xv yPv < >v *Pv %v Av yG fC 9v }v <h
)49(
a(v v v: iQv v * ,)48(f(v v Tv v "v v +v v qv v yh fhGQv v < ?v v *Qv v dv v !h )47(#v v *Qv v i ?v v*Qv v dv v!
.&zqSC Qd!G )45(

Have Wa».
Brown and Levinson, Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. )48(
= Robin Tolmach Lakoff, «The Logic of Politeness, or, Minding Your )49(
802
k
ih9vTvAv* A9v"v< &v!C )vzvf >v*Pv%vAvyG )vyE ,GOvF IQ(vavAv| IAGQvs ,vp ,)50(Xv+vyh
#v | a(v v: >v Tv I ?v +v gv *QPv yG IQOv tv yG f(v wv Av @h .J .e hv | ?v +v }v $}G ,v p
,y?v<Pv%v | f(v wv@ fC .2 ,?v Jv \Gh f(v wv@ fC .1z :#v+v Av +vS9vSC y#v +v@Ov f9v sz
,Uv*GQvjvy ?v+vS9vS}G O9v=v}vzvy IRvF(v}vyG IAGQvtvyG )vyE M(v\(vyG {vZv* Ev+vI
Xv+vy MGQvAvsG ,vp .#v+vvQ9vWv}vyG #v+v< YGQvZvyG jO9vqvAvy >v*Pv%vAvyG {v}vgvAvTv* 9v}v"v+v<
.e ?v zv }v wv @ Bv }v @ ,(Interpersonal Rhetoric) y?v +v Zv Mv Wv +v =v yG ?v i;v =v yGz v v vy
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>v v*Pv v%v vAv vzv vy Qv vdv v"v v*o : ,Q(v vZv vAv vyG GPv v$ ,v vp .)Conversational Contract(
{v}v%v| hv\(vv #vwvyh ,&v"vf aGQvJv!;vy RvqvJv}vv :h ,J .e v v vy ?vzv}vwvAvv
p’s and q’s,» in: Corum, Smith-Stark [and] Weiser, eds., You Take the High Node =
and I’ll Take the Low Node; Papers from the Comparative Syntax Festival, The
Differences between Main and Subordinate Clauses, 12 April 1973.
Leech, Principles of Pragmatics. )50(
.79 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )51(
.9$Og< 9|h 131 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )52(
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.233 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )55(

.&Tq! QOZCG )56(
Brown and Levinson, Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. )57(
Have Wa».
804
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fC #v | ,v S9v SC COv =v }v y U9v Mv yG {v wv Wv yG )v zv f ?v +v p9v tv Dv yG ~v +v tv yG rv zv Av Mv }v y
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o
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{v=vs #v| IQ(vZvAv}vyG )?v"vTvJvAvTv|h IQv+vDv| ?v+vZvMvWvyG &v@Q(vY f(vwv@ fC ,vp
#v v+v v=v v!9v vGv vyG #v v*Pv v$ )v vzv vf ?v vy9v vI G Bv v}v v@ Ov vsh .)61(y&v vgv v| #v v+v vzv vf9v vqv vAv v}v vyG
{v v<9v vtv v| ?v vp9v vTv v|z v v v vv #v v*Qv vLB H9v vAv vv {v v=v vs #v v| &v v F(v v zv vy #v v+v vzv v|9v v wv vAv v }v vyG
{v <9v tv | d;v tv Av SGz hC ,)63(y#v |9v ]v @ {v <9v tv | a;v Av LGz hC ,)62(y#v }v ]v @

p. 61.
Deborah Tannen, That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style )62(
Makes or Breaks Your Relations with Others (New York: Morrow, 1986).
Ronald Scollon and Suzanne B. K. Scollon, «Face in Interethnic )63(
Communication,» in: Jack C. Richards and Richard W. Schmidt, eds., Language
and Communication (London; New York: Longman, 1983).
805
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hC ,Rv *Rv gv Av y Kv zv Zv * W9v Wv ! (v $ >v *Pv %v Av yG .)65(y,v Zv Mv Wv +v =v yG &v F(v yG {v <9v tv |
k k
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,(Indirectness) IQv v V9v v =v v |;v v yG ,v v p e9v v tv v v * )66()yrv v zv v v Av v Mv v | >v v *Pv v v %v v @z(
QO9vZv|h J;v$|v| eGQvAvIGh ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vp9vTv}vyG Rv*Rvgv@h ,J9v+vzvwvWvyGh
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&v IQv av * fC #v wv }v * jPv yG &v F(v yG Ov *Ov %v @ rv +v av zv Av y f9v Av zv }v gv Av Tv | ,,v I;v YE
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k k
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)68(
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q k
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k
.9+zv ?<(za| >*P%AyG J9+G+@GQASE f(w@ xyPy .9| Y(! #|

Gotta Have Wa».
R. W. Janney and H. Arendt, «Intracultural Tact versus Intercultural )65(
Tact,» in: Watts, Ide and Ehlich, eds., Politeness in Language: Studies in Its
History, Theory, and Practice.
Scollon and Scollon, «Face in Interethnic Communication,» in: )66(
Richards and Schmidt, eds., Language and Communication.
.&Tq! QOZCG )67(
John R. Searle, «A Classification of Illocutionary Acts,» Language and )68(
Society, vol. 5 (1976).
Politeness».
806
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#v | y&v \GQv Av s9v <z ,?v +v Zv Mv V ?v +v Y9v L Uv +v yh ?v +v |(v }v f ?v +v Y9v L &v !C )v zv f
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p. 61.
Erving Goffman, Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior )71(
(Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1967).
Guy Aston, Learning Comity: An Approach to the Description :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v v v s )72(
and Pedagogy of Interactional Speech (Bologna: Editrice Cooperativa Libraria
Universitaria Editrice Bologna, 1988), and Mao, «Beyond Politeness Theory:
«Face» Revisited and Renewed».
Hsien Chin Hu, «The Chinese Concept of :?v v +"+v v Zv v yG ]E ?v v =v v Tv v "v v y9v v < Qv v dv v !G )73(
«Face»,» American Anthropologist, vol. 46, no. 1 (1944); David Yau-Fai Ho, «On
the Concept of Face,» American Journal of Sociology, vol. 81, no. 4 (1975);
Yueguo Gu, «Politeness Phenomena in Modem Chinese,» Journal of Pragmatics,
vol. 14 (1990), and Mao, Ibid.,
Susan Ervin-Tripp, Kei Nakamura and Jiansheng Guo, «Shifting Face :h
= from Asia to Europe,» in: Masayoshi Shibatani and Sandra Thompson,
807
,vf9v}vAvF:G aGQvAvf:Gh OGQvp}G J9v=viQ ,vp ?vgvs(v}v}vyG ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG ?v}v+vtvy9v<
,?v+v!9v<9v+v yGh ?v+v "v +v ZvyG Qv F9v WvgvyGh ?v+vvQv+v|C v v (vzvGv!}G J9v gv}vAvGv}vyG {v=vs #v|
:,=T"yG &F(yG &+F(@ h9| MQAt*
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k
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hC ,?v v+v vy9v vDv v}v vyG ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G ?v v*(v v%v vyG :?v v"v v+v vgv v| ?v v*(v vjv vy IQv v+v vWv vf ,v vp IRQ9v v<
,v p &v F(v zv y U9v Mv yG i(v Av Jv }v yG OOv Jv Av *h .,v y9v Dv }v yG jOQv qv yG d;v tv Av S:G
#v +v Av zv f9v qv Av }v yG #v +v Av +v y9v Dv }v yG #v +v @9v $ iOv IE ?v av SG(v < ?v "v +v gv | ?v *(v jv y IQv +v Wv f
.)74(IQ+WgyG A9]fC aQ_ #| 9}%+zf bO9Z}yG
,v =v Tv "v yG hv s(v }v Av yG xv yPv < #v }v ]v Av @ h9v | Ov "v f &v F(v yG JGA9v "v < fC 9v }v <
Q9v wv pC fhQ(v Zv Av * #v *Qv LB H9v Av v f{v p ,?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v +v =v @GQv Av yG ,v p OGQv p~v y
q
#v | {v v ~v %v Av *h .?v yO9v =v Av | ?v +v qv +v wv < ?v *Qv Zv I 9v %v !C )v zv f f9v wv }v yGh &v F(v yG
: f(vTv"v+vqvyh fhGQv< Ov"vf &vF(vyG JGA9v"v< fC (Ide) )76(Ov*Bh )75((v@(v|(vTv@9v|
?v s;v gv y9v < aGQv Av f:G f9v FQOv * : 9v }v %v !} ?v +v !9v <9v +v yG {v f9v qv @ O9v =v | Ov YQv @
GPE .)77()y>vS9v"v| hvs(v| d;vAvIGz hC y?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+v=vTv"vyGz( ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
eds., Essays in Semantics ([Forthcoming]), =

.?*Q(wyGh ,?+!9<9+yGh ,?+"+ZyGh ,?+T!QqyGh ,?*R+zG! G ,p &F(yG ~+$9q| ?!Q9t| ]E ?=T"y9<
Mao, «Beyond Politeness Theory: «Face» Revisited and Renewed,» p. )74(
472.
Yoshiko Matsumoto: «Reexamination of the Universality of Face: )75(
Politeness Phenomena in Japanese,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 12 (1988), and
«Politeness and Conversational Universals: Observations from Japanese».
Sachiko Ide, «Formal Forms and Discernment: Two Neglected Aspects )76(
of Universals of Linguistic Politeness,» Multilingua, vol. 8, nos. 2-3 (1989).
Takie Sugiyama Lebra, Japanese Patterns of Behavior (Honolulu, HL: )77(
University Press of Hawaii, 1976).
808
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k
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~vS(vyG ?v+v}v$zv< Ov%vWv@ )80(f9v<9v+vyG ,vp J9vqv*QvWvAvzvy ?vgvSG(vyG J9v+v<O}G Bv!9vv
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f9v<9v+vyG ,vp e;vwvyG {vgvp uv+vtvJv@ J9v+v<OC uvC(v@ ,Bvs(vyG Uvqv! ,vph
Ervin-Tripp, Nakamura and Guo, «Shifting Face from Asia to )78(

Europe,» in: Shibatani and Thompson, eds., Essays in Semantics.
Ide, «Formal Forms and Discernment: Two Neglected Aspects of )79(
Universals of Linguistic Politeness».
Coulmas, «Linguistic Etiquette in Japanese Society,» in: Watts, Ide and )80(
Ehlich, eds., Politeness in Language: Studies in Its History, Theory, and Practice;
N. Yoshinaga, N. Maeshiba and S. Takahashi,:,v p IOQG(v yG hv FGQCG xv yPv v Qv dv !G
«Bibliography on Japanese Pragmatics,» in: Gabriele Kasper, ed., Pragmatics of
Japanese as Native and Target Language, Technical Report / Second Language
Teaching & Curriculum Center; 3 (Honolulu, HL: University of Hawaı̈ Press,
1992).
809
fC Q9v=vAvf9v<h .)81(b9v+vTvyG {v|G(vf >vTvJv< ?vqvzvAvMv| ?v+vGv+v@GQvAvSE d9v}vgvAvSG
k k
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fC xv +v zv f >v Gv *z )oisogashii tokoro( ,jC( cGQO G ?v "v wv }v | ?v +v qv +v wv <
k
.>v zv av yG ~v *Ov tv Av y y,v !QPv fGz moshiwake arimasenga ,y9v +v y(v ]v p f(v wv @
gomeiwaku o okake ,sumimasen (deshita) v v vv ?v *QGPv Av f:G Qv +v <9v gv Av yGh
&v F(v yG H(v +v f fC O9v tv Av f:9v p ,){v +v }v Gv y9v < aGQv Av f:G ~v *Ov tv Av y si mashita
fC VGQvAvp:G .Z(vzv=vyG >vgvY O9vtvAvfG ,v!9v<9v+vyG {vf9vqvAvyG ,vp ?v=vF9vi ,v=vzvTvyG
k
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k
?v *(v +v S}G J9v jv zv yG ,v p ?v s;v gv yG ~v Sh f(v v ?v tv +v tv Jv < 9v ]v *C ~v fOv | iQv LC
,)Javanese( ?v *h9v Gv yGh ,)Thai( ?v *Ov !;v *9v Av yGh ,?v *Q(v wv yGh ,?v +v !9v <9v +v y9v v
?v v+v vpQv vZv vyG ?v v}v vdv v!}G ,v vp )Grammaticized( ?v v!(n v vJr v v"n v v|o ,iQv vLC J9v vjv vyh
D. Barnlund and M. Yoshioka, «Apologies: :JGQGPv v v v v Av v v v vf:G ,v v v v v p d9v v v v v Dv v v v v | )81(

Japanese and American Styles,» International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
vol. 14 (1990),
T. Ikoma and A. Shimura, «Eigo kara nihongo e no puragumatikku :^v vpQv v yG ,v v ph
toransufaa: «Kotowari» toitu hatsuwa kooi ni tsuite [= Pragmatic Transfer from
English to Japanese: The Speech Act of Refusal],» Nihongo Kyoiku [= Journal of
Japanese Language Teaching], vol. 79 (1993),
T. Ikoma, ««Sorry for Giving Me a Ride»: The Use of :{v+v}v@9v< aGQvAvf:G Q+v<9vgv@ ,vph
Apologetic Expressions to Show Gratitude in Japanese,» (Unpublished Master’s
Thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HL, 1993),
Kenji Kitao, «A Study of Japanese and American Perceptions :>v vzv vav vyG ,v vph
of Politeness in Requests,» Doshisha Studies, vol. 50 (1990), and Satomi
Takahashi, «Transferability of Indirect Request Strategies,» University of Hawaii
Working Papers in ESL, vol. 11, no. 1 (1992),
Satomi Takahashi and L. M. Beebe, «Cross-Linguistic :J9v v Jv v +v v Jv v Zv v Av v yG ,v v ph
Influence in the Speech Act of Correction,» in: Gabriele Kasper and Shoshana
Blum-Kulka, eds., Interlanguage Pragmatics (New York; Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993),
810
k k
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,v !9v Tv zv yG c(v zv Tv yG HGOB fC )82(Ov *B SOv I (v $ jQ9v =v F G ,v f9v }v Av F:G
: ,e(v +v yG .,v Gv +v @GQv Av S G >v *Pv %v Av yG #v | Qv Dv vC yIQv +v Zv =v yGz Bv =v Dv @ ,v !9v <9v +v yG
S9v+vtv| c9v"v$ Uv+vy {vgvqvy9v<h ,rvs(v}vyG GPv$ ~vfOvy J9vSGQO c9v"v$ OvF(v@
?vTvS|v}vyG J9vSGQOvyG ,vI(v@ ,xvyP )vzvf Ih;vf .Ov*B ?v+v\Qvp RhQvy MQvAvtv|
o
?vAv<9vC ?v+vqv+vwv< {v}vgvAvTv@ fC dOv< ,&v!C J9vqv*QvWvAvyG d9v}vgvAvS: J9v+vavgv}vyG )vzvf
,vp Qv+vjvAv* fC ,vqv*QvWvAvyG d9v}vgvAvS;vy #vwv}v* ,?vY9vL ?v+vf9v}vAvFG ?vs;vf fQvtvy
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#v v+v v}v vzv vwv vAv v}v vyG fC ~v vfRv vyG VQ9v vgv v@ ?v v+v v=v v*Qv vGv v@ ?v vdv vI;v v| ,xv vyPv vv ,c9v v"v v$
q
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k k k
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q k k
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d9v}vgvAvS;vy ?vAv<9vDvyG JGQ(vZvAvyG &vIQvAvtv@ 9v}v| y?v*OGQEzh ?v+vvQvI QvDvvC xvyPvv
Ide, «Formal Forms and Discernment: Two Neglected Aspects of )82(

Universals of Linguistic Politeness».
H. M. Cook: «Social Meanings of Japanese Humble Verb Forms as )83(
Used by Government Officials,» Paper Presented at: The Fourth International
Pragmatics Conference, Kobe, July, 1993, and «The Use of Addressee Honorifics
in Japanese Elementary School Classrooms,» Paper Presented at: The 17th LAUD
Symposium on Language and Space, Duisburg, March, 1994.
Beverly Hill [et al.], «Universals of Linguistic Politeness: Quantitative )84(
Evidence from Japanese and American English,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 10
(1986), p. 348.
811
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.)86(?_9T=<
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k q k
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q k
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)88(
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Green, «The Universality of Gricean Accounts of Politeness: :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v s )86(

You Gotta Have Wa».
Richard J. Watts, «Relevance and Relational Work: Linguistic )87(
Politeness as Politic Behavior,» Multilingua, vol. 8, nos. 2-3 (1989).
Gu, «Politeness Phenomena in Modem Chinese». )88(
Mao, «Beyond Politeness Theory: «Face» Revisited and Renewed». )89(
812
J9v SGQOv yG ,v p ?v zv |9v Wv yG Qv dv "v yG IO9v fE fC 9v }v <h .hv }v Av Gv }v yGh OGQv p}G #v +v <
q
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r
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q k k
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(Rosenberger)
)91(
Qv iQv =v !RhQ dOv Av SGh .9v %v "v +v < {v Zv Av | ,v p ?v =v @Qv | Bv !9v v
k
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d9vwvV}G gPv$ #v+v< {vtv"vAvyG .)92(yA9v\Q G hC [vy9vMvyG Y9vpOv!:Gh ,Qv+vCzvAvyG
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k
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k
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k
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>vy9vav}vyG Rh9vGvAv@ ,vAvyG ?vAv<9vDvyG JGPvzvy y?v+v<QvjvyGz ?v+vy9vDv}vyG :JGPvyG IOvIh
Hazel R. Markus and Shinobu Kitayama, «Culture and the Self: )90(
Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation,» Psychological Review, vol.
98 (1991).
N. Rosenberger, «Dialectic Balance in the Polar Model of Self: the )91(
Japan Case,» Ethos, vol. 17 (1989).
.9$Og< 9|h 89 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )92(
Takie Sugiyama Lebra, «Culture, Self, and Communication :xvyPvv Qvdv!G )93(
in Japan and the United States,» in: William B. Gudykunst, ed., Communication in
Japan and the United States (Albany, NY: State University of New York, 1993).
813
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#v| ~q v@ ,vAvyG ?vy(v%vTvyG .?vf(v}vGv}vyG {v=vs #v| ?v%vF(v}vyG ?v+v|Qv%vyG )Subculture(
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Gotta Have Wa».
814
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)95(
Brown and Levinson, Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage.
J. A. Becker, «Children’s Strategic Use of Requests to Mark and )97(
Manipulate Social Status,» in: Stan A. Kuczaj, ed., Language Development
(Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1982-); J. A. Becker and P. C. Smenner,
«The Spontaneous Use of Thank You by Preschoolers as a Function of Sex,
Socioeconomic Status, and Listener Status,» Language in Society, vol. 15 (1986); J.
A. Becker, H. D. Kimmel and M. J. Bevill, «The Interactive Effects of Request
form and Speaker Status on Judgments of Requests,» Journal of Psycholinguistic
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Bag?: Social Status and Patterned Variation in Second Language Acquisition,» in:
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821
)vyE [vzvMv* )103(f(vTvqvyhh ,e;vwvyG {vgvp uvtvJv@ J9vSGQO #v| OOvf ,vp
HGO6Gh ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G ?v p9v Tv }v yG ,,v av Mv yG {v wv Wv yG ,v p bv <GQv Av yG dOv < &v !C
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,>v!9vF}Gh J9v+v}v+v}vJvyGh ,?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?vp9vTv}vyG (Continuum) {vZvAv}vy
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q
Qv v+v v <9v v gv v @h (Complaining) )104(i(v v wv v Wv v y9v v < ?v v tv v zv v gv v Av v}v vyG J9v vSGQOv v yG #v v |
.)105({+}Gy9< aGQAf:G
?v+vf9v}vAvF:G JGQv+vjvAv}vyG Qv+vCzv@ d(vI ?vzv|9vV J9v+v<OC c9v"v$ Bv!9vv GPEh
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Nessa Wolfson, Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL :;v v v v v v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v v v v v v | )103(
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822
k k k
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k
f(vv ?vtv+vtvI ?v_9vTv=v< Uvwvgv* fC Qv|}G GPv%vy #vwv}v* ;v+vzvs hvS(vAvzvy .?v+vTvqv"vyG
v v ( ?v +v Tv qv "v yG {v |G(v gv yG 9v }v "v +v < #v +v +v gv Av yG ?v zv %v S ?v +v pGQv i(v }v *Ov yG JGQv +v jv Av }v yG
fC )vzvf (Ciliberti) )106(,v@Qv=v+vzv+vS dOvAvSG .xvyPvv BvTv+vy )?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
xvyP ,vp &v!zvV #v+vvQ9vWv}vzvy ?v+vp9vtvDvyG ?v+vqvzvMvyG #vf Hv@9v! ,vzvf9vqvAvyG H(vzvS}G
>v !9v Gv yG )vyE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < &v <9v Wv | d:Ov Av SG ~v*Ov tv @ #v wv }v *h ,?v+v Zv Mv Wv yG fzv V
)107(
,v wv S(v i(v vzv vS #v v+v < Ov vsh .?v +v Zv Mv vWv yG JGQv +v jv Av }v vyGh ,v vpGQv i(v }v *Ov yG
Qv v+v vCzv vAv vyG #v vf Rv v+v v}v v| )?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G ?v vp9v vTv v}v vyG=( O9v v+v vAv vf:G fC (Slugoski)
d;v L #v | ?v +v Mv *Q9v @ ?v zv gv < ?v }v fOv | ?v +v \Qv p ,v $h ,)?v +v Tv qv "v yG ?v p9v Tv }v yG=(
.)108(Q+=TwV J9*O+FGQ@ ,p >*P%AyG ?SGQO
?v+v!9vTvzvyG d9vgvp}G J9v}vS ,?vvQ9vWv}vyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG gPv$ )vyE ?vp9v\ 9v<

hv*QvWv@ {vwvWv@ v v 9v%v"vf ?vGv@9v"vyG M9v<Q}Gh QvF9vTvMvyG hC ,y?v=v*Qv]vyGz v v 9v%vTvqv!
QvY9v"vf #v+v+vgv@ ~q v@ Ovtvp ,e;vwvyG d9vgvpC #v| Ov*OvgvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v<h .>v*Pv%vAvyG
k
:,p ,;D| ,?=vQ}yG A9"=yG y?=*Q\z
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823
f9vfP j(vtvyG d9v}vAvI:G ,)110(?v+vfhQvWv| ,)109(M9vJvyE :?v=vy9vav| !
.)111(>zayG P+q"@ ,p ~zwA}zy ?+Tq"yG ?<(gZyGh h}AT}yG
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.)113(O+qAT}yG &+!9g* jPyG HGQa\:Gh
T. Herrmann, «Language and Situation: The «pars pro toto» )109(

