CWB Study Guide - Weld Quality and Examination Methods

CWB Form 113E/2007-1
WELD QUALITY AND
EXAMINATION METHODS
STUDY GUIDE
CANADIAN WELDING BUREAU

Division of CWB Group - Industry Services
“CERTIFICATION MAKES THE DIFFERENCE”

Introduction
This publication had been prepared to assist personnel wishing to qualify as welding
supervisors under the provisions of CSA Standard W47.1 “Certification of Companies for
Fusion Welding of Steel Structures# and other CSA welding certification standards.
It contains background information on weld discontinuities and their causes, and

methods of examination. This document is not intended to replace study courses,
reference books or other pertinent technical literature which supervisors are encouraged
to read.
Included in this publication are the following topics:
A. Weld Discontinuities and the Practices that Cause Them

B. Nondestructive Examination Methods
C. Mechanical and Chemical Testing
D. Exercises - Weld Faults
E. Exercises - Quality Control and Inspection Methods
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A. WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND THE PRACTICES THAT CAUSE

THEM
We generally understand the quality of a weld to mean its ability to perform reliably
throughout its intended life. This concept of fitness for service is based on more
than workmanship; it includes input from the designer, the materials specialist, and
the end user of the product.
The welder and his supervisor, however, are most concerned with the standard of
workmanship that forms part of the overall weld quality. Workmanship is generally
controlled at the shop floor or in the field, and thus depends on the skill of the welder
and the experience of his supervisor.
During production or inspection, disruptions in the weld or nearby parent material

may be noticed. For example, these disruptions could be surface cracks, porosity or
entrapped foreign material. They may or may not be important in the final
performance of the weld, but generally are important at least as indicators of other
potential weld problems.
It is necessary to define two terms which are often used interchangeably, but
incorrectly:
a. Discontinuity: A discontinuity is any observable in the weld (or the parent

material).
b. Defect: A defect is a discontinuity which has been evaluated and judged to be

of potential interference to the fitness for purpose of the weld. (Weld fault of
flaw has the same meaning as defect).
The significant part of this definition is that calling something a $defect# means that
someone has evaluated the discontinuity and decided that it is or could be harmful.
Such a decision could be based on experience, but is more normally based on
comparison with an agreed standard. For example, for structural steel fabrications,
CSA Standard W59 (Clauses 11.5.4 and 12.5.4) states that a surface crack noted on
visual inspection means that the weld is unacceptable. Under W59, then, any
surface crack is a defect.
In keeping with these definitions, standard practice is to refer to all observations as

discontinuities, and to call them defects only once their effect has been evaluated.
(This evaluation might be an immediate decision by a knowledgeable welding
supervisor or inspector.)
Discontinuities must be identified is some way that permits relatively easy evaluation
against the standard, and defects must be removed or repaired. An understanding
of the cause of a defect will help the welder or the supervisor take steps to prevent
further occurrence.
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Weld inspection and examination is a continuous process which involves actions

prior to, during and after welding. It is convenient to group weld discontinuities found
during this examination as being related to geometry, structure or material property:
a. Geometric discontinuities are those which are observed as dimensional

differences or deviations in the layout and fitup of the joint. They can usually be
measured using standard measuring tools such as a tape measure or
protractor. An example of a geometric discontinuity would be an undersized
bevel angle.
b. Structural discontinuities are those which are breaks or gaps in the weld
itself. Those appearing on the weld surface may be seen by visual inspection,
while internal discontinuities are found by nondestructive examination. A slag
inclusion would be an example of a structural discontinuity.
c. Property deficiencies are problems with the weld metal (and sometimes the
parent metal) itself. Low base metal tensile strength would be a property
deficiency.
1. GEOMETRICAL DISCONTINUITIES
Some geometrical discontinuities, such as an incorrect root face or incorrect bevel

angle, can be observed before welding. Others, such as inadequate fillet weld leg
size or overlap, can only be seen after welding has been completed.
Geometrical discontinuities become geometrical defects once their actual

dimensions have been compared to the specification and found to be beyond the
limits set. For example, CSA W59 (Clause 5.4.5.1 and Table 5.7) allows the groove
angle to be as much as 10( larger than specified or 5( smaller. If the groove angle
is specified to be 60(, a measured angle of 65( would be a geometrical discontinuity
or deviation but would not be a defect.
1.1 Geometrical Discontinuities Before Welding
Prior to welding, the geometry or dimensions of the pieces to be welded may be

observed to be different from those detailed in the weld procedure data sheet or the
shop drawing. Examination of the faces to be welded may reveal irregularities which
could have an influence on the ability of the welder to achieve an acceptable weld.
Discontinuities related to weld joint preparation and fitup include incorrect

dimensions of:
a. Bevel or groove angle;

b. J or U groove radius;
c. Root face;
d. Misalignment;
e. Root Opening.
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Discontinuities on the surfaces of the materials to be joined could include nicks,

gouges, laminations or scale.
1.1.1 Discontinuities Related to Joint Preparation or Fitup
1.1.1.1 Bevel or Groove Angle
An excessive bevel angle could have two consequences. A large angle means a
larger joint to be filled with weld metal, meaning higher material cost and slower
production. Figure 1 illustrates this effect. For a single bevel groove weld of
thickness of 12 mm ( inch), and a root face of 1.6 mm (1/16 inch), a 35( bevel
angle requires 21% more weld metal than a 30( bevel angle.
Figure 1: Excessive Groove Size Requires More Weld
The second possible consequence would be excessive distortion resulting from a

large uneven mass of weld shrinking while it cools. This is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Distortion Due to Weld Shrinkage
On the other hand, if the bevel angle is too small, the welder will find that it is difficult
to properly manipulate the electrode and thus the result might be incomplete fusion
(lack of fusion) or incomplete penetration.
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Since the groove angle of a single vee groove weld in a butt joint would include two
bevel angles, the effect of improper angle on both sides could more than double the
problem.
An incorrect bevel angle can be corrected by rebevelling the face of the joint (if the
plate size permits), by building up the bevel for resurfacing by buttering (this is a
costly procedure which should be done before fitup); or replacement of the plate.
1.1.1.2 !J or !U Groove Joints
Figure 3 shows a !J and a !U groove preparation. The primary advantage of this

type of penetration is that it reduces the amount of weld metal required to fill groove
joints in thick material. It reduces the joint volume, while still allowing adequate
access for full penetration welds. It is usually an expensive joint to prepare and as
such is only economical when welding long joints on thick material.
In order to allow for manipulation of the electrode, some bevel angle is usually
required. Access to the root is accommodated by the radius at the bottom of the
joint, and weld metal is saved by reducing the bevel angle.
Figure 3: A J-Groove Preparation
(Note that a !U groove similar to the above is created when carbon arc
backgouging full penetration welds.)
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1.1.1.3 Root Face
A root face dimension is specified in the welding procedure to ensure that the welder
has enough material at the bottom of the groove to support the root pass while still
allowing for adequate penetration.
Figure 4: The Root Face of a Joint Penetration
If the root face is too small there may not be enough material in the root area to
support the first pass and burn-through occurs.
Figure 5: Burn Through Due to Insufficient Root Face
If the root face is too large, it can prevent penetration to the desired depth in the
groove. The result is either inadequate penetration for a partial joint penetration
groove weld or will require excessive backgouging to achieve full penetration.
Figure 6: Incomplete Penetration Due to Excessive Root Face
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The root face dimension can often vary along the length of the joint or be different on
each of the two mating parts. Some variation will be acceptable as the welder can
adjust his/her technique, within the range of the approved procedure, to !melt in to
the thicker side or avoid !burning through the thin side. If the root faces vary too
greatly, it may not be possible to produce the desired root penetration.
Figure 7
1.1.1.4 Misalignment
When the two pieces to be joined are not lined up accurately, the result can be a
weld which is under internal stresses not anticipated in the design, or a stress
concentration.
Internal stresses can be created when two parts are forced into position and then
tacked. These stresses remain in the weldment when it goes onto service and under
the right set of conditions, can cause failure.
Figure 8
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The sharp transition between misaligned parts causes a !stress concentration . In

this area, stresses can build up to beyond design stresses and could cause a failure.
The preferred remedy for incorrect fitup is to break whatever tacks are holding the
assembly from alignment (if any) and re-fit the parts.
Figure 9
1.1.1.5 Root Opening
Under normal conditions, the combination of proper root face, groove angle and root
opening provides sufficient mass of material in the root area to support the molten
weld metal long enough to bridge the gap and solidify.
If the root opening is too wide, the welder may encounter a problem in keeping the
weld metal in the groove long enough to solidify. The result on the finished weld is
called burn-through; seen as droplets of metal in the backside of the joint, commonly
referred to as grapes or icicles.
Figure 10: Excessive Root Opening Allows Burn-Through
If the root opening is too narrow or nonexistent, it may make it impossible for the
welder to achieve complete penetration. The resulting effective throat dimension of
the weld would be less than design size.
Figure 11: Insufficient Root Opening Limits Penetration
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Within limits, the effect of root opening depends on the welder s skill. By adjusting
travel speed and current setting, some variation in root dimensions can be tolerated.
The root dimensions become less important when the weld is to be backgouged.
1.1.2 Irregularities in Surfaces to be Joined
Poor edge preparation, perhaps resulting from the cutting process, can produce
nicks and gouges on the surfaces to be joined. CSA W59 (Clause 5.3.4) sets limits
on the size and extent of such irregularities, specifying when they must be removed
or weld repaired.
Such discontinuities as laminations in the plate may need to be explored further to

determine the correct course of action. Some surface irregularities are shown in
Figure 12.
Figure 12: Plate Edge Defects May Need Correction
1.1.3 Summary
The control of geometrical discontinuities prior to welding is an important step in