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Tactics of Male and Female Managers».
Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper, eds., Ibid. )111(
House, «Politeness in English and German: The Functions of «Please» )112(
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Miyake (1993), and Ikoma, ««Sorry for Giving Me a Ride»: The Use )113(
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824
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?v+vfhQvWv}vyG >vTvI ~v%v@9v=vzv_ f9v}vy}Gh f(v+v!9v<9v+vyG f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG dOvf Ovsh
Uv+vyh f9v}vy}G #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #vwvyh ,hv}vAvTv}vyG f9vfP j(vtvyG d9v}vAvI:Gh
?vF9vJvyG )v zvf xvyPvv ?vqvs(vAv| ?v+v F9vtv Av!:G ~v%vAv+vGv+v@GQvAvSE G(vzvgvF #v+v +v!9v<9v+vyG
,v p f(v +v "v +v Av "v FQ}Gh f9v }v y}Gh f(v +v zv +v FGQv S G rv zv Av LG Ov tv y .)116(?v S9v }v yG
?v<9vGvAvS: j(vtvyG d9v}vAvI:Gh ,~v%v@9v=vFGhh #v*Qh9vJvAv}vyG b(vtvJvy ~v%v@9vvGQOE
Ovsh .)117(>vzvavyG R9vGv!E ,vp ~vzvwvAv}vyG 9v%v%vFG(v* ,vAvyG ?v<(vgvZvyGh ,hv}vAvTv}vyG
9v +v zv f ?v =v @Qv | JGP 9v %v !C )v zv f ?v vQOv | J9v =v zv av zv y ?v <9v Gv Av S:G IQhQv \ Bv !9v v
.)118(,!9<9+yG iOy 9%"| QDvC ,vQ+|}G iOy
k
9v +v p9v tv Dv +v < Y(v "v Av @ ?v +v s9v +v Tv yG JGQv +v jv Av }v yGh >v *Pv %v Av yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv yG fE
Olshtain and L. Weinbach, «Interlanguage Features of the Speech Act )114(

of Complaining,» in: Kasper and Blum-Kulka, eds., Interlanguage Pragmatics.
S. Blum-Kulka, S. Danet and R. Gerson, «The Language of )115(
Requesting in Israeli Society,» in: Forgas, ed., Language and Social Situations.
Herrmann, «Language and Situation: The «pars pro toto» Principle,» )116(
in: Fraser and Scherer, eds., Advances in the Social Psychology of Language, and
Morosawa, «Intimacy and Urgency in Request Forms of Japanese: A
Psycholinguistic Study».
Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper, eds., Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: )117(
Requests and Apologies.
K. Shimamura, «Judgment of Request Strategies and Contextual )118(
Factors by Americans and Japanese EFL Learners,» (Unpublished Master’s
Thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, 1993).
825
k k
?v }v +v sh ,v !9v Tv zv yG W9v Wv "v yG J:9v I #v +v < ?v s;v gv y9v v 9v |9v }v @ ,9v +v p9v tv C #v }v \h
o
Qv Dv vC 9v %v !C )v zv f ?v +v =v zv Tv yG >v *Pv %v Av yG J9v +v Gv +v @GQv Av SE Bv }v %v p Ov tv yh .9v %v =v *Pv %v @
k
#v+v+v!9v<9v+vyG #v| IOvJvAv}vyG J9v*:(vyG ,vp #v+v}v+vtv}vyG #v+v+v!9v<9v+vyG {v=vs #v| 9v=v*Pv%v@
k
?vY9vL 9v|9vwvIC f(v+vvQv+v|}Gh f(v+v!9v<9v+vyG xvyPvv eOvs Ovsh .)119(f9v<9v+vyG ,vp
?v v+v v]v vtv vyG .)120(?v v}v vfOv v| J9v vvQq v vJv v@ fhO #v v| hC hv v| J9v v=v vzv vav vzv vy ?v vqv vzv vAv vMv v|
)Indirectness( IQv V9v =v |;v yG #v +v < ?v s;v gv yG ,v $ ?v Y9v L ?v +v qv +v wv < ?v fO9v Mv }v yG
k
IQv V9v =v | : c9v "v$ ,?v *Qv dv "vyG #v| ?vtv Av Wv }vyG J9vgv s(v Av zv y 9v p;v Lh .>v*Pv %vAv yGh
/xv"vwv}v*z «can/could you» v v v J9v+vGv+v@GQvAvSE OGOvfE ,v"vgv*( ?v+v@9vgv\G(v|
JQv =v Av fG ,v Av yG )Kv +v }v zv Av yG( ?v +v @9v f(v \(v | Qv +v i IQv V9v =v | : dOv < )yxv "v wv |C
k
hOv=v@ .)122(9v+v!9v}vyCh ,)121(9vvQv+v|Ch {v +v FGQvSE I9v]vs {v=vs #v| GQv+vDvv ?v<Pv %v|
Kv FQzv @ ?v av SG(v < ?v }v fOv | 9v %v !C )v zv f ?v +v @9v gv \G(v }v yG IQv V9v =v |;v yG ?v +v zv ]v pC
)vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+v!(v!9vtvyG JGAGQvF G ?vqvzvvh ,Q9v=vAvf:Gh M(v\(vyG #v+v< fGRv+v}vyG
k
fC )Weizman( )123(f9v|Rv*h MQvAvsG ,HvF9vAv"vyG gPv$ hv| 9v+vWv}v@h .hv}vAvTv}vyG
Kitao, «A Study of Japanese and American Perceptions of Politeness )119(

in Requests».
Shimamura, Ibid. )120(
Shoshana Blum-Kulka, «Indirectness and Politeness in Requests: )121(
Same or Different?,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 11 (1987).
J. House, «Cross-Cultural Pragmatics and Foreign Language )122(
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eds., Probleme und Perspektiven der Sprachlehrforschung: Bochumer Beiträge zum
Fremdsprachenunterricht in Forschung und Lehre (Frankfurt am Main: Scriptor;
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Elda Weizman: «Towards an Analysis of Opaque Utterances: Hints as )123(
a Request Strategy,» Theoretical linguistics, vol. 12 (1985); «Requestive Hints,» in:
Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper, eds., Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and
Apologies, and «Interlanguage Requestive Hints,» in: Kasper and Blum-Kulka,
eds., Interlanguage Pragmatics.
826
k
9v s;v _E >v *Pv %v Av yG uv *Qv _ #v f 9v %v }v fO ~v Av * : ?v +v @9v gv \G(v |;v yG IQv V9v =v |;v yG
.U=Az}yG j(jzyG d9}gAS;y eR;}yG y^pQyG f9w|Ez u*Q_ #f 9}!Eh
H9aMyG b9+S
)v vzv vf 9v v$Qv v+v vCzv v@ ?v vGv vy9v vgv v|h U9v vMv vyG b9v v+v vTv vyG JGQv v+v vjv vAv v| dRv vf dOv v<
,v!9vTvzvyG c(vzvTvyG HGOB #vf J9v+v<O}G #v| Qv+v=vv ARvF rvWvwv* ,>v*Pv%vAvyG
:J9s9+TyG gP$ #}]A@h .?qzAM| ?+<9aL J9s9+S ,p
,)124(?v v}v vwv vJv v}v vyG J9v vf9v vs ,,v v"v vgv v* ,,v v@9v vTv vS|v v}v vyG H9v vav vMv vyG !
Qh9v v Wv v Av v yG ,)126(,v v \Qv v }v v yG Uv v qv v "v v yG ~v v zv v f ,)125(,v v =v v av v yG H9v v av v Mv v yG
Adelsward (1989); Susan Berk-Seligson, «The Impact of Politeness in )124(

Witness Testimony: The Influence of the Court Interpreter,» Multilingua, vol. 7,
no. 4 (1988); Joan L. Cashion, «Politeness in Courtroom Language,» Paper
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Limits of Politeness: Therapeutic and Courtroom Discourse,» Multilingua, vol. 8,
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Karin Aronsson and B. Rundström, «Cats, Dogs, and Sweets in the )125(
Clinical Negotiation of Reality: On Politeness and Coherence in Pediatric
Discourse,» Language in Society, vol. 18 (1989); Karin Aronsson and Ullabeth
Sätterlund-Larsson, «Politeness Strategies and Doctor-Patient Communication.
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social Psychology, vol. 6 (1987), and Lynne S. Robins and Fredric M. Wolf,
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Science and Medicine, vol. 27, no. 3 (1988).
C. Batten, «Dilemmas of Cross-Cultural Psychotherapy Supervision,» )126(
British Journal of Psychotherapy, vol. 7 (1990), and Lakoff, «The Limits of
Politeness: Therapeutic and Courtroom Discourse».
827
,)129(?v +v qv *Qv Wv Av yG JGQv }v @|v }v yG ,)128(?v Jv +v Zv "v yG ~v *Ov tv @ ,)127(,v }v *O9v v}G
?v |Ov L Kv y9v Zv | ,)131(~v Tv tv yG H9v av L ,)130(?v Y9v Mv yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG JGQv }v @|v |
K. Bardovi-Harlig and B. Hartford: «Congruence in Native and )127(

Nonnative Conversations: Status Balance in the Academic Advising Session,»
Language Learning, vol. 40 (1990), and «Learning the Rules of Academic Talk: A
Longitudinal Study of Pragmatic Development,» Studies in Second Language
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Erickson and Shultz, The Counselor as Gatekeeper: Social Interaction )128(
in Interviews, and Susan Fiksdal: «Verbal and Non-Verbal Strategies of Rapport
in Cross-Cultural Interviews,» Linguistics and Education, vol. 1 (1988), and The
Right Time and Pace: A Microanalysis of Cross-Cultural Gatekeeping Interviews
(Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1990).
Jo. Roberts, «Face Threatening Acts and Politeness Theory: )129(
Contrasting Speeches from Supervisory Conferences,» Journal of Curriculum and
Supervision Spring, vol. 7, no. 3 (1992).
Margaret A. DuFon: «Politeness in Interpreted and Non-Interpreted )130(
IEP (Individualized Education Program) Conferences with Hispanic Americans,»
(Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI,
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6 (1993).
C. B. Cazden, «Language in Education: Variation in the Teacher-Talk )131(
Register,» in: James E. Alatis with G. Richard Tucker, eds., Language in Public
Life: Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, 1979
(Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1979); Keith Chick,
«Intercultural Miscommunication as a Source of Friction in the Workplace and in
Educational Settings in South Africa,» in: Ofelia Garcı́a and Ricardo Otheguy,
eds., English across Cultures, Cultures across English: A Reader in Cross-Cultural
Communication (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1989); Rod Ellis,
«Learning to Communicate in the Classroom: A Study of Two Learners’
Requests,» Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 14 (1992); Heath, Ways
= with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms; Wolfgang
828
,)134(,v!Ov}vyG ,v_GQvshQv+v=vyG {vf9vqvAvyG ,)133(>vFG(vyG ,vp ,)132(xvzv%vAvTv}vyG
.)136(,T+"v {}f A9ty ,)135(jCQyG Y;aASG J9<G(GASG
,,v"vgv* ,QvLB ,vZvMvV {vf9vqv@h ,)137({v}vgvyG f9vwv| ,vp {vYG(vAvyG !
Lörscher and Rainer Schulze, «On Polite Speaking and Foreign Language =
Classroom Discourse,» International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, vol. 26 (1988); S. A. Sadow and M. A. Maxwell, «The Foreign Teaching
Assistant and the Culture of the American University Class,» Paper Presented at:
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(TESOL), Honolulu, HI, 1983, and White (1989).
M. D. Johnson and S. B. Fawcett, «Consumer-Defined Standards for )132(
Courteous Treatment by Service Agencies,» Journal of Rehabilitation, vol. 53, no.
2 (1987).
A. K. Dzameshie, «Motivations for the Use of Politeness Strategies in )133(
Christian Sermonic Discourse,» Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 53 (1992).
Rodney Hero, «Citizen Contacting and Bureaucratic Treatment- )134(
Response in Urban Government: Some Further Evidence,» The Social Science
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Barbara Johnstone, «Individual Style in an American Public Opinion )135(
Survey: Personal Performance and the Ideology of Referentiality,» Language in
Society, vol. 20, no. 4 (1991), and Barbara Johnstone, Kathleen Ferrara and
Judith Mattson Bean, «Gender, Politeness, and Discourse Management in Same-
Sex and Cross-Sex Opinion-Poll Interviews,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 18 (1992).
Pearson, «Power and Politeness in Conversation: Encoding of Face- )136(
Threatening Acts at Church Meetings».
Bryan and C. Gallois, «Rules about Assertion in the Workplace: )137(
Effects of Status and Message Type»; Keith Chick: «Interactional Perspectives on
Communication Needs of Zulu Work Seekers,» Journal of Multilingual and
Multicultural Development, vol. 7, no. 6 (1986), and Chick, «Intercultural
Miscommunication as a Source of Friction in the Workplace and in Educational
Settings in South Africa,» in: Garcı́a and Otheguy, eds., English across Cultures,
= Cultures across English: A Reader in Cross-Cultural Communication; Michael
829
,)140(hv +v =v yG J9v \h9v qv | ,)139(?v *Q9v Gv @ J9v \h9v qv @ ,)138(fGQv +v av yG H9v av L
.)142(?+\9*Q bQp ,)141(,}+d"AyG {f9qAyG
Clyne, Martin Ball and Deborah Neil, «Intercultural Communication at Work in =

Australia: Complaints and Apologies in Turns,» Multilingua, vol. 10, no. 3 (1991);
Berit Holmqvist and Peter Bøgh Andersen, «Work-Language and Information
Technology,» Journal of Pragmatics, vol. 11 (1987); Greg Myers, «Politeness and
Certainty: The Language of in an AI Project,» Social Studies of Science, vol. 21
(1991), and S. A. Nunes, «Ordering and Serving: An Analysis of the Social
Interactions of Bartenders and Waiters at a Waikiki Drink Call Station,»
(Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI,
1981).
Charlotte Linde, «The Quantitative Study of Communicative Success: )138(
Politeness and Accidents in Aviation Discourse,» Language in Society, vol. 17, no.
3 (1988), and Who’s in Charge Heré: Cooperative Work and Authority
Negotiation in Police Helicopter Missions,» Paper Presented at: Irene Greif, ed.,
Proceedings of the 1988 ACM conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative
Work, September 26 - 28, 1988, Portland, Oregon, United States (New York:
ACM, 1988).
Konrad Ehlich and Johannes Wagner, eds., The Discourse of Business )139(
Negotiation (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995); J. Stalpers, «The
Expression of Disagreement,» in: Ehlich and Wagner, eds., Ibid., and Haru
Yamada, «Topic Management and Turn Distribution in Business Meetings:
American versus Japanese Strategies,» Text, vol. 10, no. 3 (1990).
Lampi, «Discourse Organization and Power: Towards a Pragmatics of )140(
Sales Negotiations,» in: Bouton, and Kachru, eds., Pragmatics and Language
Learning, vol. 4.
Morand, «Dominance, Deference and Egalitarianism in )141(
Organizational Interaction: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Power and Politeness».
Politeness,» and Kimberly Jones, «A Question of Context: Directive Use at a
Morris Team Meeting,» Language in Society, vol. 21 (1992).
830
,)144(?v+vzvTv@ A9vWvf ,)143(,vzvF9vf A9vWvf ,,v"vgv* ,,vZvMvWv+v< H9vavL !
QGQv v s P9v v Mv v @G ,)146(?v v +v v }v v +v v }v v I ?v v CO9v v Jv v | ,(Phatic) )145(,v v y9v v Zv v @G dO9v v =v v @
.)147(,ZMV
,,v v v v "v v v v gv v v v * ,e;v v v v f G {v v v v F9v v v v Sh rv v v v zv v v v Av v v v Mv v v v | ,v v v v p Ev v v v *Ov v v v Jv v v v yG !
{v v F9v v SQv v yG ,)149(H(v v S9v v Jv v yG H9v v gv v yC ,)148(?v v +v v qv v @9v v %v v yG J9v v CO9v v Jv v }v v yG
Blum-Kulka, «You Don’t Touch Lettuce with Your Fingers: Parental )143(
Politeness in Family Discourse»; S. Blum-Kulka and H. Sheffer, «The
Metapragmatic Discourse of American-Israeli Families at Dinner,» in: Kasper and
Blum-Kulka, eds., Interlanguage Pragmatics; Perlmann, «Variations in Socialization
Styles: Family Talk at the Dinner Table,» and Wilhite, «Children’s Acquisition of
Language Routines: The End-of-Meal Routine in Cakohiquel Language».
H. Befu, «An Ethnography of Dinner Entertainment in Japan,» in: )144(
Takie Sugiyama Lebra and William P. Lebra, eds., Japanese Culture and Behavior:
Selected Readings, Rev. ed. (Honolulu, HL: University of Hawaii Press, 1986).
Justine Coupland, Nikolas Coupland and Jeffrey D. Robinson, «How )145(
Are You? Negotiating Phatic Communion,» Language in Society, vol. 21 (1992).
J. Frank, «A Comparison of Intimate Conversations: Pragmatic )146(
Theory Applied to Examples of Invented and Actual Dialog,» The SECOL
Review, vol. 12 (1988).
Dirk R. Scheerhorn, «Politeness in Decisionmaking,» Research on )147(
Language and Social Inter Action, vol. 25, nos. 1-4 (1991).
Herbert Clark and Wade French, «Telephone Goodbyes,» Language in )148(
Society, vol. 10, no. 1 (1981); Maria Plascencia, «Politeness in Mediated Telephone
Conversations in Ecuadorian Spanish and British English,» Language Learning
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Telephone Conversation Openings,» in: George Psathas, ed., Everyday Language:
Studies in Ethnomethodology (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1979), and Maria
Sifianou, «On the Telephone Again! Differences in Telephone Behavior: England
versus Greece,» Language in Society, vol. 18, no. 4 (1989).
L. G. Covato, «The Design of an Adventure Game Authoring Tool )149(
= for Exploring Polite Requests in an English as Second Language Context,»
831
.)151(~FQA}yG E*OJyG ,)150(?+<(S9JyG
,)152(>v v zv v av v yG {v v F9v v SQ ,,v v "v v gv v * ,H(v v Av v wv v }v v yG H9v v av v Mv v yG !
?v v v v v <9v v v v v Av v v v v wv v v v yG ,)154(J9v v v v v v*hQv v v v v v}v v v v yG ,)153({v v v v v }v v v v v gv v v v yG {v v v v F9v v v v v vSQ
Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 53 (1991). =

Y. Hama, «The Effects of Impolite Computer Messages on Workers,» )150(
Japanese Journal of Psychology, vol. 61 (1991).
DuFon, «Referential and Relational Meaning in Interpreted )151(
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Ehlich, eds., Politeness in Language: Studies in Its History, Theory, and Practice,
and A. Knapp-Potthoff and K. Knapp, «The Man (or Woman) in the Middle:
Discoursal Aspects of Non-Professional Interpreting,» in: Karlfried Knapp,
Werner Enninger and Annelie Knapp-Potthoff, eds., Analyzing Intercultural
Communication (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987).
Roger D. Cherry, «Politeness in Written Persuasion,» Journal of )152(
Pragmatics, vol. 12 (1988), and A. M. Pickett, «ESL Business Letters of Request:
A Discourse Analysis of Written Text,» (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University
of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, 1989).
John Hagge, «Strategies for Verbal Interaction in Business Writing,» )153(
Paper Presented at: The Annual Meeting of the Conference on College
Composition and Communication, 35th, New York City, NY, March 29-31, 1984;
John Hagge and C. Kostelnick, «Linguistic Politeness in Professional Prose: A
Discourse Analysis of Auditors’ Suggestion Letter: With Implications for Business
Communication Pedagogy,» Written Communication, vol. 6 (1989); Ben E. Larson,
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and American Professional Letters,» Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 48
(1988); Mohan R. Limaye and Roger D. Cherry, «Pragmatics, «Situated»
Language, and Business Communication,» Iowa State Journal of Business and
Technical Communication, vol. 1, no. 1 (1987), and Paula Marrier, «Politeness
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Scollon and Scollon, Narrative, Literacy, and Face in Interethnic )154(
Communication.
832
(peer AGQv vdv v"v vyG ?v vgv vFGQv v| ?v v+v v}v vzv vgv vyG ?v v<9v vAv vwv vyG ,)155(?v v +v v y:Ov v v Av v v S:G
)156(
.)157(reviews)
c(vzvTvyG HGOB fC ,v$ ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG J9vSGQOvyG gPv%vy ?vvQvAvWv}vyG ?vy9vSQvyG
k
#v+v< #v|h b9v+vTvzvy I(vtv< S9vTvJvyG jQvWv=vyG {vYG(vAvzvy GQv%vdv| Ovgv@ ,v!9vTvzvyG
Uv+vy xvyPv< >v*Pv%vAvyG .#v+vvQ9vWv}vyG J9vs;vfh b9v+vTvyG {vwvWv@ ,vAvyG A9v+vV}G
k
?vyOvgv| I(vs #vwvyh ,jQG(vJvyG Ovtvgvzvy ?vp(vyzv}vyG ?vy9vJvyG ?vavSG(v< bvtvp GOOvJv|
q
.U9MyG &tI ~wJ< b9+Tzy ?ty9Lh
Zammuner, «Children’s Writing of Argumentative Texts: Effects of )155(