preventing problems from arising in latter stages of fabrication. It is more expensive
to !repair than it is to !prepare .
Greater volumes of deposited weld metal due to poor preparation and fitup can lead
to higher production costs, increased likelihood of distortion, higher residual stresses
and increased risk of structural weld discontinuities (defects in weld deposit).
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1.2 Geometric Irregularities After Welding
Most Irregularities found after welding is completed relate to the size and shape of
the finished weld. Figure 13 shows some acceptable and unacceptable fillet weld
profiles. Figure 14 shows acceptable and unacceptable groove weld profiles.
Figure 13: Acceptable and Unacceptable Fillet Weld Profiles
Figure 14: Acceptable and Unacceptable Groove Weld Profiles
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1.2.1 Fillet Welds - Basic Terminology
Figure 15 shows the parts of a fillet weld and the terms used to describe each of
them.
Figure 15: Parts of a Fillet Weld
1.2.2 Fillet Weld Profiles
According to the shape of its face, a fillet weld can be described as: flat, convex or
concave, as illustrated in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Convex, Flat and Concave Fillet Welds
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At times it may be desirable to specify a particular profile to the fillet weld for
cosmetic purposes or perhaps to allow for the mating of different components in an
assembly. The drawing can indicate this by adding weld profile features to the
welding symbol as illustrated in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Weld Profile as Indicated in Welding Symbol
1.2.3 Legs of a Fillet Weld
The size of a fillet is defined as the leg dimension. A fillet weld may be specified as
having equal or unequal legs. Figure 18 shows a fillet weld with unequal legs where
equal legs have been specified and the necessary corrective action.
Figure 18: Unequal (and Undersize) Leg Dimension in Fillet Weld
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1.2.4 Fillet Weld Measurement
Fillet and combination gauges.
Figure 19: Combination Gauge
1.2.5 Unacceptable Fillet Weld Profiles
Examples of each of the unacceptable fillet weld profiles are shown in the following
illustrations.
1.2.5.1 Insufficient Throat
In welded design, it is the throat of the weld upon which strength calculations are
based. It is critical, therefore, that the weld produced has at least the throat
expected by the designer. One common problem is illustrated in the following figure
where there is a valley between two successive weld beads. In the most critical
area, the throat, there is not enough metal. To correct this defect, it is necessary to
add more weld metal.
Figure 20: Correcting Insufficient Throat
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1.2.5.2 Excessive Convexity
Excessive convexity is a larger than necessary buildup of weld metal on the face of
the fillet. The result is poor weld appearance but the sharp corners often created at
the toe of the weld are undesirable for some types of loading. The most common
method of correction is by grinding to remove excess metal.
Figure 21: Excessive Convexity Produces Sharp Corners
1.2.5.3 Undercut
Undercut at the toe of the weld is the result of melting away some of the base
material and not replacing it with weld metal. Undercut is usually corrected by lightly
grinding the area and adding a small amount of weld metal. The additional pass is
often lightly ground to blend the repair weld into the original.
Figure 22: Undercut and Its Repair
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1.2.5.4 Overlap
Overlap is closely related to excessive convexity, where the weld metal at the toe
does not fuse completely to the base material. This reduces the effective leg size
(and the throat dimension) and acts as a stress riser increasing the chances of in
service cracking. Overlap is corrected by removing the excess metal and blending
the area into the remaining weld. If the resulting weld is undersize, another pass
must be added to create the desired weld size.
Figure 23: Overlap
1.2.5.5 Insufficient Leg Size
One or more of the legs of a fillet weld may be smaller than required by the design.
When the leg length falls short of the design, the actual weld throat dimension is
affected as shown below. The corrective action is to add weld metal to the undersize
area.
Figure 24: Insufficient Leg Size and Corrective Action
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1.2.5.6 Angular Distortion
Distortion is the result of weld shrinkage. Figure 25 illustrates angular distortion

resulting from a large, one-sided fillet weld. This can be prevented and/or controlled
by design and welding technique. Two sided welds often produce less distortion.
Figure 25: Distortion in a One-Side Fillet Weld
1.2.6 Unacceptable Groove Weld Profiles
In general, the weld profile deficiencies identified for fillet welds can be applied to
groove welds. (See Figure 14).
1.2.6.1 Underfill
A concave surface on a groove weld results in insufficient throat and an undersized

weld (Figure 26). Additional weld metal is required to correct this condition.
Figure 26: Underfill
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1.2.6.2 Undercut
Undercut is created by melting away the material along the edge of the joint. The
corrective action is to lightly grind the area and add another small pass to fill the
area.
Figure 27: Undercut
1.2.6.3 Overlap
Overlap can mask lack of fusion. There is no way to determine visually how far the
unfused region extends back into the weld deposit. It also produces a sharp stress
riser which can be a serious defect in dynamic service conditions. The corrective
action is to first remove the material in the overlapped region and determine the
extent of the unfused area. Usually, grinding is sufficient to correct the problem, but
if the grinding operation reduces the size of the weld below design requirements,
extra weld metal must be added to replace the material which was removed.
Figure 28 Overlap
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1.2.6.4 Excessive Reinforcement
Similar to excessive convexity in a fillet weld, too much weld metal has been
deposited. This can concentrate stresses in the area beside the weld and these
stresses may not have been accounted for in the design. The corrective action
required is to remove the excess metal, usually by grinding.
Figure 29: Excessive Reinforcement
1.2.7 Distortion Due to Weldment Design
Weld designs which place the deposit on one side of the neutral axis of the
connection often are the cause of undue distortion. Some times it is the only cost
effective means of producing the weld. When feasible, using a !balanced design will
control or eliminate excessive distortion.
Figure 30: Balanced and Unbalanced Connection Designs

for Fillet and Groove Welds
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2. STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES IN THE WELD
There are several types of discontinuity which appear as voids or inclusions of

foreign material in the weld and heat affected zone (HAZ) of the parent material.
These include:
a. Gas inclusions or porosity;

b. Slag inclusions;
c. Fusion deficiencies (incomplete fusion, inadequate joint penetration);
d. Cracks;
e. Surface irregularities (craters, arc strikes, poor workmanship).
2.1 Gas Inclusions or Porosity
At high temperatures, gases can dissolve into the liquid metal. These gases
originate from impurities in the base metal, contamination on the joint surfaces,
incomplete shielding of the molten pool, or contaminated weld filler metal. The
amount of gas which can be absorbed by the liquid is much more than can be
contained in the solid metal. When the welding process is applied correctly, the
amount of absorbed gas is reduced and porosity is prevented.
Figure 31: Formation of Weld Porosity
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Weld porosity is caused by...............
a. Contaminated electrodes (dirt, oil, grease, moisture);

b. Surface contamination of base metal;
c. Surface coatings on base metal;
d. Insufficient or excessive shielding gas flow rate;
e. Wrong shielding gas;
f. Arc blow;
g. Welding technique (wrong electrode angle or manipulation);
h. Wrong electrode;
i. Excessive or insufficient current;
j. Chemistry of base metal (high sulphur content).
2.2 Slag Inclusions
All common welding processes produce slag. Certain processes such as Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW) and in particular Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) produce
virtually no slag (any slag formed during GTAW is from surface contamination).
Many processes use a flux to !pick up oxides and other impurities and form
compounds which are lighter than the liquid metal. These lighter compounds will
float to the surface. Once the slag floats to the surface, it serves another purpose:
protecting the weld metal from our atmosphere while it cools. Slag formed on the
surface of a weld bead must be removed before depositing the next pass. If not
removed, the successive passes will cover the slag to form an inclusion (as shown
below).
Figure 32: Formation of Slag Inclusions
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Slag entrapment can be prevented by properly preparing the joint prior to welding
and cleaning between passes. Rough or irregular surfaces provide pockets for slag
to run into and not be able to float out of the weld deposit. Similarly, manipulation of
the electrode can have a great effect on slag inclusion. Techniques which cause
rapid and/or erratic solidification of the weld deposit reduce the time available for the
slag to rise out of the liquid.
2.3 Fusion Type Discontinuities
There are two main clauses of fusion type discontinuities:
Incomplete Fusion
Inadequate Joint Penetration
2.3.1 Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion, commonly referred to as !lack of fusion is an internal discontinuity

where the weld deposit has not melted into either of the base materials being joined
or into previous weld layers. Incomplete fusion can occur anywhere in the weld joint.
Figure 33: Incomplete Fusion
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2.3.2 Inadequate Joint Penetration
Figure 34: Inadequate Joint Penetration
Inadequate joint penetration is created when the weld metal does not extend through
the depth of the joint required by design (as shown above). This can be the result of
either incorrect joint design or welding technique.
Joint designs too restrictive to allow the weld process adequate access to the root,
will prevent penetration. The welding procedure must be designed to fit the
connection design. Manipulation of the electrode must be in accordance with the
penetration characteristics of the process as it is applied to the joint.
2.3.3 Causes of Incomplete Fusion and Inadequate Joint Penetration
These two types of defects can be similar and often are related. In general,
improper joint design, improper welding technique or incorrect welding procedure will
be the likely causes of the above. Not removing heavy scale or oily contaminants
from the surfaces of the joint can also cause fusion type discontinuities.
Fitup is also a consideration. If the joint is designed correctly and in accordance with
a proven procedure (approved data sheet), the geometry of the connection at the
time of welding reflects the data sheet.
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2.3.3.1 Improper Joint Design
In general, limiting access to the root area (groove angle too small) or excessively
large root areas (root face or root opening), will limit the ability of the process to melt
the base material. Connection designs must be specified with the particular welding
process in mind. Under normal circumstances, narrow groove designs are best
suited to deeply penetrating processes such as submerged arc welding. Figure 35
shows how a vee-groove, which is too narrow, prevents the process from completely
penetrating into the sides of the joint.
Figure 35: Improper Joint Design
2.3.3.2 Improper Welding Technique
Welder skill in manipulating the electrode and recognizing conditions in the arc,
which require changes in technique, are very important factors in the production of
sound welds. Also, the welder s knowledge of the nature and limitations of the
processes penetration characteristics significantly affects the day to day results in
production. Figure 36 illustrates some of the differences in penetration shape
between processes.
Figure 36: Penetration Characteristics of Some Processes
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2.3.3.3 Incorrect Welding Procedure
The feature of the welding procedure itself may prevent the successful production of
a joint. Some typical situations are listed below:
a) Electrode too large - If the electrode is too large for the application, it may
not reach deeply enough into the joint and the deposit will !bridge across ,
preventing penetration into the root.
b) Incorrect electrode - The type of electrode (fast freeze, fill freeze, etc.)
influences the amount of penetration which will be achieved.
c) Incorrect polarity, voltage or current settings - The weld process parameters