Indirect Instruction».
N. Kreml, «Relevance, Textual Unity, and Politeness in Writing about )156(

Science,» Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 53 (1992), and Greg Myers,
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no. 1 (1989).
Donna M. Johnson, «Compliments and Politeness in Peer-Review )157(

Texts,» Applied Linguistics, vol. 13 (1992), and D. M. Johnson and A. W. Yang,
«Politeness Strategies in Peer Reviews Texts,» in: Lawrence F. Bouton and
Yamuna Kachru, eds., Pragmatics and Language Learning: vol. 1 (Urbana, IL:
Division of English as an International Language, Intensive English Institute,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1990).
833
h<GQyG ~TtyG
ZTNT?I@9G qFXEQ9G
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,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG A9v }v zv fh ,Uv qv "v yG A9v }v zv fh ,f(v +v !9v Tv zv yG xv }v %v !G

.?vjvzvyG Uv*QOv@ ?v+vqv+vv d(vI IQv}vAvTv| IQvc9v"v| ,vp ,?v+v\9v}vyG O(vtvgvyG dG(v_
?v+vqv+vv #vf dG|vTvzvy ?v<(vFC O9vGv*E ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+v<QvAvyG ,vp EvJv=vyG dh9vI Ovsh
?vy(vqvavyG ,vp 9v%vy(vYC d;vL #v| ?vs(vav"v}vyGh ?v<(vAvwv}vyG ?vjvzvyG Qv*(vav@ Rv*Rvgv@
q
(Systems of {v v v+v v vDv v v}v v vAv v vzv v vy b9v v vTv v v!zv v vv 9v v v%v v v@Qv v vav v v+v v vS )v v vAv v vI IQv v vwv v v=v v v}v v vyG
)v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h #v *Qv L6G hv | {v YG(v Av yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < ,Representation)
J9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG LQvL {v]vqv<h .S9vTvI Gh Qv+vwvqvAvzvy ?v*QvavqvyG ?v=vsGQv}vyG
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k
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MIT Press, 1965).
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Hymes, On Communicative Competence. )2 (

John R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language )3(
(London: Cambridge University Press, 1969).
J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, )4 (
1962).
Michael Canale and Meril Swain, «Theoretical Bases of Communicative )5 (
Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing,» Applied Linguistics, vol.
1 (1980).
839
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Catherine E. Snow, «Issues in the Study of Input: Finetuning, :Qv v v v v v v v v dv v v v v v v v v !G )9(

Universality, Individual and Developmental Differences, and Necessary Causes,»
in: Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinney, eds., The Handbook of Child Language
(Oxford; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1995).
845
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M. A. K. Halliday: Learning How to Mean: Explorations in the )10(

Development of Language (London: Edward Arnold, 1975), and An Introduction to
Functional Grammar (London; Baltimore, MD: E. Arnold, 1985).
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Vygotskij, Myshlenie i rech’ = Thought and language. )11(
847
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Constance Weaver, Understanding Whole Language: From Principles to )12(

Practice, with Diane Stephens and Janet Vance (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
1990).
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Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in Social Context (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire];
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Development in Social Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
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Community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation.
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Pearson, ed., Handbook of Reading Research, 2 vols. (New York: Longman, 1984-
1991), vol. 2, Edited by Rebecca Barr [et al.].
Marie M. Clay, Becoming Literate: The Construction of Inner Control )18(
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1991).
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Courtney B. Cazden [et al.], Whole Language Plus: Essays on Literacy )19(
in the United States and New Zealand (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992).
Marilyn Jager Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning :Qv v dv v !G )20(
about Print (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).
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Judith A. Langer, ed., Literature Instruction: A Focus on Student )21(

Response (Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1992).
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Cathy Collins and John N. Mangieri, eds., Teaching Thinking: An )22(

Agenda for the Twenty-First Century (Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1992).
Carole Cox and James Zarrillo, Teaching Reading with Children’s :Qv vdv v!G )23(
Literature (New York: Merrill; Toronto: Maxwell Macmillan, 1993).
857
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Sociolinguistic Skills of Children.
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Peter Trudgill, «Standard and Non-Standard Dialects of English in the )25(

UK,» International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 21 (1979).
Jennifer Coates, Women, Men, and Language: A Sociolinguistic :Qv v v v dv v v v !G )26(
Account of Gender Differences in Language, 2nd ed. (London; New York:
Longman, 1993),
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British Journal of Sociology, vol. 11 (1960).
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William Labov, «The Study of Language in Its Social Context,» )29(

Stadium Cenerale, vol. 23 (1970).
Gordon Wells, Language Development in the Pre-School Years )30(
(Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
Classrooms.
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(Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1993).
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G. Lewis, «Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: The Ancient World to )1 (

the Renaissance,» in: Fishman, Bilingual Education: An International Sociological
Perspective.
Dorian, Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. )3 (
Joshua A. Fishman, Robert L. Cooper and Andrew W. Conrad, eds., )6 (
The Spread of English: The Sociology of English as an Additional Language
(Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1977).
868
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Joel Pearlmann, «Historical Legacies: 1840-1920,» The Annals of the )7 (

American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 508, no. 1 (1990).
Joshua A. Fishman, «Minority Language Maintenance and the Ethnic )8 (
Mother Tongue School,» Modern Language Journal, vol. 64, no. 2 (1980).
869
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C. Baker, «Bilingual Education in Wales,» in: Hugo Baetens )9 (

Beardsmore, ed., European Models of Bilingual Education (Clevedon [England];
M. Siguán, «Bilingual Edcation in Spain,» in: Christina Bratt Paulston, )10(
ed., International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education (New York:
Greenwood Press, 1988).
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B. P. Sibayan, «Becoming Bilingual in English in an Non-English )12(

Environment,» in: Ofelia Garcı́a, ed., Bilingual Education, Focusschrift in Honor
of Joshua A. Fishman on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday; 1 (Amsterdam;
K. K. Sridhar, «Bilingual Education in India,» in: Garcı́a, ed., Ibid. )13(
M. H. Abdulaziz, «Language in Education,» in: Garcı́a, ed., Ibid. )14(
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Cummins (1992). )15(

872
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k
bv Jv | f9v v ,9v Av s|v | (v yh #v +v 8v F;v yGh ,#v *Qv Gv %v }v yGh ,#v *Qv F9v %v }v yG #v *(v wv @
IOOv vgv vAv v}v vyG ?v vi;v v=v vyG ~v viQ ,#v vv9v v|}G ~v vdv vgv v| ,v vph .~v vy9v vgv vyG Qv v=v vf a;v vL
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,v@zv * ?v+vp9v\ G ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v +vF9v"vDvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< .(Additive Bilingualism)
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n
(Subtractive ?vavtvTv}vyG ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG 9v%v"v}v]vAv@ ?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvyG #v|
#v *(v wv @ ~v Av * ,?v av tv Tv }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG Y9v \hC ,v qv p ,Bilingualism)
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Ov +v I(v yG bv +v S(v yG ,v $ ?v +v !9v Dv yG ?v jv zv yG Kv =v Zv @h ,e}G ?v jv zv yG ,v p #v *(v wv Av yG
)v zv f xv yPv v d9v Jv *o h .)19(>v y9v av zv y IOv +v I(v yG ?v jv zv yG ,v y9v Av y9v <h #v *(v wv Av zv y
9v}v"v+v< ,?v*(vs 9v%v!zv< ?v+vp9v\ G ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ~vfOv@ ,vAvyG ?v*(v<QvAvyG Hv|GQv=vyG
.)20(?q+g\ 9%!z< ?atT}yG ?*(jzyG ?+F9"Dy9< eRAz@ ,AyG xz@ )zf d9J*o
?v+vp9v\ G d9vwvV}G RRvgv@ ?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvyG Bv!9vv GPE 9v| d(vIh
e9vdv"vyG {vgvGv@ ,vAvyG H9v=vS}9v< ?vav=v@Qv| ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG #v| ?vavtvTv}vyG hC
k
Michael Stubbs, «Educational Language Planning in :;v v v v v v vDv v v v v v v| ,Qv v v v v v vdv v v v v v v!G )18(
England and Wales: Multicultural Rhetoric and Assimilationist Assumptions,» in:
Florian Coulmas, ed., A Language Policy for the European Community: Prospects
and Quandaries (Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991)
.)}dgyG 9+!9a*Q< ]E ?=T"y9<
W. E. Lambert, «The Social Psychology of Language,» in: Giles, )19(
Robinson and Smith, eds., Language: Social Psychological Perspectives.
Colin Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism )20(
(Clevedon; Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters, 1993).
874
k
?v+v=vzvi}9v< ?vY9vMvyG ?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvyG .9vgv| #v+vAvjvzvyG {v}vgvAvTv* j(v<QvAvyG
xvzv@ Q(vav@ 9v}v"v+v< ,?v+vp9v\E ?v*(vjvy ?v+vF9v"vC f9v+vI}G >vy9vi ,vp j(vtv@ ?v*(vjvzvyG
q
dOvAvSG 9v}vvh ,,vy9vAvy9v<h .?vavtvTv| ?v*(vjvy ?v+vF9v"vC ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vzvs}9v< ?vtvzvgvAv}vyG
hv | ?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG f(v wv @ fC #v wv }v * ,)21(f9v }v Wv +v p xv yP )v zv f
Ih;vf ,?v+vzvs}G )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< IOv+vqv| ?v+vp9v\ G ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG aGOv%vAvSG
.?+=zi}G )zf
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.(Pluralism) ?*OOgAyGh ,~$9qAyGh ,O*GRA}yG ,}y9gyG
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,vp #v+vAvjvy d9v}vgvAvSG 9v%v!C )vzvf ?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvzvy ,vzvY}G 9v"vqv*Qvgv@ Ovgv<h
Hv|GQv=vyG ,xvyPvv ,{v}vWv+vy y?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvyGz KvzvavZv| hvS(v@ ,?v+v<QvAvyG
q
f(vwv* 9v|Ov"vf )vAvI ,?v+vzvs}G ?vjvy ,v}vzvwvAv| fhOvgv* #v*PvyG ?v=vzvavzvy ?v+v"v*(vwvAvyG
#v | IQv +v =v v ?v tv =v _ )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v <h ,~q v C #v |h .)24(?v jv zv yG jO9v IC #v *(v wv Av yG
Fishman, Bilingual Education: An International Sociological Perspective. )21(

C. A. Ferguson, C. Houghton and M. H. Wells, «Bilingual Education: )22(
An International Perspective,» in: Bernard Spolsky and Robert L. Cooper, eds.,
Frontiers of Bilingual Education (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1977).
Richard Otheguy, «Thinking about Bilingual Education: A Critical )23(
Appraisal,» Harvard Educational Review, vol. 52, no. 3 (1982), and Courtney B.
Cazden and Catherine E. Snow, eds., English Plus: Issues in Bilingual Education
(London: Sage Publications, 1990).
N. H. Hornberger, «Extending Enrichment Bilingual Education: )24(
Revisiting Typologies and Redirecting Policy,» in: Garcı́a, ed., Bilingual
Education.
875
k
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q o
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.?+Tq!h
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?v =v sGQv |h hv SGh (Metalinguistic) j(v jv y9v Av +v | ,v fhh ,)25(GOvF >v gv Wv Av |h
.)27(IOv*GRvAv}vyG ?v+vzvYG(vAvyG ?v+vS9vTvJvyGh ,)26(?v+v!9vTvzvyG JGQhQv+vTvzvy ?v+vpQvgv|
xvzv}v@ fC >vGv* ,?v+vpQvgv}vyG J9v+v<9vGv* G gPv$ >vTvv ,vp ?v=viQh ,#vwvyh
k
.9vgv| #v+vAvjvzvyG ,vp IQOvtvzvy >vS9v"v}vyG v v #q vTvyG J9v*(vAvTv| ?v*(vjvzvyG J9v+vF9v"vDvyG
(Skutnabb-Kangas)
)28(
S9v v v v vjv v v v v!9v v v v vv v v H9v v v v v"v v v v v@(v v v v vwv v v v vS MQv v v v vAv v v v vsG Ov v v v vsh
Liam Hudson, Frames of Mind: Ability, Perception and Self-Perception )25(

in the Arts and Sciences (London: Methuen, 1968).
E. Bialystok, «Influences of Bilingualism on Metalinguistic )26(
Development,» Second Language Research, vol. 3 (1987), and Sylvia Joseph
Galambos and Kenji Hakuta, «Subject-Specific and Task-Specific Characteristics
of Metalinguistic Awareness in Bilingual Children,» Applied Psycholinguisticsm
vol. 9, no. 2 (June 1988).
F. Genesee, G. R. Tucker and W. E. Lambert, «Communication Skills )27(
of Bilingual Children,» Child Development, vol. 46 (1975).
Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, «Language in the Process of Cultural )28(
Assimilation and Structural Incorporation of Linguistic Minorities,» in: Claes-
= Christian Elert [et al.], eds., Dialectology and Sociolinguistics: Essays in Honor of
876
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#v wv yh .d9v qv _~v y ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG )v zv f ?v +v =v zv S Hv F9v Av ! 9v %v y f(v wv @ : ?v }v C
.?+<9G*E ?+pQg| {F9]p 9%y f(w@ fC ,p ?=iQ ?g_9tA| ?+!9DyG ?=AgyG
?v +v F9v "v Dv yG jO|v @ fC #v wv }v * ,?v +v pQv gv }v yG J9v +v <9v Gv * G )v yE ?v p9v \ 9v <h

#v v+v v< Qv v+v v=v vv ~v v$9v vqv v@ )v vyE ?v v<9v vAv vwv vyGh IAGQv vtv vy9v v< ?v vpQv vgv v}v vyG ?v v+v vF9v v"v vCh ?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG
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Rh9vGvAv@ ,?vp9vtvDvyG IOOvgvAv| ?vJv+vJvY ?v+v<Qv@ ?vtv+vtvJvyG ,vp ,v$ ?vjvzvyG IOOvgvAv}vyGh
,v $h ,?v +v y9v I ?v zv +v Sh S9v "v yG Kv "v }v Av y ?v +v <9v Gv * G Uv +v S9v I}G #v f Qv +v =v gv Av yG
?v +v <Qv Av yG JRh9v Gv @ Ov tv y .#v *Qv +v =v v ~v $9v qv @h ?v pQv gv | uv zv Mv y ,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG
?v <Q9v Jv }v y ?v jv zv yG {v }v gv Av Tv @ 9v %v !} ?v p9v tv Dv yG IOOv gv Av }v yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG ?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG
Bv!9vwvp ,?v*(vjvzvyG J9vf(v}vGv}vyG rvzvAvMv| #v+v< IGh9vTv}vyG eOvfh ?v*QvZv"vgvyG
?v +v <Qv Av yG ?v vQv I {v LGO ?v "v }v v ]v Av | ,)v "v gv }v yG GPv %v < ,?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG
.)30(?*QZ"gzy IO9]}yG
?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvzvy ?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ?v+vpQvgv}vyG J9v+v<9vGv* G )vyE ?vp9v\ 9v<h
Karl-Hampus Dahlstedt 19 April 1977, Umeå Studies in the Humanities; 12 (Umeå: =

[Umeå Univ.-Bibl.], 1977).
Jim Cummins, «The Role of Primary Language Development in )29(
Promoting Edcational Success for Language Minority Students,» in: Schooling and
Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework, Developed by Office of
Bilingual Bicultural Education, California State Department of Education (Los
Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, California State
University, Los Angeles, [1981]).
Jim Cummins, «From Multicultural to Anti-Racist Education: An )30(
Analysis of Programmes and Policies in Ontario,» in: Tove Skutnabb-Kangas and
Jim Cummins, eds., Minority Education: From Shame to Struggle (Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters, 1988).
877
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k
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GPv%v< ?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vDvyG ?v+v<QvAvyG Ovgv@h .)31(?v*(vjvzvyG J9v+vzvs~vy j(v<QvAvyG {vWvqvzvy
,?v SQOv }v yG ?v p9v tv Ch Bv +v =v yG ?v jv y L9v |OE d(v Mv @ ?v +v F(v iGOv +v < ?v *(v tv @ )v "v gv }v yG
L9v%v"v}vyG Qv*(vav@h ,~v+v+vtvAvyG ,vp Bv+v=vyG ?vjvy d9v}vgvAvSGh ,IQv+vWvgvyG ?vvQ9vWv|h
.)32(dO9=A}yG ,zf9qAyG
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Cummins, «The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting )31(

Edcational Success for Language Minority Students,» in: Schooling and Language
Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework.
Jim Cummins, «Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for )32(
Intervention,» Harvard Education Review, vol. 56, no. 1 (1986).
Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. :#f )33(
878
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.&Tq! QOZCG )34(
879
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Hornberger, «Extending Enrichment Bilingual Education: Revisiting )35(

Typologies and Redirecting Policy,» in: Garcı́a, ed., Bilingual Education.
881
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Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, «Multilingualism and the Education of )36(

Minority Students,» in: Skutnabb-Kangas and Cummins, eds., Minority
Education: From Shame to Struggle.
882
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Ofelia Garcı́a, «Understanding the Societal Role of the Teacher in )37(

Transitional Bilingual Education Classrooms: Lessons from Sociology of
Language,» in: Koen Zondag, ed., Bilingual Education in Friesland: Facts and
Prospects (Leeuwarden: Gemeenschappelijk Centrum voor Onderwijsbegeleiding
in Friesland, 1993).
883
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Cummins (1992). )38(

Ofelia Garcı́a, «The Education of Biliterate and Bicultural Children in )39(
Ethnic Schools in the United States,» Essays by the Spencer Fellows of the
National Academy of Education, vol. IV (1988), and Fishman, «Language Spread
and Language Policy for Endangered Languages,» in: Lowenberg, ed., Language
Spread and Language Policy: Issues, Implications, and Case Studies.
887
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q
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J. M. Artigal, «Catalan and Basque Immersion Programs,» in: Baetens )40(

Beardsmore, ed., European Models of Bilingual Education.
G. Jones, P. Martin and A. C. K. Ozóg, «Multilingualism and )41(

Bilingual Education in Brunei Darussalam,» in: Gary M. Jones and A. Conrad K.
Ozóg, eds., Bilingualism and National Development (Clevedon [England];
888
.(Luxembourg) )42(
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k k
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k k v o
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H. Baetens-Beardsmore and N. Lebrun, «Trilingual Education in the )42(

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg,» in: Garcı́a, ed., Bilingual Education.
H. Baetens-Beardsmore, «The European School Model,» in: Baetens )43(

Beardsmore, ed., European Models of Bilingual Education.
889
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Tove Skutnabb-Kangas and Ofelia Garcı́a, «Multilingualism for All? )44(

General Principles,» in: Skutnabb-Kangas and Cummins, eds., Minority
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Edcational Success for Language Minority Students,» in: Schooling and Language
Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework.
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Commission on College and University Legal Studies, 1994).
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N. Levi and Anne Graffam Walker, eds., Language in the Judicial Process (New
York; London: Plenum Press, 1990), and Language and Law: A Bibliographic
Guide to Social Science Research in the U.S.A.
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Judicial Settings; Paul Drew, «Strategies in the Contest between Lawyer and
Witness in Cross-Examination,» in: Levi and Walker, eds., Language in the
Judicial Process, and Gregory M. Matoesian, Reproducing Rape: Domination
through Talk in the Courtroom (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
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Susan Berk-Seligson, «Bilingual Court Proceedings: The Role of the )7 (
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Bethany K. Dumas, «Voice Identification in a :;v vDv v| Qv vdv v!G .AGQv v=v vBG {v v=v vs #v v| Y9v v= 9v v<
Criminal Law Context,» American Speech, vol. 65, no. 4 (1990), and Harry
Hollien, The Acoustics of Crime: The New Science of Forensic Phonetics (New
York: Plenum Press, 1990).
Sh. Ash, «Speaker Identification in Sociolinguistics and Criminal Law,» )16(
in: Kathleen Ferrara, [et al.], eds., Linguistic Change & Contact: Proceedings of the
Sixteenth Annual Conference on New Ways of Analyzing Variation, Texas
Linguistics Forum; 30 (Austin, TX: University of Texas, Dept. of Linguistics,
[1988]).
William Labov, «The Judicial Testing of Linguistic Theory,» in: Deborah )17(
Tannen, ed., Linguistics in Context: Connecting Observation and Understanding
(Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988);
W. Labov and W. A. Harris, «Addresing Social Issues through :fQ9v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v s
Linguistic Evidence,» in:, Gibbons, ed., Language and the Law.
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Milroy, «Sociolinguistic Methodology and the Identification of :Qv v v v dv v v v !G )18(

Speakers’ Voices in Legal Proceedings,» in: Trudgill, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics.
913
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Center for Applied Linguistics, The Ann Arbor Decision: Memorandum )19(
Opinion and Order & the Educational Plan (Arlington, VA: Center for Applied
Linguistics, [n. d.]); Crawford, ed., Language Loyalties: A Source Book on the
Official English Controversy, pp. 255-257, and Labov, «Objectivity and
Commitment in Linguistic Science: The Case of the Black English Trial in Ann
Arbor».
914
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?v SGQO Qv Wv f ,v Av "v C:G d;v L #v | Q(v Wv "v }v yG Ev Jv =v yG Ov gv *h y#v *Q(v %v Wv }v yGh
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Roger W. Shuy, «Evidence of Cooperation in Conversation: Topic- )20(