(current or wire feed speed, voltage, electrical stickout) must be adjusted to
suit the joint design and position.
2.4 Cracks
Cracks can occur either during the welding cycle or after. In fact, cracking is divided
into two categories, based on when it occurs.
1. HOT CRACKING
2. COLD CRACKING
Hot cracks are those which occur right away (while the weldment is still hot). This
takes place at the time the weld metal is solidifying and results from restraint forces
acting on the cooling weld metal. As the weld metal cools, it is shrinking and the
weldment itself !pulls back . While the weld metal is hot, it is weaker than the colder
material around it and is therefore forced to stretch. Hot cracking commonly occurs
when we ask the weld to stretch too far. One easy way to prevent this from
happening is to preheat the joint. Preheating expands the weldment in the area next
to the joint and ultimately reduces the amount of stretching the weld is forced to do.
Cold cracks are those which typically occur at temperatures below 200(C. These
cracks can occur right away or they can be DELAYED up to two weeks after welding
is completed, although the greatest danger is said to be within the first two days. For
this reason, cold cracking is often called !delayed hydrogen cracking .
Cold cracks are caused by hydrogen atoms trapped in the weld metal. The
hydrogen enters the liquid metal during the welding process and is trapped there
when the metal freezes. Hydrogen comes from contaminants on the surface of the
joint such as oil, grease, paint or heavy scale. Excessive moisture in electrode
coatings or flux introduces too much hydrogen into the weld. In some situations it
takes very little hydrogen to cause a failure. The best solution to the problem is to
prevent hydrogen from entering the weld. Storing basic electrodes in hermetically
sealed containers or heated storage ovens will prevent the welding process from
introducing excess hydrogen into the deposit. Proper cleaning of the joint surfaces
prior to welding will prevent the process from picking it up from contaminants.
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2.5 Surface Irregularities
Easily visible workmanship discontinuities may occur on the last passes of the weld.
These include:
a) Badly shaped weave pattern or weld bead ripples - A poor looking cap is
often the indication of internal discontinuities.
b) Craters - Current design concepts use the entire length of the weld in
strength calculations. Therefore, a crater causes the weld to be undersized.
The crater is often at the end of the weld where stresses can be high.
c) Arc strikes - An arc strike is caused by completing the welding circuit outside
the weld area. The result is the creation of a small area which was melted
and then cooled very quickly, creating a hard and brittle spot on the surface.
In higher strength materials, fine cracks are created. In lower strength
materials, they become spots for cracks to initiate. There have been many
cases where welded components have failed due to cracks initiating from arc
strikes.
3. PROPERTY DEFICIENCIES
The performance of a joint depends on the chemical and mechanical properties of

the weld and surrounding material.
Mechanical tests which involve cutting up sections of the weldment can confirm
strength, toughness and corrosion resistance of the joint as welded. Obviously,
every joint cannot be tested this way, so it is usual practice to qualify a joint by
welding a similar joint under similar conditions, then cutting up the resulting
specimen. This process of weld procedure qualification which should occur before
production begins is an important part in ensuring the adequate performance of the
final weld.
For example, if in a tensile test, the weld failed at a load less than that corresponding
to the specified tensile strength, the weld procedure would fail; and the weld would
not meet the design requirement.
Both the welder and the supervisor have a responsibility to ensure that welds do not
contain discontinuities and are completed with a finish that reflects good shop
practice.
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B. NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION METHODS
1. VISUAL INSPECTION
The basis for all weld examination methods is inspection with the human eye.
Special techniques or devices might be used to improve the visibility of surface
discontinuities or to look within the weld, but the final decision regarding acceptance
almost always comes back to a visual inspection and associated measurements.
A trained and experienced visual inspector requires few tools, and can make
decisions on the spot thus making corrective action easy and immediate. A trained
welding inspector can monitor all phases of the welding process.
Other nondestructive examination methods can be used to supplement visual

inspection and, in fact, are often required by the standard or specification. For
example, a visual inspector can witness the root pass and subsequent backgouging,
or he can call for radiographic inspection to look for slag or lack of fusion after the
weld is completed.
Use of any other nondestructive test does not relieve the supervisor or the welder of
the responsibility for regular and continual visual inspection as a means of ensuring
good workmanship as the job progresses.
2. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
One method of inspecting for internal discontinuities in a weld is radiographic

inspection. The method involves passing electromagnetic radiation of certain
wavelengths (X or gamma rays) through the weld to make an image on a film placed
on the side opposite to the source of radiation.
Since the darkness of the film is generally related to the ease with which the
radiation passes through the object, a void (a result of inadequate joint penetration,
incomplete fusion or porosity), allows more radiation to pass through and thus
appears as a dark area on the film.
The advantage of radiographic inspection is that it results in a film image which can
become a permanent record and which permits easy location of any discontinuities.
There are two major disadvantages: the method is costly in terms of time and
consumable materials, and the radiation is hazardous, which often means clearing
all personnel from the immediate area.
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A simple radiographic setup is shown below:
Figure 37: Typical Radiographic Setup
A penetrameter (shown in Figure 38) is a small piece of the same type of material
(i.e. steel for steel, aluminum for aluminum) of a known size with known features
against which the quality of the radiographic film is assessed. If the penetrameter
shows up clearly, then most weld discontinuities should appear with equal clarity.
The radiographic inspection method is somewhat limited in its sensitivity to