Type in a Solicitation to Murder Case,» in: Robert W. Rieber and William A.
= Stewart, eds., The Language Scientist as Expert in the Legal Setting: Issues in
916
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:#+A+S9SC #+A+]s &+F(Ay ?F9I c9"$ ,j(V 9%y O%| ,AyG {+GTAyG
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#v v*hOv vAv v< e9v vs [v vMv vV jC aQv vgv v* 9v v}v vvh .?v v_(v v=v v]v v| (Transcriptions)
Y9v}vS f9v+vI}G ~vdvgv| ,vp {v+vJvAvTv}vyG #v| f(vwv* ,{v+vGvTvAvyG ?vyB ?vCO9vJv|
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J9v "v *hOv @ )C( Q(v av Tv yG {v Dv }v @ ,&v zv qv SC #v +v Av y9v Jv yG 9v Av zv v ,v ph .aQv Av Jv }v yG
9v%v< Bv|9vs ,vAvyG J9v"v*hOvAvyG )H( Q(vavTvyG {vDv}v@ 9v}v"v+v< ,?v+vyGQOvqvyG ?v_QvWvyG
ahQv Jv yG Uv !Qv < {v }v gv Av Tv @ ,?v Y9v Mv yG 9v %v @9v "v *hOv @ ,v ph .9v %v Tv qv ! Uv !Qv <
S9v tv }v yG Bv }v Zv yG )v yE Qv +v Wv @h (Heavy) {v +v tv Dv yG Qv =v "v yG ~v S(v y ?v +q v Tv +v FQv yG
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.,F9%"yG &+zf )fO}yGh aO%yG )D( eh ,(Tape Carrier) b*QWyG
Forensic Linguistics, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences; v. 606 (New =
York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1990).
d9v gv pC Qv dv ! ?v %v Fh #v | ?v zv |9v V ?v +v qv +v wv < 9v %v Av SGQO xv yPv v Bv E ?v *(v jv zv yG ~v FGQv @G ^v gv < )21(
n
Peter Meijes Tiersma, :HP9v wv yG ~v Tn v tv zv y (Tiersma) 9v }v SQv ++v @ J9v @9v gv | ,v p 9v }v v ,e;v wv yG
«The Language of Perjury: «Literal Truth,» Ambiguity, and the False Statement
Requirement,» Southern California Law Review, vol. 63 (1990),
(Peter Meijes Tiersma, «The Language of Defamation,» Texas Law AGQv v vAv v vp:Gh
Review, vol. 66, no. 2 (1987)).
E. F. Prince, «On the Use of Social Conversation as Evidence in a )22(
Court of Law,» in: Levi and Walker, eds., Language in the Judicial Process.
917
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A. G. Walker, «Languages at Work in the Law: The Customs, )23(

Conventions, and Appellate Consequences of Court Reporting,» in: Levi and
Walker, eds., Language in the Judicial Process.
Shuy, «Evidence of Cooperation in Conversation: Topic-Type in a )24(
Solicitation to Murder Case,» in: Rieber and Stewart, eds., The Language Scientist
as Expert in the Legal Setting: Issues in Forensic Linguistics.
919
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(St Francis of ,v Tv +v SC Uv +v Tv !GQv p YQ9v Vh (Heathrow) hQv Dv +v $ Q9v av }v v
Qv+v <9v gv Av yh Qv F9v }v ]v zv y e9v gv yG i(v Av Jv }v yG {v Av Jv * fQ9v tv | (v Jv ! )v zv fh ,Assisi)
Grice, «Logic and Conversation,» in: Cole and Morgan, eds., Syntax )25(
and Semantics. 3, Speech Acts.
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?v 8v +v $ )v zv f Qv +v Tv gv yG #v |h .?v +v \h9v qv Av yG ?v CO9v Jv }v yG hC (Agenda) {v }v gv yG
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?v vsQ9v vqv v| f(v v+v v!9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vTv vyG &v vFG(v v* ,fhQv v*o : 9v v|Ov v"v vfh fhQv v *o 9v v|Ov v"v vf
S9v "v yG {v }v gv Av Tv * rv +v v ?v dv I;v | (v $ 9v "v pOv $z :(Observer) )26(>v sGQv }v yG
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Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, [1973], p. 61. )26(
921
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eOv vtv v* JGQ9v v+v vAv vL:G gPv v$ #v v+v v< #v v| [v vMv vWv vyG gQ9v vAv vMv v* jPv vyG uv v*Qv vav vyGz
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9v%vzv}vgvAvSGh ,9v%v<Pv$h J9v+v"vtvAvyG gPv$ j(vV Q(v_ Ovtvy .y~v%vpGOv$C R9vGv!
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Green (1990), and Prince, «On the Use of Social :xv v v yPv v v v Qv v v dv v v !G #v v v wv v v y )27(
Conversation as Evidence in a Court of Law,» in: Levi and Walker, eds.,
Language in the Judicial Process.
Shuy, «Evidence of Cooperation in Conversation: Topic-Type in a )28(
Solicitation to Murder Case,» in: Rieber and Stewart, eds., The Language Scientist
as Expert in the Legal Setting: Issues in Forensic Linguistics, p. 87.
922
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.?pQJ}yG
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b;L}G ~zfh f(*(jzyG AGQ=MyG v v 1.4

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c(vzvTvyG ?v!9v+vY )vzvf IOvf9vTv}vzvy {vF:O ~v*Ovtv@h e9vdv"vyG GPv$ ,vp ?vvQ9vWv}vyG
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fhQ9vWvAvTv|h f(v|9vJv| ~v%v!C )vzvf ~v%v+vyE Qvdv"v*o fC ,vjv=v"v* YGRv"vyG ,vpQv_ ;vv
?v }v wv Jv }v yG ~v $(v fOv @ #v *Pv yG bv tv p ~v $ ,iQv * 9v }v v ,yAGQv =v Mv yGz .fh(v fOv |
J. K. Chambers, «Forensic Dialectology and the Bear Island :{v v v v v v v v Dv v v v v v v v | )29(

Land Claim»; Harry Hollien, «The Phonetician as an Expert Witness: Ethics and
Responsibility,» In: Rieber and Stewart, eds., The Language Scientist as Expert in
the Legal Setting: Issues in Forensic Linguistics, and Edward Finegan, «Ethical
Considerations for Expert Witnesses in Forensic Linguistics,» Issues in Applied
Linguistics, vol. 4, no. 2 (December 1993).
Hollien, Ibid. )30(
923
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gPv $ Ov IC .?v Y9v Mv yG ~v %v @9v p9v tv Dv y ?v +v F9v ]v tv yG ?v }v dv !}G )v yE ~v %v !GPBh ~v %v "v +v fC
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Chambers, «Forensic Dialectology and the Bear Island Land Claim,» )31(
in: Rieber and Stewart, eds., Ibid.
Finegan, «Ethical Considerations for Expert Witnesses in Forensic )32(
Linguistics».
John M. Conley and William M. O’Barr, Rules versus Relationships: )33(
The Ethnography of Legal Discourse (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1990), and William M. O’Barr and John M. Conley, «Litigant Satisfaction versus
Legal Adequacy in Small Claims Court Narratives,» in: Levi and Walker, eds.,
Language in the Judicial Process.
924
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Observing & Analysing Natural Language: A Critical Account of Sociolinguistic
Method; Fishman, Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction; Labov, Sociolinguistic
Patterns, [1973],
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Bilingualism,» Revised and Reprinted as: «Social Bilingualism: Stable and
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Issues, vol. 23, no. 2 (1967).
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bv<G(v\ ~vS9vtvAv@ ,v AvyG ?v+vfQv qv yG J9v f(v }vGv}v zv y >vvQv| hv +v }vGv @ ,v $ IOvtv gv }vyG
k k
f(vwv@ 9vgv| ?vzvY9vph IOvIq (v| I(vs ,v$ ,vAvyG ?vjvzvy9vp ,IOvf9v=vAv| 9v!9v+vICh ?vqvzvAvMv|
k k
;v ]v p .)14(?v +v "v _(v yGh )13(j(v jv zv yG U;v L 9v < Uv +v S9v I}G gPv $ )v zv f 9v Dv f9v <
,vAvyG ,v$ hv}vAvGv}vyG {vLGO ?vzv|9vgvyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G i(vtvyG gPv$ Uvqv! ,xvyP #vf
k
9v +v !9v Tv y ,j(v jv zv yG d(v Jv Av yG Q9v =v Av f:G #v +v gv < Pv Lzv @h {v =v tv Av Tv }v zv y &v F(v Av yG hv ]v @
k k k
9v%v!C )vzvf ?vjvzvyG Q(vZv@ ,vjv=v"v* &v!C ,GPE >vGvgvyG #v| Uv+vy .9vgv| 9v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vSh
#vwv}v* ,QO9vZv}vyG #v| iQvL}G W9v}v!}G ,vs9v=vv ,vAvyGh ,)15(,vgv}vAvGv| QOvZv|
v n o
GPv %v < ,j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yGh .?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG aGOv $}G uv +v tv Jv Av y {v wv Wv @ fC
Fishman, Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction, p. 28. )11(

:D9vgvyG A9vFQC ,vp ?vzv}vgvAvTv| ?vqvzvAvJ ?vjvy 6,170 H ?vJvF: Bv|Ovs Rv}v*Qvjvy 1988 ?vgv=v_ )12(
Barbara F. Grimes, ed., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 11th ed. (Dallas,
TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1988).
P. Garvin, «Some Comments on Language Planning,» in: Joan Rubin )13(
[and] Roger Shuy, eds., Language Planning: Current Issues and Research
(Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, [1973]), p. 27.
Joshua A. Fishman: Language and Nationalism: Two Integrative Essays )14(
(Rowley, MA: Newbury House, [1972]), part I: The Nature of Nationalism;
Reproduced in: Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective
(Clevedon, GB; Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters, 1989).
Björn H. Jernudd and Jyotirindra Das Gupta, «Towards a Theory of )15(
Language Planning,» in: Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?:
Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for Developing Nations.
931
k
?vjvzvyG ,vp Qv+vCzvAvyG )vyE aOv%v* ?vjvzvyG ,vp ;v=vtvAvTv| &vF(v| {vLOv@ (v$ ,)v"vgv}vyG
ShQOv| Q9v+vAvLG c9v"v$ f(vwv* fC >vGv* rv*QvgvAvyG d;vL #v| .)16(9v%vy9v}vgvAvSGh
q
IQv +v Wv gv zv y Q(v av Av }v yG ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG &v F(v Av yG Ov v|v *h ~v fOv * fC #v wv }v * YGhh
rv +v wv < uv zv gv Av }v yG dG|v Tv yG {v dv * ,xv yP ~v iQh .9v %v av =v ]v y b(v Av * hC ,?v *(v jv zv yG
k
gPv$ ,vp YhQvWvyG Ov*Qv* #v| .9v}vF9vs j(vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvS;vyh ?vjvzvy bv+vavMvAvyG #vwv}v*
??jzyG b+aM@ O*OJAy9< ,"g* GP9|h ?IQ|9j}yG
e(%q}yG Q(a@ v v 2
?*Q9+g}yG ?<Q9t}yG v v 1.2

9v |Ov "v f 1959 ?v "v S ,?v SGQOv zv y Y(v \(v }v v ,j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG Qv %v c
&v zv +v zv Jv @ )v zv f ,v "v =v }v yG )18(Kv zv av Zv }v zv y &v qv *Qv gv @ (Haugen) )17(#v i(v $ eOv s
o
?v jv zv yG Ev +v =v Av @h ,Rv *Rv gv @h ,Ev *Ov Jv Av y Hv *hQv "v yG ,v p Q(v _ jPv yG O(v %v Gv }v zv y
k
uvzvgvAv| W9vWv! &v!C )vzvf GPE j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG )vyE Qvdv"v*o f9vv .y?v+v"v_(vyGz
k
,y?v*Q9v+vgv}vyG ?v<9vAvwvyG OGOvfEz ,vp #vwv}v* :?vjvzvy ?v+vzvLGOvyG Qv$9vdv}vy9v< 9vS9vSC
?v*(v jv zv yG IQv +v Wvgv yG ,v p #v +v}v zvwv Av}v yGh H9v Av wvyG &v+v F(vAv y ~v Gvgv }vyGh ,(v Jv "v yGh
v v v< ?v av =v @Qv }v yG {v v9v Wv }v yG ~v +v dv "v @ )v yE aOv %v * (v $h .)19(y?v Tv !9v Gv Av }v yG Qv +v iz
Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Ibid., p. xvi. )16(

Einar Ingvald Haugen, «Planning for a Standard Language in Modern )17(
Norway,» Anthropological Linguistics, vol. 1 (1959). Reproduced in: Joshua A.
Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language (The Hague; Paris: Mouton,
1968).
Carol M. Eastman, :Qvdv!G ,j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG ?vSGQO Q(vav@ Q(vZv@ ]E ?v=vTv"vy9v< )18(
Language Planning: An Introduction (San Francisco, CA: Chandler & Sharp,
1983), pp. 105-131.
Haugen, Ibid., p. 673. )19(
932
k
.)20(yGOv"vTv| f(vwv* fC ,v=vTv"vyG 9v%vgv\h L9vAvJv* ?vTvp9v"vAv| bv<G(v\ O(vFhz
?v<9vAvwvyG Qv=vf ~v+v$9vqv}vyG Qv*(vavAvy Q9vwvp~vy y?v*(vjvzvyG {vv9vWv}vyGz &vF(vAvS :Eh
?v v }v v %v v }v v yG Bv v !9v v v .)21(yEv v *Ov v Jv v Av v yGzh ,yIQv v +v v gv v }v v yGzh ,(Graphization)
J9vjv zv y ,v f9v }vAvF:G {v }vgvyG {v LGO ,#v}vwv @ j(v jvzvyG bvav Mv}vzv y ?v +vS9v S}G
k
#v+vTvJv@h bv=v\z )vyE 9vpO9v$ ,J;vLOvAvyG W9v}v!C Q9v+vAvLG ,vp ,?vTvp9v"vAv}vyG
?v vQv Av Wv | ?v +v yhOh ?v +v "v _hh ?v *(v %v F J9v jv y uv zv L hC IO(v F(v }v yG J9v jv zv yG
k
9v}vv yIQv+vgv}vyGz IQhQv+vS #v| 9v=v*Qvs 9v%vAv|Qv< IQhQv+vTvyG ~v%vp f9vv .)22(yIOv*OvF
.)24(,y(_h (Weinreich) )23(X*Q"*9p 9$OOI
e(%q}zy ?+f9}AF:G J9!(w}yG v v 2.2

q
bv=v]vzvy IQhQv+vSz &v!C )vzvf IQv| {vv ,vp j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvzvy Qvdv"v*o f9vv
k
?v=vTv"vy9v< ,#vwvyh .)25(y9v+vfh {vs}G hC QvDvv}G ?vjvzvy bvavMv}vyGh RvvQv}vAv}vyG
yjQh9vWvAvyGz O(v%vGv}vyG ,vp ,xvyP )vzvf Ih;vf ,#v}vwv* Ovs ,#vi(v$ )vyE
k
)v zv f ~v F9v s {v LOv Av yG GPv $h ,?v jv zv yG {v =v tv Av Tv | ,v p {v LOv Av zv y 9v ]v *C ,v fG(v yGh
Haugen, «The Implementation of Corpus Planning: Theory and )20(

Practice,» in: Cobarrubias and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning:
International Perspectives, p. 270.
Charles A. Ferguson, «Language Development,» in: Fishman, )21(
Ferguson [and] Das Gupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations.
Valter Tauli, Introduction to a Theory of Language Planning, Acta )22(
Universitatis Upsaliensis. Studia philologiae Scandinavicae Upsaliensia; 6
(Uppsala: Almqvist och Wiksell, 1968), p. 27.
Uriel Weinreich, «Is a Structural Dialectology Possible,» Word, vol. 10 )23(
(1954). Reproduced in: Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, p.
314.
Tauli, Ibid., p. 27. )24(
Weinreich, Ibid. Reproduced in: Fishman, ed., Ibid. )25(
933
q
IQhQv+vTvyG >vzvavAv@ ,xvyP )vyE ?vp9v\E .)26(y,v\9v}vy9v< ?vtvzvgvAv}vyG ?vpQvgv}vyGz
k
j(v jv zv yG d(v Jv Av yG ?v %v Fh U(v Zv Mv < ,#v +v av av Mv }v yG {v =v s #v | GQGQv s 9v %v Av |Qv <
,yQ9v+vgv}vyG ?vjvzvyGz ,v$ Bv!9vv ?v+v F9v%v"vyG ?vGv+vAv"vyG fC 9v}v<h .9v%v+vp H(viQv}vyG
,v !9v Tv zv yG L(v Av "v }v yG GPv %v y ?v +v f9v }v Av F:G J9v !(v wv }v yG )v zv f Y;v _G c9v "v $ f9v v
?v +v qv +v wv < #v +v }v fOv | #v *Qv %v dv }v yz hv *O(v @ &v !C )v zv f )27(#v i(v $ &v qv Yh jPv yG
JGP ?v Gv %v zv yGh ,)v yhC ?v %v F #v | ?v |9v f ?v qv Zv < ?v y(v =v tv }v yG ?v <9v Av wv yG ,?v yO9v =v Av |
.iQLC ?%F #| y,f9}AF:G M(}ayG u*Q_ #f IOzt}yG I(dJyG
{v}vWv+vy j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG e(v%vqv| >v*Pv%v@ ~q v@ ,#v+vJvyG xvyP Pv"v|h

?v *O9v Zv Av s:Gh ?v +v S9v +v Tv yGh ,?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yGh ?v +v !9v Tv zv yG Qv $9v dv }v yG #v | ;v v
q
.)28(h}AG}yG ,p ?jzyG L9|O{< ?tzgA}yG
,f9}AF:G b+aMAyG ?<Q9t|h Q+<OAyG v v 3.2

bv +v av Mv Av yG ?v <Q9v tv | )v yE A9v }v zv gv yG ^v gv =v < Rv +v Jv zv y hv +v S(v Av yG GPv $ iOC
9v%v!C )vzvf ?vjvzvy Qvdv"v*h .e9vgvyG ,vf9v}vAvF:G bv+vavMvAvyG Q9v_E {vLGO j(vjvzvyG
yQGQvtvyG hv"vYo z IQhQv+vS &v!C )vzvf j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyGh ,y,vgv}vAvGv| QOvZv|z
q
Qv v %v v dv v | ,v v vp hC ,)29(y?v v *(v v jv v zv v vyG {v v vv9v v Wv v }v v yGz {v v vI )v v vyE )v v vgv v vTv v v@ ,v v vAv v vyG
Haugen, «Planning for a Standard Language in Modern Norway». )26(

Reproduced in: Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, p. 674.
.&Tq! QOZCG )27(
Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?: :,v v v v v v v v v v v p 9v v v v v v v v v v v }v v v v v v v v v v v v )28(
Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for Developing Nations; Brian Weinstein,
«Language Planning in Francophone Africa,» Language Problems and Language
Planning, vol. 4, no. 1 (1980), and Brian Weinstein, ed., Language Policy and
Political Development (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1990).
Jernudd and Das Gupta, «Towards a Theory of Language Planning,» )29(
in: Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Ibid., p. 211.
934
GPv $ iOC Ov sh .)30(y?v +v vzv YG(v Av vyG {v v9v Wv }v vyGzh ,,v p9v \E ,v v!9v Tv y(v v+v vS(v vS
J9v S9v +v Tv vy9v v< uv vzv vgv Av v* 9v v| ,v vp ?v *Qv v+v <Ov v@ Qv vdv v! ?v v%v vFh ,v "v v=v @ )v vyE ^v vgv =v y9v <
.)32(jO9ZAsG(+S(S Q(d"| #| 9%z+zJ@h )31(?*(jzyG
#v+vgv< j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG J9vSGQO PvLzv@ ,J9v|9v}vAv$:G gPv$ >v!9vGv<h

{v }v f Qv *(v av @ )v zv f IOv f9v Tv }v yG )33(?v +v gv }v Av Gv }v yG ?v *(v jv zv yG ?v *OOv gv Av yG Q9v =v Av f:G
,9v%vy(vJv@h ?vjvzvyG ?v!9v+vZvv ?v+v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG ~v+v$9vqv}vyG gPv$ {vDv}vp ,,vzv+vzvJv@
,?v +v |(v tv yGh ,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v +v FGhOR:Gh ?v *(v jv zv yG J9v +v zv s}Gh ,?v *(v jv zv yG ?v "v }v +v %v yG
.)34(QvDvvzvp QvDvvC j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG A9v}vzvf e9v}vAv$G Qv+vDvAvS ,?v+v"vC Gh ?v+v"v_(vyGh
~q v@ Ovsh .j(vjvzvyG c(vzvTvzvy ?v+vTvqv!(v+vS(vTvyG Qv$9vdv}vyG )vzvf Ov*OvWvAvyG ~q v@ Ovsh
d9v}vgvAvS:Gh ?vjvzvyG ,vp ,v"v}v\ e9v$ {v|9vf 9v%v!C )vzvf rvsG(v}vyG )vyE Qvdv"vyG
bv +v av Mv Av yG Kv =v Zv * xv yPv y .)35(9v %v y(v Jv @h ?v jv zv yG Q9v Wv Av !Gh ,,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG
k k
.J9+!9Ty(+S(Tzy ;}w| GARF j(jzyG
Weinstein, «Language Planning in Francophone Africa». )30(