discontinuities which are perpendicular to the direction of the radiation beam.
Discontinuities are revealed by differences in the darkness of the film. A tight crack
or lamination might not cause enough difference in darkness to be seen by the
naked eye and would therefore go undetected. (See Figure 39).
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Figure 38: Radiographic Penetrameter
Figure 39: Limitations of Radiography
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3. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Most standards accept ultrasonic testing as a means of verifying the inside of a weld
although it is usually used in conjunction with other non-destructive testing methods
(i.e. liquid penetrant, radiography). The method uses a high frequency sound beam
which passes into the weld from a transducer. Discontinuities or interfaces within
the weld reflect the sound beam back to the transducer. This reflected signal is
converted to a form that can be interpreted on a screen or computer display as
shown below.
Figure 40 Angle Beam Ultrasonic Testing of a Weld
A skilled operator is the key to valid ultrasonic inspection. The operator must
evaluate the screen presentation in terms of the internal structure of the weld and
differentiate between signals from the geometry of the connection and possible
defects such as incomplete fusion.
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Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
- It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
- The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
NDT methods.
- Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
- It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and
shape.
- Minimal part preparation is required.
- Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
- Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
- It has other uses, such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.
- Sophisticated data acquisition and computer systems are available that allow
test results to be retained permanently.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:
- Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
- It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy
into the test specimen.
- Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
- Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low
sound transmission and high signal noise.
- Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
- Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and
characterization of flaws.
- Some older type equipment does not allow a permanent record to be kept.
CSA Standard W59 limits the thickness for which ultrasonic inspection should be
used above 8mm (5/16"). (See revision to CSA Standard W59, Clause 8.2.1.1
dated October 2004.)
- 30 -
4. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Materials which can be magnetized, such as structural steels, are called

ferromagnetic. The magnetic particle inspection method is a quick, effective way of
detecting surface and near surface discontinuities. A crack or other discontinuity
which lies perpendicular to the magnetic field (flux) induced into the part, creates an
additional set of magnetic poles. A fine, coloured, iron powder is !dusted onto the
surface under examination and tends to collect at these poles.
Magnetic particle inspection is one of the best ways to detect fine cracking which
comes to the surface. It is however limited in its ability to detect isolated indications
such as porosity.
Figure 41: Magnetic Particle Inspection
There are adaptations to the process which enable us to detect internal

discontinuities, but they are seldom used in portable situations. It uses high
amperage DC power to induce a strong, deeper penetrating magnetic field.
Whereas, the method described above uses a relatively small, hand held, AC current
electro-magnet.
- 31 -
5. LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
The liquid penetrant inspection method is used to detect discontinuities which are
open to the surface. It originally evolved from the !oil and whiting test. A light oil,
coloured with a bright (sometimes fluorescent) pigment is applied to the surface
under examination and allowed to sit there for a certain period of time (5-15
minutes). During this time (dwell time), the penetrant will be drawn into openings in
the surface. The penetrant remaining on the surface is then cleaned off and a white
powder called a !developer is applied. The developer draws the penetrant out of
these openings in the surface and provides a background against which it can easily
be seen.
Figure 42: Typical Liquid Penetrant Cycle
The liquid penetrant method is economical and can be used on any type of metal.
The major disadvantage is that it can only detect discontinuities which are open to
the surface. An internal flaw which the penetrant cannot soak into, will not be
revealed by this process.
- 32 -
C. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL TESTING

The term mechanical testing is used to describe a group of test methods for
establishing or confirming the mechanical properties of a material or a completed
weld. Chemical testing refers to the chemical analysis of the components which
make up an engineering material, a weld or other component.
Most of these tests involve cutting up or otherwise destroying some part of the object
being tested and thus they are sometimes called !destructive tests .
The tests are generally classified by the property they are intended to define. Each
follows a well established procedure which is part of a published standard, allowing
individual test results to be compared to other results or statistical norms.
In this document, we will consider the following mechanical and chemical tests:
a. Tensile tests;
b. Bend tests;
c. Hardness tests;
d. Impact tests;
e. Macroscopic examination of cross-sections;
f. Fracture tests;
g. Chemical analyses.
1. TENSILE TESTS
Tensile tests involve applying a load to the ends of a standard test specimen and
recording the point at which the specimen fails by permanent shape change
(yielding) and by fracture.
A number of mechanical properties can be determined from a tensile test, including

the following which are of particular significance in welding:
a. yield strength (the stress at which permanent deformation occurs);