Jernudd and Das Gupta, Ibid. )31(
T. Thorburn, «Cost-Benefit Analysis in Language Planning,» in: Rubin )32(
and Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?: Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice
for Developing Nations; Björn H. Jernudd, «Notes on Economic Analysis for
Solving Language Problems,» in: Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Ibid., and François
Grin, «Towards a Threshold Theory of Minority Language Survival,» Kyklos, vol.
45, no. 1 (1992).
Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, and Fishman, )33(
Ferguson [and] Das Gupta, eds., Language Problems of Developing Nations.
Fishman, Language and Nationalism: Two Integrative Essays. )34(
Lambert, «A Social Psychology of Bilingualism»; Robert Cooper and )35(
Joshua A. Fishman, «The Study of Language Attitudes,» Linguistics: An
International Review, vol. 15 (1974); Giles, ed., Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup
Relations, and Cooper, Language Spread: Studies in Diffusion and Social Change.
935
j(jzyG b+aMAyG J9!(w| v v 3
,vS9vS}G aOv%vyG (v$ ?vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvSGh ?vjvzvyG ,vp d(vJvAvyG f9vv GPE
f(vwv@ ?v+v!9vTvzvyG JGQv+vjvAv}vyG fC ~viQv< ,Kv\G(vyG #v}vp ,bv+vavMvAvyG IQhQv+vTvy
JGQv +vjv Av }vy9v< 9v $Rv +v qv Jv @ ~v Av * 9v $Pv +v qv "v @h ?vjv zv yG bv +v avMv @ JGQGQv s fC ,IQv C|v|
.)36(?jzyG ?*O9I}G
&pGO$Ch j(jzyG b+aMAyG {v9W| v v 1.3

,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG hv\(vzvy ?v*DQ j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvzvy ?vS9v+vS Qv<Ov@ >vzvavAv*
q
{v+v8v\ O(v%vGv}v< e9v+vtvyG ~q v@ f6G )vAvI .OOvJv*o fC ,vjv=v"v* jPvyG ,vzv=vtvAvTv}vyG
J9vS9v+vS hOv=v@h .I(vFQv}vyG aGOv$}G Ov*OvJv@ ?vyh9vJv| ,vp ?v8vF9vqv| ?v+vqv+vwv<
IQvAvp hv=vAv* dm9v@ Qv+vwvqvAvv Q(vavAv@ 9v%v!C f9v+vI}G ^vgv< ,vp j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG
9v|Ov"vf hC 9v%vy;vtvAvSG ?vyhOvyG d9v"v@ 9v|Ov"vf ~vAv* 9v}vv ,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vS HGQvav\G
k
1814 ?v "v S 9v %v y;v tv Av SG Bv y9v ! ,;v Dv | Hv *hQv "v y9v p ,,v S9v +v Tv yG HRv Jv yG eRv %v *
)vzvf Ih;vfh .?v+vGv*hQv"vyG ?vjvzvy9v< ~vAv@ a(vS ?v*:(vyG d9v}vfC fC BvIQvYh
q
Y(v"v@ jzv< uvzvgvAv* 9v| ,vp QvV|v| jC eOvtv*o ~vy ,J9v+v"v+v!9v}vDvyG )vAvI ,xvyP
.&y9}gASG ~A+S ?+G*hQ"zy ,!9Ty
k
{vv9vWv}vyGz {vJvy ?vtv*Qv_ 9v%v!C )vzvf 9v|(v}vf ?v*(vjvzvyG J9vS9v+vTvzvy Qvdv"v*o h
gPv$ hv| {v|9vgvAvzvy ?vqvzvAvMv}vyG bQvavyG jO|v@h .)37(y?v*(vjvzvyGz hC y?v+vzvYG(vAvyG
{v+vs Ovtvy .)38(aGOv$}G #v| ?v+vS9vSC W9v}v!C ?vC;vC Ov*OvJv@ )vyE {vv9vWv}vyGz
Garvin, «Some Comments on Language Planning,» in: Rubin [and] )36(

Shuy, eds., Language Planning: Current Issues and Research, p. 24.
Jernudd and Das Gupta, «Towards a Theory of Language Planning,» )37(
in: Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?: Sociolinguistic Theory
and Practice for Developing Nations, and Weinstein, «Language Planning in
Francophone Africa».
= C. Rabin, «A Tentative Classification of Language-Planning,» in: )38(
936
{v|9vgvAv@ 9v|Ov"vf ?v+v!9vTvy LQ9vMvyG OvY9vtv}vyG uv+vtvJv@ )vyE )vgvTv@ J9vS9v+vTvyG fE
k
?v+vzvIG(vTvyG Q9vWvAv!G ,;vDv| .?vTvp9v"vAv}vyG J9vjvzvy ,vf9v}vAvF:G hv*R(vAvyG Qv+v+vjv@ hv|
,vp ?v+v}vSQvyG ?vjvzvyG Bv!9vv Ev+vI( ?v+vsQvWvyGh )vavS(vyG 9v+vtv*QvpC ,vp (Swahili)
o
&v!E Ev+vI #v| ?v|9v$ HvF9vAv! &vy )GOv"vihC ,vp ?v+v"v_(vyG ?vjvzvyGh ,9v+v!GRv!9v@h 9v+v"v+vv
k
(v $ 9v }v vh .,v S9v +v Tv yG aGQv Av f:G #v | ?v *Qv av qv yG J9v jv zv yG #v | GOOv f eQv Jv *o
?v }v dv !C Qv +v +v jv @ hC ?v |9v sE )v yE )v gv Tv @ ,v Av yG J9v S9v +v Tv yG )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < fzv Wv yG
?v v vY9v v vL uv v vav v v! ?v v v+v v vqv v v+v v vv Q9v v vWv v vAv v v!G hv v v+v v vGv v vWv v v@ hC ,?v v v<9v v vAv v vwv v vyGh bv v vMv v vyG
OvY9vtv| uv+vtvJv@ )vyE )vgvTv@ 9v%v!C {v+vs ,,v!9vTvy Y(v"v@ hC (Pronounciation)
J;vLOvAvyG #v| W9v}v!}G gPv$ fC Q9v=vAvf9v< ,(Semilinguistic) ?v+v!9vTvy &v=vV
k
bvMvyG d9v}vgvAvSG f(vv ?vtv+vtvI ,;vDv| .?v+vf9v}vAvFGh ?v+vS9v+vS HvF9vAv! xvyPvv 9v%vy
,v p J9v +v "v +v gv <Q}G d;v L &v gv +v Gv Wv @ ~q v @ Ov s (Cyrillic Script) ,v zv *Qv +v Tv yG
k
,v "v +v @;v yG bv Mv yG dOv < ,9v tv <9v S (USSR) ,v @9v +v p(v Tv yG O9v Jv @:G J9v *Q(v %v }v F
k
#v | ?v |9v $ ?v +v f9v }v Av FG Hv F9v Av ! &v y ,)J9v +v "v *Qv Wv gv yG ,v p( 9v \hQv qv | f9v v jPv yG
o
#v|h ,?v+vzv*Qv+vTvyG {v}vgvAvTv@ ,vAvyG ?v+vShQvyG ?vjvzvyG H9vTvAvvG {v%vTv* &v!E Ev+vI
k k
J9vS9v+vTvyG {v|9vgvAv@ 9v|Ov"vf ,GQv+vLCh .)39(;v%vS ,vp9vtvDvyG {vC9v}vAvyG {vgvGv@ ~q vC
W9v}v!Ch ,IQn v+n vgr v}n vyGh ,(Vocabulary Enrichment) ,v@GOQvqv}vyG A9v"vi G hv|
,vAvyG xvzvAvv ,j(vjvzvyG Q9v+vgv}vyG Rv*Rvgv@ )vyE jO|v@ ,vAvyG {vLOvAvyG #v| iQvLC
k o
9vpGOv$C xvzv}v@ 9v%v!C )vzvf rv"vZv@ ,?v+vTv!QvqvyGh ?v+v!9v=vS G ?vjvzvyG J9v+v}v*O9vv}
Rubin and Jernudd, eds., Ibid., and Joan Rubin, «Bilingual Education and =
Language Planning,» in: Chris Kennedy, ed., Language Planning and Language
Education (London; Boston, MA: G. Allen & Unwin, 1984).
G. Lewis, «Implementation of Language Planning in the Soviet )39(
Union,» in: Cobarrubias and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning:
International Perspectives, pp. 322-323, and Rubin, «Bilingual Education and
Language Planning,» in: Kennedy, ed., Ibid., pp. 8-9.
937
k k
yQv +v %v av Av yGz #v | 9v qv "v Zv | 9v pOv $ 11 (Nahir) )40(Qv +v $9v ! rv "v Zv *h .?v +v !9v Tv y
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k k
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k k k
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m k
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k
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QvDvvzvp QvDvvC &v+vyE Qvdv"v* j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG {vgvF 9v| GPv$h .hvSGh Q9v_E ,vp
?v+vf9v}vAvF:Gh ,?v*O9vZvAvs:Gh ,?v+vS9v+vTvyG {vv9vWv}vyG {vJvy ?vtv*Qv_ &v!C )vzvf
.)42(?jzyG ,p {LOAyG u*Q_ #f
bv +v av Mv Av yG J9v S9v +v S )v gv Tv @ 9v | ,v $ ?v +v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG aGOv $}G fE

#v | ?v tv Av Wv }v yG J9v S9v +v Tv yG gPv $ Pv +v qv "v @ Hv Av "v * GP9v }v y Qv Tv qv * GPv $ .9v %v tv +v tv Jv Av y
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#v | Qv %v dv }v yG GPv $ MQv av *h .,v f9v }v Av FG HGQv av \G #v f 9v !9v +v IC aGOv $}G
Moshe Nahir, «Language Planning Goals: A Classification,» Language )40(

Problems and Language Planning, vol. 8, no. 3 (1984).
Rubin, «Bilingual Education and Language Planning,» in: Kennedy, )41(
ed., Ibid., p. 9.
Weinstein, «Language Planning in Francophone Africa,» p. 56. )42(
938
{v|9vgvAvyG >vGv* ?v|9v$ v v ?v+vs;vLCh v v ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*C 9v*9v]vs j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG
)43(
S9v +v <hQ9v <(v v OOv I Q9v _ G GPv $ ,v ph .9v %v Av |Qv < IQhQv +v Tv yG ~v %v qv y 9v %v gv |
M;v vY G YhQv vWv v| ~v vfOv v@ ?v v*(v vjv vy J9v v+v vF(v vy(v v*Ov v*C hv v<QC (Cobarrubias)
,y,v !9v vTv zv yG {v vC9v v}v Av yGzh ,y?v +v v!9v Tv vzv yG (Pluralism) ?v *OOv gv vAv yGz :j(v jv vzv yG
.(Internationalism) y?+}y9gyGzh ,(Vernacularization) yH+%zAyGzh
(Linguistic Pluralism) ?+!9TzyG ?*OOgAyG

9v%vtvIh ?vqvzvAvMv| ?v*(vjvy J9vf(v}vGv| Xv*o 9vgv@z ?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v*OOvgvAvyG hvGvWv@
fC Qv|}G GPv%vy #vwv}v*h .)44(y?vyO9vf UvSC )vzvf 9v%v@9vjvy ?v*9vfQh ?v!9v+vY ,vp
k k k
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k k
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k
?v+v!9v}vy}Gh ,d9v}vWvyG ,vp (Flemish) ?v+v!9v|;vqvyGh ,H(v"vGvyG ,vp 9v+v}vSQ 9v%v<
.?vjvzvyG ?v+vF9v"vC ?v+vTv!Qvp v v ?v+v!9v|;vp ?vtvav"v| {v+vTvvhQv< {vwvWv@ 9v}v"v+v< ,bQvWvyG ,vp
,v p ?v *OOv gv Av yG d9v wv VC ^v gv < 9v $QhOv < IOv Jv Av }v yG J9v *:(v yG Bv gv Gv V Ov sh
9v v !9v v*Rv v*(v vy Bv vtv vpGh 9v v|Ov v"v vf ~q v v@ 9v v}v v v ,9v v%v vMv v*Q9v v@ #v v| ?v vqv vzv vAv vMv v| JGQv vAv vp
)v zv f &v }v +v }v gv @ {v =v s ,v }v SQv yG ?v jv zv yG ,v F9v "v Dv yG hv \(v yG )v zv f (Louisiana)
k
Qv *(v av @ hv Gv Wv * 9v !(v !9v s 9v !9v *Rv *(v y Bv "v =v @ ,1968 ?v "v S Pv "v |h .)46(?v *:(v yG
k k
>v !9v F )v yE 9v +v }v SQ 9v gv \h jGh9v $ ?v jv y JPv LC ,jGh9v $ ,v ph .?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG
,J9v *:(v yG ,v s9v < )v yE ?v =v Tv "v y9v < fzv Wv yG (v $ 9v }v vh .1978 ?v "v S ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G
Juan Cobarrubias, «Ethical Issues in Status Planning,» in: Cobarrubias )43(

and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives, pp.
63-66.
.65 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )44(

Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (1992), p. 348. )45(
Cobarrubias, «Ethical Issues in Status Planning,» in: Cobarrubias and )46(
Fishman, eds., Ibid., p. 65.
939
?v jv zv yG ,v $ ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G fzv < MQv Zv * ,v yGQOv p f(v !9v s O(v Fh eOv f ~v iQh
cQ(v *(v +v ! ?v *:h JR9v FC ,?v +v vQv +v |}G IOv Jv Av }v yG J9v *:(v yG ,v p ?v +v }v SQv yG
k
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k k
f(v!9vs VQvqv*h .)47(1992 d;vL ?v*:h 17 ,vp {vs}G )vzvf 9v+v}vSQ 9vgv\h
Hv |GQv =v yG )v zv f 1968 ?v "v Tv y IOv Jv Av }v yG J9v *:(v yG ,v p ?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG ?v +v <Qv Av yG
q
#v +v COv Jv Av }v yG #v *OhOv Jv }v yG ?v =v zv av yG J9v +v F9v I Ov S IQQv tv }v yG ?v jv zv yG ?v +v F9v "v Dv yG
,#v +v \Q9v gv }v yG #v | Qv +v Dv wv yG ,xv yP ~v iQ ,Hv |9v !Qv =v yG GPv %v y .?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! 9v <
q
,v F(v iGOv +v =v yG #v +v Tv Jv Av yG )v yE ?v tv +v tv Jv yG ,v p )v gv Tv * : &v !E d(v tv * ~v %v ]v gv <
k
,v p9v tv Dv yG dO9v =v Av yG g9v Gv @ I(v av L 9v +v y9v I Ov gv * &v "v wv yh ,?v +v p9v tv Dv yG ?v !9v +v Zv yGh
Bv v s|v v | S9v v +v v tv v }v v v {v v }v v gv v Av v Tv v | &v v !C 9v v }v v < ,J9v v +v v zv v s~v v y (Acculturation)
.)48(IO+I(yG ?+<QAyG ?jzv ?*R+zG! G d9}gAS:
?vtv*Qv_ 9v%v!C hOv=v@ ?v*(vjvzvyG ?v*OOvgvAvyG )vzvf ?v}vF9vtvyG ?vS9v+vTvyG fC ~viQh
9v%vy f{vp ,?v+v!9vTvzvyG J9vf(v"vAvzvy cQvAvWv}vyG O(vF(vyG hv| {v|9vgvAvzvy ?v+v_GQvtv}v*O
k
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q
aGQvAvf:G ~q v@ Ovsh .,vzvJv}vyG uvJvyGh ,v}v+vzvs G uvJvyG #v| {vv )vzvf ?v}vF9vs
q o
(v}vzvwvAv| Hvyh Ev+vJv< #v+vAv+v}vSQ #v+vAvjvzvv ?v*Rv+vzvGv! Gh ?v+vTv!QvqvyG #v| {vwv<p
?v+v }v SQvyG J9vjv zv yG f(v!9v s( ?v Y9v MvyG ~v %vAv jvzv< ?v+v|(v }v gvyG J9v|OvMv yG #v +vAvjv zvyG
b9v v Dv v +v v }v v yG #v v }v v ]v v Av v * jPv v yG 1982 Q(v v Av v SO GPv v vh ,1988h 1969 ?v v "v v Tv v y
,?v S9v +v Tv yG gPv $ Bv zv Wv p Ov tv y .)J9v *Qv Jv yGh b(v tv Jv zv y jOv "v wv yG (Charter)
Jacques Leclerc, Langue et sociéte´ [=Language and Society], 2ème éd. )47(
(Laval: Mondia, 1992), pp. 314-324.
T. Gray, «Language Policy and Educational Strategies for Language )48(

Minority and Majority Students in the United States,» in: Laforge, ed., Actes du
colloque international sur l’ameńagement linguistique: 25-29 mai 1986, Ottawa =
1986, Ottawa.
940
,v Av yG ?v +v Tv !Qv qv y9v < ?v COv Jv Av }v yG J9v +v zv s}G {v C9v }v @ ?v FQO [v +v zv tv @ ,v p ,xv yPv v
,vp .?v*Rv+vzvGv! 9v< ~vzvwvAv@ ?vtvI9vTvyG ?v+v=vzvi}G Ev+vI ?v+v<QvjvyG GOv"vv ,vp #vavtv@
,v F9v "v Dv yG Ov +v I(v yG jOv "v wv yG ~v +v zv s G ,(New Brunswick) xv +v qv Wv !GQv < (v +v !
?v<(vgvY f(v+vTv!QvqvyG f(v}vzvwvAv}vyG OvFh ,)1968 Pv"v|( ,v}vSQ {vwvWv< ?vjvzvyG
?v"vv9vS #v| ?v8v}vyG ,vp 34,5 f(vzvwvWv* G(v!9vv fEh ~v%vs(vtvI #vf Y9vpOvyG ,vp
~viQvyG )vzvf ,xv+v=v+vwvyG ~v+vzvsE Qv|}G ~v%v* 9v| QOvtv< .)1991 A9vZvIE( ~v+vzvs G
?v8v}vyG ,vp 82,5( ?v+v=vzviC f(vzvwvWv* #v+v+vTv!QvqvyG #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG f(vv ?vtv+vtvI #v|
j(v vjv vzv vyG ~v v%v vgv v*Qv vWv v@ ,1977 ?v v"v vS Pv v"v v| f(v vwv vzv v}v v* ~v v%v v!(v vvh )1991 ?v v"v vS
xv +v =v +v wv zv y ?v +v }v SQv yG ?v jv zv yG ,v $ ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG fC MQv Zv * jPv yG ~v %v < U9v Mv yG
#v f ,v S9v +v Tv yG d9v Zv qv !:G )v yE )v gv Tv * &v !{v p ,)y?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG ?v jv zv yG b9v Dv +v |z(
k
24,6 f(vzvDv}v* #v*PvyG ?v+vTv!Qvqvy9v< #v+v}vzvwvAv}vyG #v+v+vwv+v=v+vwvyG f} 9v+vFRvF ,GOv"vv
~v%vTvqv!C )vyE fhQvdv"v* ,1991 ?v"vS ?v*Ov"vwvyG ?v"vv9vTvyG Y(v}vGv| #v| ?v8v}vyG ,vp
.~%Ap9tCh ~%Ajy )zf f(p9M*h GO"v {LGO ?*(jy ?+zszv xyP ~iQ
?+"_(yGh ,!9TzyG {C9}AyG
j(vjvzvyG {vC9v}vAvyG f9v+vI}G ~vdvgv| ,vp (Nationalism) ?v+v"v_(vyG Ov*|v@

?vjvzvyG d9v}vgvAvSG )vzvf QO9vs ?v*(vjvzvyG IQv+vWvgvyG #v| (v]vf jC fC #v| OvvzvAvzvy
Y9vpOvyGh ?v"v}p v+v%v}vyG ?vjvzvyG )vyE I(vdvJvyG {vtv! )vyE iOC 9v| (v$h .)49(?v"v}p v+v%v}vyG
Bvy9v! Ovs ?v*(vjvzvyG J9v+vzvs}G f(vwv@ ,i(vZvtvyG J:9vJvyG ,vph .9v%vs(vqv@ #vf
k k
#v|9vDvyG fQvtvyG 9vTv!Qvp BvgvS Ovtvy .9v%v"v| 9v*C {v"v@ ~vy hC b(vtvJvyG #v| ;v+vzvs
bv+vavMvAvzvy )vyh}G ?vDv*OvJvyG J9vS9v+vTvyG iOvIE JQOvYC ,vAvyG ?v*Q(vDvyG QvWvf
d9v av < ?v |(v wv Jv yG Bv av av L 9v |Ov "v f aOv %v yG GPv $ uv +v tv Jv @ )v yE ,j(v jv zv yG

Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives, pp. 63-
64.
941
,vp 9v%v< KOvJvAv*o f9vv iQvLC ?v+vWv|9v$ J9vf(v"v@h (Patois) y?v|9vgvyGz ?v+vTv!Qvp
k
Bv !9v vh ,9v *Qv Zv I Q9v +v gv }v yG ?v +v Tv !Qv qv y9v < ~v Av * ,v yh}G ~v +v zv gv Av yG f9v v .9v Tv !Qv p
d9v}vgvAvSG Kv=vYC ,1832 ?v"vS ,vph .f(v!9vtvzvy IOv+vI(vyG ?vjvzvyG ,v$ ?v+vTv!QvqvyG
k
.)50(9v+v|GRvyE ?v+vTv!QvqvyG ?v+v}v*O9vv}G {v=vs #v| 9v%v+vzvf bO9vZv}vyG bvMvyG OvfG(vs
k
)vzvf QvLB :9vDv| uv<9vTvyG ,v@9v+vp(vTvyG O9vJv@:G (Russification) ?v"vSn hrQn Ovgv@h
q q v! ,1938 ?v"vS ,vqvp ,j(vjvzvyG {vC9v}vAvyG
{vv fC )vzvf ,vyGQOvqvyG f(v!9vtvyG [
fC 9v}v<h .?v+v!9vC ?vjvzvv ?v+vShQvyG SQOv@ fC 9v%v+vzvf ?v+vShQvyG Qv+vi SQGOv}vyG
?v jv zv < uv zv gv Av * 9v | ,v p Q9v +v Av L:G ?v *Qv I d(v L uv I;v yG 1958 ?v "v S f(v !9v s
q
>v!9vF )vyE ,SQGOv}vyG {vv ,vp ?v*Q9v=vFE ?v+vShQvyG ?vjvzvyG JQ9vY ,?v+v<QvAvyG
?v+vShQvyG Bvzvc ,?v+vShQvyG J9v*Q(v%v}vGvyG #v| Qv+vDvv ,vph .?v+v"v_(vyG J9vjvzvyG
fC ~v %v !9v wv |{v < f9v v ?v =v zv av yG fC ?v FQO )v yE ,?v +v <Qv Av yG ?v jv y ,v $ hv sG(v yG ,v p
q
,v ph .?v +v ShQv yG ?v jv zv y9v < ?v *(v !9v Dv yGh ?v +v FGOv Av <:G J9v *(v Av Tv }v yG {v v ,v p G(v SQOv *
Uv *QOv Av yG ,v p uv Jv y9v < aGQv Av f:G ~q v @ ,9v +v !G(v Av +v yh ,9v +v pGOv y(v |h ,9v +v !(v Av SE
?vjvzvyG ?v+v F9v"vDvyG SQGOv}vyG ^vgv< fC ~viQ ,?v+v"v_(vyG ?vjvzvy9v< ?vjvzvyG jO9vI}G
.)51(9%< M(}T| f9v
k k
9v +v Tv +v !hOv !E uv =v av @ ,;v Dv | .9v !9v +v IC ?v +v gv }v s {v C9v }v Av yG J9v S9v +v S f(v wv @
.(Bahasa) 9v S9v $9v < 9v +v Tv +v !hOv !E hv | ?v Jv F9v ! iQv LC j(v jv y {v C9v }v @ ?v S9v +v S
#v | fhD9v Av Tv | (Irian Jaya) Gh9v F f9v *QEh Q(v }v +v @ f9v wv Tv p ,xv yP ~v iQh
.)52(,y9$}G ?jy d9}gASG W9=IE ~q @ ,xyP )zf Ih;fh .?S9+TyG gP$
Henriette Walter, Le Français dans tous les sens [= French in All Its )50(
Meanings] (Paris: R. Laffont, 1988), p. 116.
Leclerc, Langue et socie´te´, pp. 119-120. )51(
François Gauthier, Jacques Leclerc et Jacques Maurais, Langues et )52(
constitutions: Recueil des clauses linguistiques des constitutions du monde (Québec:
Publications du Québec; Paris: Conseil International de la Langue Française,
1993), p. 29.
942
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d;vL ,GQv+vDvv Bvy(vI ,vAvyG ?vyhOvyG v v ?v|}G ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*C Bv=vvGh Ovsh
,)53(9v<hQh} ?v+vS9v+vS(v+vGvyG ?vav*QvMvyG ,U(vZvMvy9v< QvWvf hvS9vAvyG fQvtvyG
Qv av Mv zv y VQv gv @ ,v Av yG )54(y?v +v }v SQv yGz hC y?v +v "v _(v yGz ?v jv zv yG ,v "v =v Av y {v +v }v yG
k
?v zv Gv Tv | ?v jv y 185 O(v Fh ~v iQh ,e(v +v yGh .9v +v f9v }v Av FG I(v s {v s}G J9v jv zv yG
gPv $ .)55(,v !(v !9v s hv \h 9v %v y bv tv p 9v %v "v | 35 ,?v +v <hQhC ?v *:h 40 {v LGO
k
?v *:h 155 Bv Jv "v | Ev +v I ,iQv LC JGQ9v s ,v p GOv +v tv gv @ Qv Dv vC ?v +v gv \(v yG
k k
.)56(?zGT| ?jy 6,000 ,yG(I Y(}G| #| ?jy 69 v v y 9+}SQ 9g\h
,v}vSQ aGQvAvfG 9v%vy ,vAvyG ?v+v}vSQvyG J9vjvzvyG #v+v< Rv+v+v}vAvyG e9v%vyG #v| fE
k
?v v+v v}v vSQv vyG J:9v vGv v}v vyG ,v vp d9v v}v vgv vAv vS;v vy 9v v}v vFGO Izv v+v v%v v| ,v v$h ?v vyhOv vyG #v v|
A9v"v<Ch ,>vgvWvyG ?v+v=vzviC 9v%v< KOvJvAv* ,vAvyG ?v+v"v_(vyG J9vjvzvyGh ,?v+v|(v}vgvyGh
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?v +v "v _(v yG J9v jv zv y9v < aGQv Av f:G ~v Av * fC #v wv }v *h .9v |(v }v f ?v |}G hC #v _(v yG
k o k
hv|h .9v}vFGO ?v+v<QvAvyG ,vph ,?v+v|(v}vgvyG J:9vGv}vyG ,vp {v}vgvAvTv@ fCh 9v+v}vSQ
k
f9vv 9v}v%v|h .?v+v}vSQvyG ?vjvzvyG )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< 9v+v!OvAv| 9v%vgv\h f(vwv* : ,xvyP
k k
bvtvp ;v+vzvs GOOvf fC Kv\G(vyG #v| &v!{vp ,?vjvzvy d(vMv}vyG ,v}vSQvyG hv\(vyG
Fishman: Language and Nationalism: Two Integrative Essays, part I: )53(

The Nature of Nationalism; Reproduced in: Language and Ethnicity in Minority
Sociolinguistic Perspective, pp. 97-175.
K. W. Deutsch, «The Trend of European Nationalism,» in: Fishman, )54(

ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, and Wardhaugh, An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics (1992), p. 346.
Grimes, ed., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, and Leclerc, Langue )55(
et socie´te´, p. 54.
6 9v %v y 9v vQv +v |C :?+v @6G ,v $ J9v +v F9v Zv I G ,iQv L}G JGQ9v tv yG Qv |}G ~v 9 9v | QOv tv <h )56(
913h ,?v*:h 47h ,?v+v}vSQ ?vjvy 37 9v%vy 9v+vSB .?vzvGvTv| ?vjvy 938h ,?v*:h 39h ,?v+v}vSQ J9vjvy
?v +v S(v !9v +v sh}Gh .?v zv Gv Tv | ?v jv y 1,918h ,?v *:h 52h ,?v +v }v SQ ?v jv y 16 9v %v y 9v +v tv *Qv pC .?v zv Gv Tv | ?v jv y
(Grimes, ed., Ibid., ?v zv Gv Tv | ?v jv y 1,216h ,?v *:h 17h ,?v +v }v SQ J9v jv y 10 9v %v y (Oceania)
and Leclerc, Ibid., pp. 56-59).
943
hv \h 9v%v y ~v y9v gvyG J9vjv y >vzv iC fCh ,)57(9v%v < aQv Avgv | ~vy9v gv yG J9v jvy #v|
k
.9+S9+S 9"COJ@ GPE ,?+zsC
k
I(v vtv vyG S9v vSC )v vzv vf GOOv vJv v| f(v vwv v* fC ?v v+v vzv vs}G hv v\(v vy #v vwv v}v v* :
QvF9vWvfh J9vjvy #vf A9v}vzvgvyG ^vgv< KOvJv@ xvyPvy .bvtvp ?vjvzvy ?v+vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG
k
,vp OvIGh f9vv ,;vDv| ,QvtvWviOv| ,vph .(Minorized) )58(y?v|Rvtv|z ?v*(vjvy
,v$ Bv!9vv ?v+vTv!QvqvyG fC ~viQ ,?v+vTv!QvqvyG f(vCOvJvAv* ?v"vv9vTvyG #v| bvtvp ?v8v}vyG
q
Bv y9v ! 9v |Ov "v f ,1960 ?v "v S d;v tv Av S:G )v Av I IOv +v I(v yG ?v +v }v SQv yG ?v jv zv yG
k k
d(v tv Zv }v yG e(v %v qv }v yG .)59(9v +v }v SQ 9v gv \h xv yPv v (Malagasy) ?v +v V9v jv zv }v yG
,>vTvJvp ,vpGQvi(v}v*OvyG hv*R(vAvyG Q9v=vAvf:G #v+vgv< PvLzv* : ?v+v!9vTvzvyG ?v+vzvs~vy
k
;v]vp ,xvyPvv ?v+vs;vL}Gh ,?v+vp9vtvC(v+vS(vTvyGh ,?v+vS9v+vTvyG {v|G(vgvyG 9v}v!Eh
,v Mv *Q9v Av yG hv \(v zv y xv yPv v #v wv }v *h .Hv @9v "v yG ,v !9v Tv y(v +v S(v Tv yG hv \(v yG #v f
,J:9v Jv yG ^v gv < ,v p ,{v wv Wv * fC IQv +v Wv gv zv y )#v *Qv F9v %v }v yG hC ,v y9v $~v y(
k x k
.r*QgAzy 9}}A|o GARF
?+F9qZyG
k
,j(vjvzvyG {vC9v}vAvyG ?v+vF(vy(v*Ov*C #v| GQv+vDvv (Purism) ?v+vF9vqvZvyG HQvAvtv@
k
cQ+zvwvy >vTvIh .hvSGh {vwvWv< {v}vgvAvTv| D9vgvyG J9vjvy #v| bvtvp {+zvs OOvf ,9+y9vI )57(
q
,J9vjvzvyG {vv #v| ?v8CG ,vp 3 {v}vgvAvTv@ D9vgvyG ?v"vv9vS #v| ?v8CG ,vp 9 ,(Leclerc, Ibid., pp. 51-67)
?v8CG ,vp 95 #v| QvDvvC fC )vAvI ,S9v"vyG #v| Qv+vDvwvyG {v=vs #v| ?vzv}vgvAvTv| J9vjvzvyG ^vgv< fC ,v"vgv* 9vF
q
.QaMzy ?\Qg| J9jzyG {v #|
D. Daoust and J. Maurais, «L’Aménagement linguistique [= Language )58(
Planning],» in: Jacques Maurais, dir., Politique et ameńagement linguistiques [=
Language Planning and Language Policies], [publ. par le] Gouvernement du
Québec, Conseil de la Langue Française (Québec: Publ. du Québec; Paris: Le
Robert, 1987), p. 16.
944
Uv+vS9vI}G Q9v_E ,vp rvY(v@ fC {v]vp}G #v|h .?v%v<9vWv| HvF9vAv! )vyE jO|v@h
k
?vy(vZvqv|h ,9v}vFGO ?v<(vAvwv| ?vy9vI ,vp ,?vjvzvy ,vy9vDv}vyG {vwvWvyG g9vGv@ rvsG(v}vyGh
,?vY9vMvyG ?v+vy9v}vGvyG ~v+vtvy9v< bv=v@Qv| ?vjvzvyG #v| {vwvWvyG GPv$ .,v|(v+vyG e;vwvyG #vf
k
?v*(vjvzvyG IQv+vWvgvzvy ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G ?v+vy9vDv}vyG {vDv}v@ ,vAvyG ?v*(v"vgv}vyG ~v+vtvy9v< 9v!9v+vICh
~v Av * ~q v C #v |h ,v f9v }v Av F:G aGQv Av f:G 9v %v @O9v +v S #v }v ]v @h .)60(Q9v +v gv }v yG ,v $h
hC ,)61(j(v v<Qv vAv vyG e9v vdv v"v vy9v vv ?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vF:G J9v vTv vS|v v}v vyG {v v=v vs #v v| 9v v$Rv v*Rv vgv v@
J9vf(v"vAvzvy f(vwv@ ,?vGv+vAv"vvh .)62(?v*(vjvzvyG J9v+v}v*O9vv}9vv ?v+v}vSQvyG J9v}v+vdv"vAvyG
k
J:9v Gv }v yG ,v p 9v av =v Jv | 9v %v y9v }v gv Av SG Qv +v Zv *h ,?v +v =v zv S J::O ?v pQv Jv "v }v yG
v v ?v|}G H(vY ,v<hQh}G &vF(vAvy9v< W9v=v@QG ,vp ?v+vF9vqvZvyG JQ(v_h .?v+v|(v}vgvyG
.)63(y?|Cz {wy ?zZq"| ?jy ,?+}SQ ?jy 9%y ,AyG ?yhOyG
?+}y9gyG
Qv +v i ?v jv zv yG ,v "v =v @ )v zv f Ov }v Av gv @ ,v Av yG ?v +v F(v y(v *Ov *}G ?v +v }v y9v gv yG {v wv Wv @
S9vSC ,)64(#v*(vwvAvyG ?vjvzvv hC ?v+v}vSQ ?vjvzvv 9v|E hvSG(vyG {vYG(vAvzvy ?v+vzv$}G
?v+vTv!Qvqvy9vp ,Q9v}vgvAvS:G Ovgv< dhOvyG ~vdvgv}vy j(vjvzvyG bv+vavMvAvyG J9vS9v+vS
q k
{vv fhQv+v|9vwvyG ,vph ,IOv+vI(vyG ?v+v}vSQvyG ?vjvzvyG ,v$ ,;vDv| ,f(v<9vjvyG ,vp
aGQv Av f:G ~v Av * 9v }v "v +v < ,f9v Av +v }v SQ f9v Av jv y 9v }v $ ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yGh ?v *Rv +v zv Gv ! G #v |
Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns, [1973]. )60(

Pierre Bourdieu, Ce que parler veut dire: L’Economie des ećhanges )61(
linguistiques [= What Speaking Jeans. Linguistic Exchanges in a Socio-Economic
Perspective] (Paris: Fayard, 1982).
Prescription and Standardization (1991).
Deutsch, «The Trend of European Nationalism,» in: Fishman, ed., )63(
Readings in the Sociology of Language, and Lodge, French, from Dialect to
Standard, pp. 2-3.
Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives, p. 66.
945
k
GPv $ .?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG >v !9v F )v yE 9v +v }v SQ (Haiti Creole) ?v +v Av *9v %v yG d(v *Qv wv y9v <
,,vS9v+vTvyG {vYG(vAvyG {v%vTv@ ?v+v}vy9vgvyG J9vjvzvyG f(vv ?vtv+vtvJv< ~vfOv| Q9v+vAvL:G
.9v+vF(vy(v"vwvAvyGh ~vzvgvyG Hvzv@h iQvLC dhO hv| ,vp9vtvC(v+vS(vTvyGh ,jO9vZvAvs:Gh
o
?v jv y fC Ov tp v Av fG ,J9v jv zv yG #v | Qv +v =v v OOv f Ov FG(v Av * Ev +v I dhOv yG ^v gv < ,v ph
xv yPv v ,v $h .?v +v zv YG(v Av yG {v v9v Wv }v yG )v zv f HG(v Gv yG ,v $ hv SG(v yG {v YG(v Av yG
.QDvC hC #+ATp9"A| #+A+"_h #+Ajy #+< Q9+AL:G jO9qAy ?t*Q_
,v p ?v }v $9v Tv }v yGh ?v !Qv Zv gv yG Rv *Rv gv Av y hv s(v Av | ?v +v }v y9v gv yG ?v jv zv yG ,v "v =v @ fE

j(vtv* ,,v=vzvTvyG >v!9vGvyG #v| xvyP hv|h .?v+v}vy9vgvyG 9v+vF(vy(v"vwvAvyGh IQ9vGvAvyG
k
?v"vv9vTvyG #v| ?v8v}vyG ,vp OvIGh ,;vDv| ,QvtvWviOv| ,vp .?v+vzv$}G J9vjvzvyG ~v*Rvtv@
?v+vtv< ~vzvwvAv@ #v+vI ,vp ,?v+v}vSQvyG 9v%v@9vjvy #v| IOvIGh ,?v+vTv!QvqvyG #v| #vwv}vAv|
k
9v}vFGO 9v%v}vzvwvAv@ ?v+v}vSQvyG ?v+v}vy9vgvyG ?vjvzvyG f(vvh .bvtvp ?v*QvtvWviOv}vyG ?v"vv9vTvyG
o k
Kv"v}v@ 9v}v!Eh ,>vTvJvp ?vjvzvyG gPv$ ?v!9vwv| j(vtv@ : 9v+vf9v}vAvFG ?v*(vtvyG ?v=vMv"vyG
: 9v|Ov"vf xvyPvv IOvtvgv| ?v+vgv\(vyG gPv$ .QvDvvC ?v+vS9v+vS(v+vS(vS I(vs ?v=vMv"vyG
e9v dv "v < bv tv p Qv Lzv Av | {v wv Wv < IOhRv | 9v %v !C hC ?v <(v Av wv | ?v +v "v _(v yG ?v jv zv yG f(v wv @
o
Uv +v S9v I~v y #v wv }v * rv +v v ?v +v F(v y(v *Ov *}G gPv $ Qv %v dv @h .bv Mv yGh ?v <9v Av wv zv y
{vDv}v* GPv$h .?v*O9vZvAvsG(v+vS(vTvyGh ?v+vS9v+vTvyG hvF9vs(vyG hv| eO9vZvAv@ fC ?v+v"v_(vyG
uv *Qv _ #v f IRv +v }v }v yG ,y?v +v |(v tv yGz #v +v < )65(f9v }v Wv +v p &v |Ov tv * jPv yG Rv +v +v }v Av zv y
k
MG(v ! #v |h 9v +v p9v tv C Q(v av Av yG ,v p ?v =v iQv yGh (Uniqueness) OQv qv Av yG Uv +v S9v IC
k
gPv$ uv+vtvJvAvy ?v+vgv*QPvyG {vv9vWv}vy9v< GQv+vDvv uvzvgvAv@ ,vAvyG y?v+v"v_(vyGzh ,iQvLC
.)66(J9gs(AyG
Fishman: Language and Nationalism: Two Integrative Essays, part I: )65(

The Nature of Nationalism; Reproduced in: Language and Ethnicity in Minority
Sociolinguistic Perspective, p. 109.
Fasold, The :Qv vdv v!G ,?v v+v v|(v vtv vyG v v ?v v+v v"v v_(v vyG J9v vfGQv vZv vyG #v vf ?v vzv vDv v|C ]E ?v v=v vTv v"v vy9v v< )66(
Sociolinguistics of Language, pp. 292-315.
946
H+%zAyG
.?v+v"v_(vyG #v| bv}v"vyG GPv$ #vf {v*Ov< (Vernacularization) Hv+v%vzvAvyG
9v %v < aQv Av gv |h ?v !Qv Zv gv |h IOOv Gv | ?v +v zv $}G hC ?v +v "v _(v yG J9v jv zv yG f(v wv @
k
Ovgv@h .)67(hvSG(vyG {vYG(vAvzvy ?v+v}vy9vgvyG ?vjvzvyG >v!9vF )vyE hC {vJv| 9v+v}vSQ
k
,,v}v SQ hv\(v < 9v gv| f9v }vgv"v@ ?v+vV9vjvzv }v yGh ?v +v Tv!Qv qv yG Ev+v I ,Qv tv WviOv|
k
#v v| ARv vGv vv ,Kv v*Qv vZv vAv vyG ~q v v@ 1978 ?v v"v vS ,v vqv vp ,)68(xv vyP )v vzv vf :9v vDv v|
,v p ?v +v <Qv Av yG ?v jv y ,v $ ?v +v V9v jv zv }v yG fC )v zv f ,?v |9v gv yG ?v +v |(v tv yG Hv |9v !Qv <
o
?v+vTv!QvqvyG eOvtv@h ,j(v!9vDvyG i(vAvTv}vyG #v| ARvF ,vph ,vFGOvAv<:G i(vAvTv}vyG
o
f9vf(v! MQv_ ,xvyP ~viQh .,vFGOvAv<:G i(vAvTv}vyG #v| ?v+v!9vDvyG ?vFQOvyG ,vp
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?v pQv gv }v yG ?v =v Tv ! )v zv f Qv p(v Av @ Qv tv Wv iOv | fC ~v iQ ,:hC .{v v9v Wv }v yG #v |
?v +v V9v jv zv }v y9v < ~v zv wv Av yG ~v Av * ,)69(?v 8v }v yG ,v p 44 ,v $ ?v <9v Av wv yGh IAGQv tv y9v <
Uv *QOv Av yG {v gv Gv * 9v }v | ,bv tv p IQv +v jv Y ?v qv tv Dv | ?v +v zv sC {v =v s #v | Q9v +v gv }v yG
k k
?vjvzvv IQv+vavL [vsG(v! 9v%vy Q9v+vgv}vyG ?v+vV9vjvzv}vyG ,9v+v!9vC .9v=vgvY ?v+vV9vjvzv}vy9v<
k
1835 ,vyG(vI Pv"v| IQv+vgv}vyG ?v+vzv}vgvy Bvgv]vL 9v%v!C ~viQh ,9v+vy9vI ,v$h
)70(
IQv +v gv |;v yG ?v +v zv }v gv y hv ]v Mv @ ,{v +v Gv ! G ?v }v FQv Av y Bv zv }v gv Av SG 9v }v "v +v I
?v jv y Kv =v Zv Av y xv yPv v 9v %v Av !Qv Zv f ~v Av @ fC >v Gv *h (Destandarization)
?v+vTv!QvqvyG JQv}vAvSG ,xvyP f(v]vi ,vph .,vgv|9vGvyG i(vAvTv}vyG ,vp ?v+v<QvAvyG

Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives, p. 66.
Grimes, ed., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, p. h ,1986 J9v +v F9v Zv IE )69(
254.
Z. Bemananjara, «Les Langues et l’enseignement à Madagascar [= )70(
Languages and Education in Madagascar],» in: Laforge, ed., Actes du colloque
international sur l’ameńagement linguistique: 25-29 mai 1986, Ottawa =
1986, Ottawa.
947
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?v*(vjvzvyG ?v+vFGhOR:G LP(v}v! ?vqvtvDv}vyG ?v=vMv"vyG Ov*|v@ ,?v+vTv!QvqvyG SQGOv}vyG
.)72(?*Q9}gAS:G
k
,?v<9vAvwvyGh IAGQvtvy9v< ?vpQvgv}vyG ?vjvy Ov*OvGv@ 9v!9v+vIC Hv+v%vzvAvyG >vzvavAv*
?vjvzvyG f6G ,v$ ?v+vwv+vS;vwvyG ?v+v<QvgvyG Ev+vI ,Uv!(v@h QvFGRvGvyG ,vp 9v}vv
.)QvFGRvGvyG ,vp 1989h Uv!(v@ ,vp 1976 Pv"v|( ?v+vTv!QvqvyG {vJv| ?v+v}vSQvyG
,?v+vwv+vS;vwvyG ?v+v<QvgvyG fC )vyE Qvdv"vy9v< ?vY9vL {vv9vWv| MQvav* Qv|}G GPv$
k
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,jC ,?v<9vAvwvyGh bvMvzvy J9vI;vYE Hv+v%vzvAvyG J9vS9v+vS >vzvavAv@ fC xvyPvv
?v<9vAvv .J9v+v"v*QvWvgvyG QvLGhC ?v+vvQvAvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< ?v+v!9v|hQvyG A9v=vqvy}G ,v"v=v@
(Sami) ?v+v|9vTvyG ?vjvzvyG )vyE ?v=vTv"vy9v< fzvWvyG (v$ 9v}vv ,OvfG(vtvyGh ~vF9vgv}vyG
xv yPv v (v $ ,#v $GQv yG Bv s(v yG ,v p 9v +v p9v "v *Ov !9v wv S #v | ?v +v y9v }v Wv yG AGRv F~v y
.QLB Q%d|
A9v+vIE ~q v@ Ev+vI ,{v+v FGQvSE ,vp IO(vF(v| Hv+v%vzvAvzvy i(vZvtvyG ?vy9vJvyG