b. ultimate strength (the highest stress the material is able to withstand);
c. breaking or fracture strength (the stress at which the material fails by
breaking);
d. ductility (the percentage of elongation or reduction of area of a defined
segment of the specimen).
Two specific types of tensile test specimens are used extensively in testing welding
materials and welded joints. One of these uses specimens taken from the weld
metal only (all weld metal test) and the other uses specimens taken across the
weld machined so that the smallest diameter or width is in the weld area (reduced
section tensile test).
- 33 -
1.1 All Weld Metal Tensile Test
To test the mechanical properties of the deposited weld metal, the sample must be
taken from the weld itself. This is done by machining a cylindrical specimen from the
weld, lying along the length of the weld. This test is most commonly used in the
qualification of welding consumables (electrodes, wire/gas and wire/flux
combinations).
Figure 43: All Weld Metal Tensile
1.2 Reduced Section Tensile Test
The test sample for the reduced section tensile test is taken across the joint so that
the weld metal is in the middle of the specimen. Its purpose is to test the strength of
the welded connection. The centre of the specimen is reduced in size to ensure that
failure during testing will occur in this area. This test has been widely accepted for
use in qualifying welding procedures.
Specimen Dimensions are specified in the applicable Code or Standard.

Example: Figure 33 of CSA Standard W47.1.
Figure 44: Reduced Section Tensile Test
- 34 -
The reduced section of this specimen contains base metal, heat affected zones and
weld metal. When all of these are simultaneously subjected to the same stress, the
area with the lowest strength will fail. The test is used to qualify the welding
procedure by verifying that the procedure produces welds that equal or exceed
design strength requirements.
2. GUIDED BEND TESTS
While tensile tests permit a fairly precise measurement of the mechanical

performance of a joint, they do require specialized equipment and the specimens
themselves are costly to produce. Bend tests are used as a fast, inexpensive,
general indicator of joint performance. In the test, the samples are cut across the
joint and the weld area is bent over a given radius, which is based on the strength
and properties of the base material. The test stretches the outer layers of material
and confirms the relative ductility of the weld. The samples themselves are named
by the area of the weld which will be stretched during the test (face bend, root bend,
side bend). A typical test jig is shown below:
Figure 45: Guided Bend Test Jig (from CSA Standard W47.1)
- 35 -
3. HARDNESS TESTS
Hardness can be defined as the ability of a material to resist permanent or plastic

deformation, and is usually measured by its resistance to indentation by an indentor
of a standard shape and size.
There are several hardness testing methods and techniques. The most commonly
used methods employ a sharp point or a small ball to make the impression on the
material being tested. The size of the impression is a measure of the hardness of
the material. A larger indentation indicates a softer material (less resistance to
plastic deformation). Figure 46 shows the basic principles of one common test.
Figure 46: Principles of Brinell Hardness Test
The three most widely used types of hardness testers are:
a. the Brinell hardness tester, using a 10 mm (3/8 inch) diameter steel ball and
a load of 3000 kg (6600 pounds);
b. the Vickers hardness tester, which uses a diamond pyramid shaped indenter
with a load of 1 to 120 kg (2.2 to 264 lbs); and
c. the Rockwell hardness tester, using a steel ball of 2 mm (0.079 inch)

diameter and a 100 kg (220 lb) load for the B scale and a diamond shaped
cone with a 150 kg (330 lb) load for C scale.
- 36 -
A useful rule of the thumb roughly relates hardness on the Brinell scale to ultimate
tensile strength. The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) multiplied by 500 gives an
approximation of ultimate tensile strength in pounds per square inch (psi).
For example,
BHN 302 = 150,000 psi (1050 MPa)

BHN 143 = 72,000 psi (504 MPa)
4. IMPACT TESTS
The ability of a material to resist brittle fracture is of particular importance in our

Canadian climate since this property for steels can drop very quickly at sub-zero
temperatures. This ability is related to the ability of the material to absorb energy
and deform plastically before failure, and is called toughness. Fracture toughness is
the ability of the material to resist the extension of a crack. A tough material will tend
to deform plastically under load before crack extension occurs.
Fracture toughness is usually measured by an impact test, which measures the

energy absorbed by the specimen before fracture. The most commonly specified
test it the Charpy V-Notch test in which a notched specimen of standard size is
subjected to a blow from a swinging pendulum (Figure 39). The height to which the
pendulum swings after fracturing the specimen, when compared to its height before
the test, provides a direct measure of the energy required to break the specimen and
is recorded in foot-pounds or joules.
When these tests are conducted at different temperatures, the performance of the
material at those temperatures can be observed and a conclusion made regarding
the temperature below which the particular steel can no longer be used without risk
of brittle fracture. For Canadian use, many standards now require a minimum
energy at a specified temperature. For example, CSA Standard W59 requires that
the deposited weld metal have a minimum Charpy V Notch impact energy of 27
joules (20 ft. lbs) at 20(C for structures subjected to dynamic loads.
- 37 -
Figure 47: Charpy V-Notch Specimens
- 38 -
5. MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WELD CROSS-SECTIONS
It can sometimes be useful to cut through the finished weld to examine its cross-
section. With proper polishing and etching of the surface, the following details can
be measured and observed:
a. Extent and shape of penetration;