.?+"_h ?jzv 9%A|9sEh ,?*Q=gyG ,?+"*OyG ?jzyG
hF9s(yG O9G*E IQhQ+Sh JGQ9+AL9< e9+tyG v v 2.3

Hv F9v Av "v yGh ,?v zv %v S ?v }v %v | Uv +v y aGOv $}G uv +v tv Jv @h {v v9v Wv }v yG #v +v +v gv @
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e9v vtv v@ ,xv vyP hv v|h .,v vzv vY}G bv vav vMv v}v vyG hv v| 9v v}v vFGO uv vpG(v vAv v@ : ?v v+v vF9v v%v v"v vyG
,,vy9vDv| {vwvWv<h .,vzv=vtvAvTv}vyG ,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG hvsG(vyG {vwvWv@h JGQ9v+vAvL:G
.311 U ,&Tq! QOZCG )71(

Leclerc, Langue et socie´te´, p. 497. )72(
G. Grandguillaume, «Language and Legitimacy in the Maghreb,» in: )73(
Weinstein, ed., Language Policy and Political Development.
948
.,v!9vTvy(v+vS(vTvyG b9v+vTvy9v< ?vzv|9vWvyG ?vpQvgv}vyG )vzvf ?vTvS|v| JGQ9v+vAvL:G gPv$
#v}vwv@ ?v*(vjvzvyG ?vS9v+vTvyG Ov*OvJv@ ,vp )vyh}G ?vzvIQv}vyG fC )74(#v+v<hQ MQvAvsG
O(vF(v}vyG hv\(vyGz #v| ?vS9v+vTvyG hv\Gh uvtvJvAv* Ev+vI yhvF9vs(vyG O9vGv*Ez ,vp
bvavMv}vyG fhPvqv"v+vS #v*PvyG U9vMvV}G Q(vZvAv* 9v}vv ,{vv9vWv}vyG #v| OvvzvAvzvy
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hv }v Av Gv }v yG bv F9v Sh {v v .ybv av Mv }v yG GPv $ ~v %v pOv %v Av Tv * #v *Pv yG U9v Mv V}Gh
,?v v+v vS9v v+v vSh ,?v v+v vp9v vtv vCh ,?v v+v vf9v v}v vAv vFGh ,?v vY(v vJv vqv v| f(v vwv v@ fC ,v vjv v=v v"v v*
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Pv+vqv"v@ {v+vJvAvTv}vyG #v| f(vwv+vS ,iQvLC ?vtv*Qvav<h .ybvF9vS(vyG gPv$ #v| j}
O9vGv* {v|9vv Hv|9v!Qv< Ovgv< bvtvp uvtvJvAv@ fC ,vjv=v"v* aGOv$}G .bvavMv| jC
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?v <Q9v tv | MQv Av tv * (v $h .Bv s(v zv y c;v %v Av SG (v $ Hv |9v !Qv =v yG GPv $ {v Dv |

Qv+vDvv ?vvQ9vWv| )vyE ?vp9v\E ,QGQvtvyG hv"vYo LP(v}v! {vLGO Qv+v<OvAvy9v< ?v%v+v=vV
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,9v | ?v tv *Qv av < .?v +v y9v Dv }v yG gPv %v < Ov +v tv Av @ j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG J9v S9v +v S #v |
?v S9v +v Sh ?v +v Gv +v @GQv Av S LP(v }v ! 9v %v !C )v zv f xv +v =v +v wv yG )v yE Qv dv "v yG #v wv }v *
j(v jv zv yG hv *Qv Wv Av yG {v wv V 9v %v Av S9v +v S JPv LC Ov tv y .j(v jv zv yG bv +v av Mv Av yG
?vqvTvzvqvyG GPvvh ,I(vFQv}vyG OvY9vtv}vyGh aGOv$}9v< MQvZv* jPvyG {v|9vWvyG
&v!C )vzvf &vy {vDv}v| ?v+vTv!QvqvyG d9v}vgvAvSG .f(v!9vtvzvy ?v+v"v}v]vyG ?v+vf9v}vAvF:G
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?v +v }v SQv yG ?v jv zv yGz ,v $ ?v +v Tv !Qv qv yG fzv < Kv *Qv Zv Av yG >v F(v }v <h .Q(v Av SOv yG
Joan Rubin, «Evaluation and Language Planning,» in: Rubin and )74(
Jernudd, eds., Can Language Be Planned?: Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for
Developing Nations, p. 218.
949
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Daoust-Blais, «Corpus and Status Language Planning in Quebec: A Book at
Linguistic Education,» in: Cobarrubias and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language
Planning: International Perspectives; D. Daoust: «Francization and Terminology
Change in Quebec Business Firms,» in: Richard Y. Bourhis, ed., Conflict and
Language Planning in Quebec (Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1984),
and «A Decade of Language Planning in Quebec: A Sociopolitical Overview,» in:
Weinstein, ed., Language Policy and Political Development,
Richard Y. Bourhis, «The Charter of the French Language and Cross- :GPv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v vh
Cultural Communication in Montreal,» in: Bourhis, ed., Conflict and Language
Planning in Quebec.
950
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f;vfE #v| ?vqv"vZv| J9v_9v+vAvI:G gPv$ .)76(?v*O9v+vS Qv+vih ?v*O9v+vS ?v*:h 297
?v"vTvy 9vwv!;v*Qv+vS Q(vAvSO ,vp ~q v@ 9v}vv ,?v+v"v_(vyG J9vjvzvyGh ?v+v}vSQvyG J9vjvzvyG
fCh ,?v+v}vSQvyG ?vjvzvyG ,v$ (Sinhalese) ?v+vTv+vzv%v"vTvyG fC MQvY jPvyG 1978
Gauthier, Leclerc et Maurais, Langues et constitutions: Recueil des )76(

clauses linguistiques des constitutions du monde.
951
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)vzvf ?v"vGvzvyG gPv$ BvzvZvI 1922 ?v"vS ,vph .?v+v|9vf ?vjvzvv ?v*Qv=vgvyG hv+vGvWvAvy
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,v v$ ?v v"v vGv vzv vyG gPv v$ Bv vJv v=v vYC 1953 ?v v"v vS ,v vph .?v v+v v<Qv vgv vyGh ?v v*Rv v+v vzv vGv v! G
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Jacques Leclerc, La Guerre des langues dans l’affichage [= Language )77(

War in Public Posting] (Montréal: VLB Editeur, 1989), pp. 14, and 182.
952
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uv +v }v gv yG Qv +v Czv Av yG (v$ 9v | bv tv p Qv %v dv * : d9v Dv }v yG GPv $ .#v +v Jv yG xv yP Pv "v | Uv p9v "v @

Reproduced in: Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, and D.
Gundersen, «Le Norvégien: Des problèmes mais pas de crise véritable [=
Norwegian: Problems, But Not Real Crisis],» in: Jacques Maurais, ed., La Crise
des langues: Textes colligés et pre´sentés [= Language Crisis] ([Québec]:
Gouvernement du Québec, Conseil de la Langue Française; Paris: Le Robert,
[1985]).
953
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Reproduced in: Fishman, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Language, p. 677.
Bjørn H. Jernudd, «Essais sur les problèmes linguistiques [= Essays on )80(
Language Problems],» in: Maurais, dir., Politique et ameńagement linguistiques, p.
499.
(Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (1992), Z(v v v v v v v v v v v v$OQGh OQhC )81(
pp. 28-30),
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)vyE iQvLC IQvdv! rvWvwv@h .9v*QvZvI hv\(vzvy ?v%vF(v| hC #vAv}vzvy ?v%vF(v|
Heinz Kloss, Research Possibilities on Group Bilingualism: A Report )82(

(Québec: International Center for Research on Bilingualism, 1969), p. 81.
.&Tq! QOZCG )83(
Cobarrubias and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language :,v v v v v v v v v v vp 9v v v v v v v v v v v}v v v v v v v v v v vv )84(
Planning: International Perspectives; Laforge, ed., Actes du colloque international
sur l’ameńagement linguistique: 25-29 mai 1986, Ottawa = Proceedings of the
International Colloquium on Language Planning: May 25-29, 1986, Ottawa;
Maurais, dir., Politique et ameńagement linguistiques; Weinstein, ed., Language
Policy and Political Development, and David F. Marshall, ed., Language Planning,
Focusschrift in Honor of Joshua A. Fishman on the Occasion of His 65th
Birthday; 3 (Amsterdam; Philadelphia, PA: J. Benjamins, 1991).
955
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q q
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D. Daoust: «Terminological Change within a Language Planning )85(

Framework,» in: Marshall, ed., Ibid.; «The Evaluation of Sociolinguistic and
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= l’Universite´ du Que´bec à Chicoutimi [= Proceedings of the Colloquium on
956
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Bv"v+vf 1963 ?v"vS ,vph .,v!9vTvzvyG 9v%vF:h ,vp ?v}vTvtv| Bv!9vv ?v"vv9vTvyG f}
,v !9v Tv zv yG KQ G hv Gv Wv @ Bv !9v v ,v Av yG yj(v jv zv yG ~v zv Tv yGz ?v "v Gv y ?v |(v wv Jv yG
Language Planning (Theory and Applications). Held on May 5, 6 and 7, 1993 at the =
Universite´ du Que´bec in Chicoutimi], 2 vols. ([Québec]: Office de la langue
fançaise; [Chicoutimi]: Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, [1994]), vol. 1.
Rubin, «Evaluation and Language Planning,» in: Rubin and Jernudd, )86(
eds., Can Language Be Planned?: Sociolinguistic Theory and Practice for
Developing Nations, and Robert Leon Cooper, Language Planning and Social
Change (Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
957
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?v +v zv }v f Ov gv @ Pv +v qv "v Av yG ?v zv IQv | fC )89(#v i(v $ MQv Av sG ,?v y9v Jv yG gPv %v y {v |9v Wv yG
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.)90(j(jzyG b+aMAzy ,!9TzyGh ,g}AG}yG #*Q%d}yG
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b<G(]yG ?ZI )H(
Haugen, «The Implementation of Corpus Planning: Theory and )87(

Practice,» in: Cobarrubias and Fishman, eds., Progress in Language Planning:
International Perspectives, p. 285.
Garvin, «Some Comments on Language Planning,» in: Rubin [and] )88(
Shuy, eds., Language Planning: Current Issues and Research, p. 24.
Haugen, Ibid., p. 275. )89(
?v=vTv"vy9v< e9v%vy{vv {v}vgvAvSG jPvyG 1966 ?v"vTvy [h}G &vFP(v}v! #v| hvFGQv| LP(v}v! GPv$ )90(
.j(jzyG b+aMAyG A9}zf #| Q+DwyG ]E
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)91(
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q n n
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Q+L}G fC 9}< y>*P%AyGz v< ,"<(AS(! &+}T* 9| QjYC hC Q=vC {wW< yQ*(aAyGz &=W* )91(
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(Jiřı́ V. Neustupný, «Basic Types of Treatment of Language Problems,» Linguistic
Communications, vol. 1 (1970)),
Joan Rubin, «Language Planning: Discussion of Some Current :,v v p Qv v %v v dv v * 9v v }v v v(
Issues,» in: Rubin [and] Shuy, eds., Language Planning: Current Issues and
Research, pp. 3-4).
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959
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.)93(?*O9ZAsG(+S(S Qd!
Bourhis, «The Charter of the French Language and Cross-Cultural )92(

Communication in Montreal»; Daoust: «Francization and Terminology Change in
Quebec Business Firms,» in: Bourhis, ed., Conflict and Language Planning in
Quebec, and Daoust, «A Decade of Language Planning in Quebec: A
Sociopolitical Overview,» in: Weinstein, ed., Language Policy and Political
Development.
F. Vaillancourt, «Le Statut socio-économique du français et des )93(

francophones du Québec, 1977-1992: Le Rôle et l’avenir des politiques
linguistiques [= The Socio-Economic Language Policies],» in: Pierre Bouchard,
= ed., Les Actes du colloque sur la situation linguistique au Québec: Colloque tenu le
960
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13 mai 1992 dans le cadre du Congrés de l’ACFAS [= Proceedings of the =

Colloquium on the Linguistic Situation in Québec ([Québec]: Gouvernement du
Québec, Office de la langue française, 1993).
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.J9+pQZyG #| Q+Dv )zf IRw@Q| f(w@ fC )yE 9%@9}zv
,v v Av v yG ?v v jv v zv v y ?v v av v Tv v =v v | ?v v jv v +v v Y :(Foreigner Talk) ,v v=v v"v vF}G ?v vjv vy

Qv=vAvgv@ :h #v*QvLB #v+v}vzvwvAv| hv| 9v%v< KOvJvAvzvy ,vzvY}G ~vzvwvAv}vyG 9v%vzv}vgvAvTv*
gPv $ f(v pQv gv * : #v *Pv yG xv 8v yhC 9v }v +q v S :h ,?v +v zv Y}G ~v %v Av jv y ?v jv zv yG gPv $
k k
?vjvzvyG #v| bv}v"vyG GPv$ ,vp IO(vF(v}vyG J9v%v<9vWvAvyG )vyE GQvdv!h .9vs;v_E ?vjvzvyG
k
{vqvavyG ?vjvy 9v]v*C )v}vTv@ ?vjvzvyG gPv$ f{vp d9vqv_}G )vyE &vF(v@ ,vAvyG ?vjvzvyGh
.(Baby Talk)
9v v%v v}v vzv vgv vAv v* ,v vAv vyG )v vyh}G ?v vjv vzv vyG :(Mother Tongue) e}G v v ?v vjv vzv vyG
.?*QaqyG &Ajy ,$ ,9%< E*OJzy jQW=yG #F9wyG
#v v+v v< Q9v vWv vAv v!:G ?v vgv vSG(v vyG ?v vjv vzv vyG :(Lingua Francae) {v v|9v vgv v@ ?v vjv vy
k
,,vyhOvyG i(vAvTv}vyG )vzvf 9v%vAvsh ,vp GQv+vCzv@ QvDvv}Gh ,#v+v*QvavqvyG 9v%v+v}vzvwvAv|
.?+yhOyG IQ9GAyG ,p ?Y9Lh
~v$9vTv@ ,vAvyG ?v+vzvJv}vyG ?vjvzvyG :(Substrate Language) 9v+v!O ?vtv=v_ ?vjvy

.#++zJ}yG f9wTyG )zf &Ajy VQq* jPyG jR9jyG ?jy ,p 9%@9}T<
9v %v zv }v gv Av Tv @ ,v Av yG ?v jv zv yG :(Superstrate Language) 9v+vzvf ?vtv=v_ ?vjvy

k
.9*O9ZAsG(+S(S ?"}+%}yG ?t=ayG
hC ?v+q vgvFQv}v< ?vY9vL ?v*(vjvy YG(v!C :(Sociolects) ?v+vf9v}vAvFG J9vGv%vy

.9| ,f9}AFG h\h
,9v| [vMvWv< ?vY9vMvyG ?vjvzvyG #v| Y(v! ,v$ :(Ideolect) 9v+vzvf ?vGv%vy
969
hC Qv +v <9v gv Av yG hC >v +v vGQv Av yG hC J9v }v zv wv yG ,v p A9v tv Av !:G #v | LP9v }v ! 9v $Rv +v }v @
.&"+g< [MWyG xyP )zf IQZAt}yG b(a"yG
?v v*(v vjv vy IQ(v vY 9v v$Q9v v=v vAv vfG ~v vAv v* ?v vGv v%v vy :(Acrolect) )v vav vSh ?v vGv v%v vy
k
.GQ9+g|
k
,v "v C Gh ,v p9v tv Dv yG Y(v "v Av zv y hv \h :(Multicultural) 9v +v p9v tv C OOv gv Av |
.#+g| ,f9}AFG ,pGQi(}*O A9]p {LGO
k
Q9v=vAvfGh ,hv}vAvGv}vyG (vJv! &vF(vAvyG :(Sociocentric) 9v+vf9v}vAvFG RvvQv}vAv|
.J9f9}GyG i(sCh {]pC OQqyG 9%+yE ,}A"* ,AyG ?f9}GyG
9v%vgv+v}vGv@ ~vAv* uvF9vC(vyG hC U(vZv"vyG #v| ?vf(v}vGv| :(Corpus) #vAv|

.NyE ...?+}zgyG hC ?+<O}G hC ?*(jzyG ?SGQOy9v 9| VQj<
&vy Ov"vSC ?vjvzvyG #v| U9vL Y(v! Q9v+vgv}vyG ?vjvzvyG :(Standard) Q9v+vgv|
,e;v f G ,v ph ?v SQOv }v yG ,v p ?v zv }v gv Av Tv }v yG ?v jv zv yG gQ9v =v Av f9v < ,v }v SQ hv \h
.?*(jzyG d9wV}G ,s9=< ?!Q9t| K+JZyG j(jzyG {wWyG Q=Ag@h
JGQv v +v v jv v Av v }v v y9v v < ?v v s;v v f &v v y :(Contextualized) b9v v +v v Tv v y9v v < fQv v Av v tv v |
.bQgyGh Y("yGh U"GyGh ?t=ay9v ?+f9}AF:G
9v |Ov "v f {v |9v wv yG ?v jv zv yG J(v | OQv * :(Language Death) ?vjvzvyG J(v|

.9%< f(}zwA| c9"$ f(w* :
?vy:Ovzvy 9v| QvZv"vgvy ~vS(vyG ?vqvY O9v"vSE :(Markedness) ?v+v|(vS(v|

.?+g+=_ {sC hC jOf9s Q+i &!C )zf
Ov fG(v tv zv y 9v %v |GQv Av IGh IQ9v =v gv yG ?v Jv Y :(Grammaticality) ?v *(v Jv !

.?*(J"yG
970
iOvy KvzvavZv}vyG GPv$ Qv%vc :(Linguistic Relativism) ?v*(vjvy ?v+v=vTv!
Q(vavAvyG ?vSGQO f9vwv|E d(vI dD9vTvAvyG Ov"vf Qv+v<9vS OQGhOE ~q vC SG(v< Rv!GQvp
k
.9%Ajy Q(a@ #| 9s;a!G IQ+Wgzy ,p9tDyG
,)vDv!C hC QvvP &v!C )vzvf [vMvWvzvy ,v@GPvyG Q(vZvAvyG :(Gender) Y(v!
.U"Gzy ,F(y(+=yG e(%q}yG #f rzAM* ($h
q
?v v qv v +v v c(v v yG )v v zv v f dOv v @ IOv v +v v tv v | hC IQv v I ?v v pQv v Yo :(Marker) ~v vSGh
.?|(S(}yG ?z}GyG hC ?}zwzy ?*(J"yG
971
JXCPIGQ9G [?*
Macro Literacy hQv9| v v IOG<C

Language Contact j(jy d9Z@G
Ethnicity ?+"CE
Homophone J(ZyG jO9IC
Monolingual ?jzyG jO9IC
Language Revitalization ?jzyG A9+IE
Ideologicalization ?@OC
Argot ?iQC
Ergativity ?+@9vQE
Language Displacement ?jzyG M9*R!G /?jzyG ?IGRE
Diglossia ?*(jy ?+FGhORG
Minimal Pairs 9+!O LGhRC
Basilect ,G%y S9SC
Language Replacement ?jzyG dGO=ASG
Questionnaire IQ9}ASG /f9+=ASG
Heuristic ,p9WwASG
Stylistic ?+<(zSC
973
Noun ~SG
Diacritics J9*Q9VE
Codification Q9qVE
Framework jQd! Q9_E
Immersion S9}iE
Lexical Borrowing ,}Gg| VGQAsG
Territoriality ?+}+zsE
Axiomatic ,|(+TvC
Affixation b9ZyE
Orthography A;|E
Language Suicide j(jy Q9JA!G
Onthropology 9+F(y(<hQD!C
Language Drift ?jzyG aGQJ!G
Language Degeneration ?jzyG Q9CO!G /?jzyG W9aJ!G
Age Systems #TyG ?}d!C
Ideolectal ,G%y(*O*C
Pidginization ?"FO<
Allomorphy ?+pQY ?z*O<
Paradigm LP(}! /~j*OGQ<
Voice A9"<
Past Participle {f9qyG Q+jy A9"<
Data Bank J9+ag| x"<
Embedding Structure ?HO| ?+"<
Interlingual j(jz+<
Interlangua ?*(jy ?+"+<
Interethnic ,"D8+<
974
Attrition Language ?jzyG {v5@
Nativization {+Yz@
Subordination ?+g=@
Juxtaposition Qh9:
Relexification ~GgCG O*O:
Shift d(;
Language Shift ?jzyG d(;
Neutralizing O++;
Language Planning j(jy b+a<
Interference {LGO@
Monolithic
o
~i9"@ /U t GQ@
Syntax >+vQ@
Synchrony #|GR@
Synchronic ,"|GR@
Configuration ?z+wW@ /IQ+GW@
Linguistic Legislation j(jy h*QW@
Agreement u<9a@
Equative [O9g@
Diachrony >s9g@
Multilingualism j(jy OOg@
Language Learning ?jzyG ~zg@
Normalization Q++g@
Change Q+j@
Code-Switching jQqV Q++j@
Complementarity ?+z|9w@
Periphrastic ,J+}z@
975
o n
Assimilation {C9E
Semantic Distinction [:O R++E
Match >S9"@
Language Competition j(jy Up9"@
Relativization >+T"@
Stratification O+]"@
Variation Y("@
Variability ?+f("@
Spelling ua! /?+G7
Tertiary Hybridization ,DzC _G7
Creolization ?jy _G7
Glottalization R+}7
Interdependance upG(@
Language Demise ?jzyG dGhR /rs(@
Triglossia ?*(jy ?+C;C
Dichotomy ?+F9"C
Biculturalism ?+p9tC ?+F9"C
Bilingualism ?*(jy ?+F9"C
Community IQ+Wf /?f9=
Clause ? z=
Sex U"F
Aspect ?%F
Case HGQfE ?y9I
Linguistic Determinism ?*(jy ?+}AI
q
Boundary OI
r r
Troncation QA< /aPIn
976
Language Preservation ?jzyG eqI
Scopic jR+I
Animacy/ Vitality ?*(+I
Ethnolinguistic Vitality ?+"CE ?*(+I
Extralinguistic j(jy LQ9L
Discourse H9aL
Definite u+sO
Rotation fGQhO
Language Demography ?jzyG 9+pGQi(}*O
Peripheric ,]<Q
Jargon ?!9_Q
Nominative hpQ
Tense #|R
Prefix ?t<9S
Narrative jOQS
Devoicing ?+@(ZyG ?qZyG >zS
Power ?azS
Marked Feature ?|(S(| ?}S
Language Policy ?*(jy ?S9+S
Conditional ,_QV
Consonant B|9Y
Conflict YGQY
Language Conflict j(jy YGQY
Morphology ?pGQYp
Inflection ?pQYo
Phonology ?@G(Y
977
Uninflected Form ?pQZA| Q+i IQ(Y
Conceptualizing ?!Q(Y
Formulas k +Y
Relative Pronoun ?zZyG Q+}\
Layer / Class ? t =_
Prototype RGQ_
Adverb aQc
Speech Community ?*(jy IQ+Wf
Dialectology J9G%zyG ~zf
Label ?!("f
Indefinite aQv g| Q+i
Subject {f9p
o
Idiosyncratic jOGQp
Verb {gp
w
Decreolization ?"G%yG xp
Répertoire ?}F9s
Database J9+ag| IOf9s
Movement Rule {t! IOf9s
Categorial jOf9s
Linguistic Law j(jy f(!9s
Language Murder ?jzyG {As
Aphasia t,f /?+FGQso
Polarity ?+=as
Force I(s
Transcription ?+@(Y ?<9Av
Creole _G$ ?jy /d(*Qv
978
Creolized Creole _G$ d(*Qv
Speech H9aL /e;v
Trigger-Words IRqI J9}zv
Intransitive eR:
Suffix ?tY:
Geolinguistic J9+!9Ty(+F /?+pGQjF J9+!9Ty
Demolinguistic ?+pGQi(}*O J9+!9Ty
Polysynthetic Language >+vQAyG IOOgA| J9jy
Obsolescent Language dGhRyG ]E ?z*B ?jy
Foreigner Talk ,="F}G ?jy
Native Language ?*Qap ?jy /?+zYC ?jy
Minority Language ?+zsC ?jy
Mother Tongue/ Mother Language e}G v v ?jzyG
Lingua Francae {|9g@ ?jy
Substrate Language 9+!O ?t=_ ?jy
Superstrate Language 9+zf ?t=_ ?jy
n
Replaced Language ?yO=AT| ?jy
Dominant Language ?"}+%| ?jy
Creolized Language ?"+G$ ?jy
Sociolects ?+f9}AFG J9G%y
Ideolect 9+zf ?G%y
Acrolect )aSh ?G%y
Postvelar ,tzI {=s 9|
Uniformitarian Principle {C9}AyG CO=|
Constrative Q*9jA| /{<9tA| /#*9=A|
u
Transitive OgA|
979
Multivariate Y("AyG OOgA|
k
Multicultural 9+p9tC OOgA|
Polygenetic J9"+@G OOgA|
Corpus #A|
Binary j("D|
Societal ,g}AH
Noun Phrase ,}SG >vQ|
Lexical Ressource ,}Gg| QOZ|
Matrix ?p(qZ|
Regular OQa|
Profile Q%d|
Ethnoprofile ,"CE Q%d|
Socioprofile ,f9}AFG Q%d|
Lexicon ~Gg|
Norm/ Standard Q9+g|
Contextualized b9+Ty9< fQAt|
Finite &A"|
Dominant #}+%|
Language Attitude ?jzyG rsG(|
Language Death ?jzyG J(|
x
Modality &F(|
Morphemic ,pQYo /,}+pQ(|
Markedness ?+|(S(|
Micro hQw+|
Language Tip ?jzyG f;+|
Grammaticality ?*(J!
980
Linguistic Relativism ?*(jy ?+=T!
Systemic ,tT!
Text [q !
Accusative >Z!
Global Scale {|9V b9a!
Variation Theory Y("AyG ?*Qd!
Typology ?+a}!
Core IG(!
Identity ?*($
Marker ~ SG h
Modal & Fh
Grapheme ?+aL IOIh
Lexical Item ?+}Gg| IOIh
Parameter b+Sh
981
l-GdQ9G
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v v 195 ,169 ,142 ,128 359 :jRvQCG O9g< G
,211 v v 210 ,206 ,196 741 :~+zS ,(<C
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v v 322 ,311 ,305 ,296 ,277 ,244 ,224 ,210
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,360 ,356 v v 355 ,352 923 ,739 v v 738
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,449 ,429 ,424 ,398 ,149 ,46 :?v v *(v v jv v zv v yG ?v v *O9v v I}G
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1093
948 ,935 ,930 ,664 ,515 v v 514 ,512 ,503
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339 :N(zS}G d9}gAS:G ,626 ,578 ,572 ,557
250 :\+D}AyG d9}gAS:G v v 697 ,661 ,637 ,628
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,50 ,29 ,26 ,22 v v 21 ,844 v v 843 ,840 ,813
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v v 277 ,229 v v 277 ,178 916 ,906 v v 905 ,881
,331 v v 330 ,306 ,278 350 :,f9}AF:G a;AL:G
,437 ,381 ,359 ,347 350 ,334 :jQ}gyG a;AL:G
v v 574 ,569 ,528 ,519 42 :O!(|OE ,B!(|OE
,605 ,598 ,581 ,575 130 :r+p ,ROQGhOE
,649 ,641 ,618 v v 617 ,130 ,67 :Qv v v v v Av v v v v yGh ,ROQGhOE
v v 683 ,672 ,668 ,653 349
v v 690 ,688 v v 686 ,684 323 :,ta"yG A9<Q:G
,735 ,733 ,722 ,691 ,50 :f9v v S(v v S ,>v v *Qv v @ v _v v pQE
,772 ,745 ,738 v v 737 809
,790 v v 788 ,777 ,774 491 :cQ9| ,a(!hQC
,812 ,806 ,796 v v 794 v v 597 ,16 :?v v v *(v v jv v v zv v yG ?v v IGR G
v v 843 ,840 v v 838 ,827 v v 605 ,603 ,601 ,598
v v 861 ,856 ,851 ,844 ,614 ,611 v v 610 ,608
,869 ,867 ,865 ,862 618 ,615
,900 v v 899 ,890 ,872 v v 26 ,16 :?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG ?v v+v vFGhOR:G
,906 v v 905 ,902 v v 900 v v 445 ,443 ,89 ,49 ,27
,932 ,930 v v 928 ,918 ,519 ,463 v v 456 ,454
961 ,951 ,941 ,936 ,651 ,626 ,623 v v 622
1094
,875 ,636 :?v v *(v v jv v zv v yG ?+zv v s}G ,432 ,280 ,130 :W9v v v v tv v v v S G
,886 v v 885 ,883 v v 879 695 ,514 ,484
909 ,892 ,890 823 :\f9qAyG H(zS}G
,841 v v 840 :j(vjvzvyG H9vTvAvv:G 953 :Q9pE ,#SC
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v v 904 ,749 ,739 ,469 ,452 ,444 ,440 ,437
905 v v 603 ,462 ,458 v v 456
803 ,800 :.h LQ(F ,U*GQi ,625 ,619 v v 617 ,605
413 :O*Qq@(i ,_AShQi ,797 ,746 ,738 v v 737
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481 ,956 ,945 ,941 ,932
369 :Oq*GO ryGQ ,(z*Qi 962 v v 961
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391 :.a Q<9F ,e(*Q<(i 833
1106
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79 386 ,366
,50 v v 49 :Rv vyQ9v vWv v@ ,f(v vTv viQv vp 321 :U*(y ,J9V(i
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,548 ,528 ,457 ,454 ,212 ,70 ,55 :OQG(v $ ,Rv zv +v i
749 ,744 ,664 ,752 ,695 v v 692 ,670
44 :?*(jzyG bhQqyG 757 ,755
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814
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,687 ,588 ,264 ,175 ,62 ,21 :rv v v v vyGQ ,Ov v v v vy(v v v v vS9v v v v vp
838 ,769 ,708 928 ,916 ,129
367 :(yh9< ,Q*Qp :S(v v v !9v v v *QOC f(v v v @ ,xv v v *O f9v v v p
236 :OG(Y}G A9]qyG ,428 ,416 ,414 v v 413
88 ,41 :?*(jzyG {YG(qyG 432 v v 431
328 :Q*9| ,U@Q(p ,485 ,430 ,48 :Qv !9v i ,Bv !9v p
791 ,423 :B+"*(i ,Uv(p 556
395 v v 394 :d9W+| ,(v(p :{v v v*9v v vwv v v| f9v v v$(v v vF ,>+zv v vTv v v!9v v vp
_v v v v Av v v v "v v v v y9v v v v p ,a("+v v v v S(v v v v y(v v v v p 616
359 :XA+p9+y(w+! v v 46 ,15 :{v v *QhC ,Xv v *Qv v "v v *9v v p
133 v v 132 :~+!(qyG ,186 ,106 ,56 v v 55 ,48
,413 ,321 :Qv v v FhQ ,Qv v v yh(v v v p ,633 v v 632 ,623 v v 622
v v 430 ,421 ,416 v v 415 933 ,672
774 v v 773 ,435 ,432 ,796 v v 795 :ShQv v v v v< ,QRGQv v v v vp
20 :Uv9| ,Q=+p 804 v v 802
1107
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924 ,897 411 :9K(@ ,#!9@Q+p
49 :JQ<Q f(F ,KQ+p
vv b vv ,30 :hO(v v v v v v vy ,#v v v v v v vp(v v v v v v v$Qv v v v v v v+v v v v v v vp
843 :?+pQg|9A+CG JGQOtyG 837
v v 839 :?v v +v v G+v v @GQv v Av v S G IQOv v tv v yG 346 ,341 :f(F ,QW+p
843 ,840 ,39 ,26 :.C G(v V(v F ,f9v }v Wv +v p
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851 ,842 ,454 v v 451 ,446 ,424
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844 ,840 v v 839 ,337 ,664 ,633 v v 632 ,623
840 v v 838 :?+!9TzyG IQOtyG ,701 ,686 ,672 v v 671
840 v v 838 :?*(J"yG IQOtyG ,742 v v 740 ,738 v v 737
581 :u<9aAyG OfG(s ,750 v v 749 ,747 v v 745
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377 :9*Q9| 9!C ,S9jz+p
601 :O!(}*Q ,Ry(%"AS9v 40 :9+F(y(z+qyG
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63 ,51 544 :P(@ ,GQAT"+p
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481 ,182 ,56 :S9v v @Q9v v | ,OQ9v v +"+v v p
380 v v 378 ,376 :e9*Q| ,9A+|9v 277 ,215
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1108
901 ,649 ,491 945 ,592 ,78
839 :{*9w| ,d9"v 611 :hO R9p hQ+< ,9"+|9v
957 ,953 :O("v ,#SO("v ,209 :>+zv v +v v p LQ(v v F ,HGQv v v
939 :fG(F ,S9+<hQ9<(v 894
70 :.f ,f;<(v v v 421 ,26 :Qv v v Dv v v "v v v i ,Uv v v *Qv v v v
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,786 ,717 v v 716 ,535 597 ,593 ,565
810 ,800 v v 52 ,48 ,45 ,16 :?v v zv v *Qv v wv v yG
612 :U}+F ,c(v v v 71 ,64 v v 63 ,61 ,53
376 ,368 :{*9w| ,d(v ,292 ,162 ,135 ,72
,194 ,13 :f9v v*Q(v vzv vp ,S9C(v vv v v 517 ,495 v v 493 ,458
795 v v 536 ,534 v v 532 ,522
611 :a(AT*Qv ,S(=|(y(v v v 562 ,560 v v 550 ,547
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876 ,686 ,680 ,666 ,627
925 v v 924 :.e f(F ,\!(v 946
609 :[hC B*O"}+v ,(j!9+v 605 :?*(jzyG ?*9qwyG
349 :,+"+F ,E+v 171 ,73 :Q!OQ9i ,ShQ(zv
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550 ,749 ,744 ,741 v v 740
791 :N9i ,x+v 955 ,754
914 ,373 ,126 :GO"+y ,k"+v 779 :,}*Q+F ,Q+zv
126 :.c 9!hQ ,Q(}Tj"+v 393 :U}+F ,OQ(q+zv
203 :{+! ,c("+v ,199 ,27 :{v v v vwv v v v*9v v v v| ,#+zv v v vv
1109
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930 ,694
v v 49 ,45 ,39 :e9+yh ,a(v v v v<:
v v 518 :?v +v vf9v }v vAv F:G J9+v !9v vTv zv vyG
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,736 ,733 ,563 ,519
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899 ,749 ,738
v v 122 ,120 v v 118 ,116
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,137 ,129 v v 128 ,123
594 v v 593
,180 ,178 v v 177 ,145
748 :?+pGQj@G J9+!9TzyG
,188 v v 186 ,184 v v 182
748 :?+pGQi(}*OyG J9+!9TzyG
,211 ,194 ,192 v v 190
622 :?+I9TCG J9+!9TzyG
v v 230 ,226 ,223 ,215
622 :?+tT"yG J9+!9TzyG
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748 ,653
,300 v v 298 ,289 v v 288
106 ,40 :?+qY(yG J9+!9TzyG
,336 ,324 ,320 ,315
,86 v v 85 ,83 v v 80 :e}G ?v jv zv yG
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,747 ,738 ,622 ,380
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v v 912 ,862 v v 860 ,858
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916 ,913
894 ,891 ,883 ,874
589 :QA+< ,OF(q*O:
786 :?+T"@G ?jzyG
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582 ,398 352 :9@Q9| ,Q*Qp:
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1110
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815 ,803 :.f jQp(+F ,X+y 952
620 ,149 :cGOhh ,QAyhO(+y ,63 ,30 v v 29 :Q9v v +v v gCG ?v v jv v zv v yG
270 :OQ9WA*Q ,_A!h(+y ,267 ,188 ,164 ,116
v v 334 ,307 ,296 ,276
vv e vv ,424 ,349 v v 347 ,335
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809 v v 808 934 ,861
218 ,38 :.L Sh;v ,Q*979| 548 :IQTw"CG ?jzyG
,47 v v 46 :&v v *QOv v !C ,&v v +v v "+v v @Q9v v | v v 801 ,794 :#v qv +v Av S ,f(v T"+v qv y
207 ,179 ,77 ,73 ,812 ,808 v v 804 ,802
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,345 ,340 :9v+vVQ9v| ,j:(vv9v| 611 ,558 ,555
361 766 :QCQB f(F ,,S(y
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733 :.O B!GQi ,{+!(v9| 549 :Q+zv ,Qq+p(y
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49 437 ,432 ,424
1111
205 :jQ9+gCG Q="yG e(%q| ,797 :JQv v v v<hQ k"+v v v v|(v v v vy ,h9v v v v|
411 :.Q ,,"TWw| 812 ,808
,157 ,143 ,97 :?v v v v v zv v v v v C9v v v v v }CG ,16 :dhQ9v v ,f(v @(v wv S v RQv *9v |
615 ,613 ,422 ,279 511 ,481 ,470 ,467
,358 :?v v v <(v v v Av v v wCG J9v v v SQ9v v v }CG 262 v v 261 :?!GOAS:G CO=|
380 ,376 ,642 v v 640 :?v v v+v v v}+zv v vs G COv v v=v v v|
688 :?"_G(CG 661 ,650 ,648 v v 647
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,588 ,584 ,571 v v 570 192 ,187 :{C9}AyG CO=|
613 ,610 640 :?+ZMWyG CO=|
429 :,A*OC ,,FQL(| 263 :?*(jzyG Izp9wCG CO=|
207 :RyQ9W@ Uq*E ,fGQ(| ,132 :P9v vTv vy(v v+v vS(v vTv vyG Qv v+v vjv vACG
503 :.L ,S(| 928 ,336 ,318 ,272
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257 :,f9}AF:G QV|CG 288 ,272
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549 ,346 ,331 ,329 ,324
748 :J9+!9Ty9A+CG 353 ,350
51 :,T!9! ,OQ(qA+| 212 :upG(CG Q%dCG
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136 :O"FGQ ,jQDT+| 342 ,337
15 :J9+!9Ty(+S(S v hQw+CG 456 ,210 :b(a"CG Q9+gCG
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278 203 :?zTzTyG e(%q|
1112
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308 :QhOyG ?*Qd! ,278 ,260 ,224 ,217
546 :?*QJ=yG ?!9_QyG ?*Qd! 297 ,287 v v 285
796 :,f9}AF:G c(zTyG ?*Qd! 194 :R+y ,_|
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544 :cQAWCG
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860 ,547 v v 546 41 :d9*hQ JQ(< I9J!
53 :?F(CG ?*Qd! 840 ,41 :jO+y(AyG (J"yG
846 :?+@9+p(TyG W9W"yG ?*Qd! 62 :jQ9+gCG (J"yG
274 :[t"yG ?*Qd! ,761 ,663 :?v v*(v vjv vzv vyG ?v v+v v=v vTv v"v vyG
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848 592 :,s;L}G e9d"yG
119 ,57 :jO+]"AyG LP(}"yG 580 :b9Zy G e9d!
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109 592 :?*(tAyG e9d!
108 :,}wyG LP(}"yG 275 :a;AL:G ?*Qd!
503 ,74 :~S(yG LP(}! 313 :O9+Af:G ?*Qd!
,526 ,523 :xv v v*Qv v v*O ,SQ(v v v! 622 :?+|;wyG d9gp}G ?*Qd!
,608 ,536 v v 535 ,530 274 :~wJAyG ?*Qd!
718 v v 717 ,711 75 :bh9TAyG ?*Qd!
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908 544
,621 ,27 :Uv v!9v v$ Qv vA+v v< ,Ov vz+v v! 360 :?*Q(aAyG ?*Qd"yG
635 224 ,70 ,55 :r+wAyG ?*Qd!
1113
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417 773
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763
799 :BT!QE ,jG(j"+G
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699 v v 698 :cQ*E ,eh9<R<($ 345 :,C(}+@ ,x+<9$
782 :H(< ,LO($ 126 :f(F ,\@Q9$
617 ,76 :.C OQ9WA*Q ,#SO($ 126 :(S ,\@Q9$
46 :S9|(@ ,f(SO($ 411 :Qq+"F ,Rq*QiQ9$
131 ,67 :S9|(@ ,H(FQ($ 67 :.C dO!h ,U*Q9$
439 :9*GQ< ,[9S($ 383 :\+v f9F ,d9$
766 :O!(|OE ,dQS($ ,518 :f(v SQOv !C JQv <hQ ,d9v $
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958 ,934 v v 932 ,742 QOv v "v v v Tv v v wv v v yC {v v wv v *9v v | ,jGO+y9v v $
417 :Q9@(y ,f9}p($ ,359 ,356 :Oh(v v v v v v wv v v v v v *Qv v v v v v v
500 :U*(y f(*Q9| ,R"+p($ ,772 ,767 ,421 ,376
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652 ,222 694 :f9+S(F ,RQ|9$
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1114
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,865 ,860 ,837 ,798 v v 593 ,579 ,520 ,471
950 ,929 ,886 ,870 v v 669 ,627 ,617 ,594
414 :d(< ,f(AyGh v v 683 ,681 ,679 ,671
413 :f(iE ,X+yQh ,691 ,688 v v 687 ,685
370 :IOG<}G A9aSh ,700 v v 698 ,695 v v 694
645 :?+T!Qqzy ,}SQyG h\(yG ,869 ,808 ,708 ,705
839 ,179 :?+zYG(AyG ?q+c(yG 894 ,885
710 ,708 :j(jy("C G ,f(yG ,663 :Ov*Qvqv@(vi f9v$(vF ,QOQv+v$
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1115
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1116

دليل السوسيولسانيّات تحرير فلوريان كولماس ترجمة خالد الأشهب و ماجدولين النهيبي

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دليل السوسيولسانيّات تحرير فلوريان كولماس ترجمة خالد الأشهب و ماجدولين النهيبي

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755 . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . 9%zIh ?+s9+TyGh ?+JyG i(tzy e9f I(s LP(}! v v 4.21

891 . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?SQO}yG ,p #+Ajy d9}gASG v v 1.25

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302 . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . BFG(Y ?T}My ?|OtA}yG JGOhQ(yG ?=T! v v 2.8

879 . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?jzyG ?+F9"DyG ?+<QAyG W9}!C v v 1.25

958 . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . 1983 e9gy j(jzyG b+aMAzy #i($ LP(}! v v 1.27

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Peter Trudgill, ed., Applied Sociolinguistics (London; Orlando: )29(

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