b. Presence of subsurface defects such as cracks, inclusions and incomplete
fusion;
c. Size and shape of the heat affected zone;
d. Hardness of weld metal and heat affected zone;
e. Weld bead shape and technique (stringer or weave) through the depth of the
weld;
f. Number of passes and layers.
Figure 48: Etched Cross-Section of a Weld
- 39 -
6. FRACTURE TESTS
Fracture tests are easily used economical tests for evaluating the general quality of a
weld. The specimen is typically notched in the zone to be observed (such as the
centre of the weld), then fractured by a sharp hammer blow (Figure 49). By
observing the face of the fracture, it is possible to see if the weld contains porosity,
incomplete penetration, lack of fusion or inclusions.
Figure 49: Nick-Break Fracture Test
7. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The usual requirement for chemical analysis is to determine the composition of the
base metal to determine whether it is weldable, and to assist in filler metal selection.
There are portable metal analyzers which work on the principle of setting up a small
arc from the tester to the metal, then analyzing the arc to identity the elements
present. More common, however, are methods which use chemical means to
dissolve various components. For this type of testing in the laboratory, it is
necessary to take small broken samples, usually drillings. Care must be taken with
such samples to ensure that they are not contaminated, and drilling without lubricant
is recommended.
- 40 -
D. EXERCISES - WELD FAULTS
1. Fill in the term for each numbered location on the fillet weld below:
Print each term in the space provided

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ANSWERS TO QUESTION 1
1. Leg size
2. Root penetration
3. Theoretical throat
4. Toe of weld
5. Face of weld
6. Depth of fusion
- 41 -
2. In the fillet weld profiles shown below, there may be one or more defects shown. List the
defect(s), if any, in the space provided and indicate the location of the defects(s) by
circling each on the sketch:
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
(a) Undercut - vertical leg, overlap-horizontal leg.

(b) Insufficient leg-vertical leg, undercut-horizontal leg.
(c) Insufficient throat, overlap-horizontal leg.
(d) Profile acceptance.
- 42 -
3. Fill in the term for each numbered location on the groove weld below:
Print each term in space provided:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1. Depth of preparation.
2. Root face.
3. Root opening.
4. Reinforcement.
5. Weld throat.
6. Toe of weld.
- 43 -
4. In the sketches of groove weld profiles shown below, there may be one or more defects
shown. List the defect(s), if any, in the space provided and indicate the location of the
defect(s) by circling each on the sketch:
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Defect(s):
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
(a) Undercut, porosity.

(b) Defect free - acceptance profile.
(c) Insufficient throat, incomplete fusion.
- 44 -
E. EXERCISES - QUALITY CONTROL AND INSPECTION METHODS

Question and Answer Format
1. Question: Who is responsible for ensuring that proper welding procedures are carried
out?
Answer: The welding supervisor and the welding engineer if applicable.
2. Question: Which CWB approved documents contain information that is used to

produce acceptable welds?
Answer: Welding Procedure Data Sheets and the related Welding Procedure
Specification.
3. Question: Which consumables require special handling?
Answer: All low hydrogen type electrodes (EXXX6 or EXXX8).
4 Question: What can cause thick and/or a highly restrained plate to crack when it is
welded?
Answer: Inadequate preheat temperatures, small welding passes.
5. Question: List five items related to welding that should be on detail drawings.
Answer: (a) Location of the welds.

(b) Type of welds.
(c) Size of welds.
(d) Length of welds
(e) Special instructions such as gouge to sound metal.
6. Question: When welding with the FCAW and GMAW processes, what are some of the
parameters that must be verified?
Answer: (a) Shielding gas flow rate.

(b) Amperage.
(c) Travel Speed.
(d) Wire feed speed.
(e) Voltage.
7. Question: List some of the details that should appear on a Welding Procedure Data
Sheet?
Answer: (a) Number of passes/layers.

(b) Amperage
(c) Voltage.
(d) Gas flow rate.
(e) Travel speed.
(f) Position of welding.
- 45 -
8. Question: What happens if the slag is not removed between the passes?
Answer: It invariably leads to the slag being trapped between the passes?
9. Question: Why must the finished weld be cleaned of all slag?
Answer: The slag must be removed in order to visually inspect the weld.
10. Question: List the equipment that a welding supervisor or inspector should have prior
to visually inspecting welds.
Answer: (a) Detail drawings.

(b) Weld gauges.
(c) Measuring tape.
(d) Flash light.
(e) Magnifying glass.
11. Question: List some items that must be reviewed and checked prior to welding.
Answer: (a) Drawings, specifications, procedures.

(b) Welder qualifications.
(c) Edge preparations.
(d) Assembly dimensions.
(e) The cleanliness of the joint.
(f) Preheat, if required.
(g) Electrode/classification.
12. Question: List some nondestructive inspection methods.
Answer: (a) Liquid penetrant.

(b) Magnetic particle.
(c) Radiographic.
(d) Ultrasonic.
(e) Visual inspection.
13. Question: What type of discontinuities can be detected with the liquid penetrant
inspection method?
Answer: Discontinuities such as surface cracks and porosity that are open to the
surface of the material.
14. Question: What type of discontinuities can be detected with the magnetic particle
inspection method?
Answer: Discontinuities such as cracks, porosity, slag inclusions, and incomplete

fusion, in magnetic materials, that are open to or just below the surface.
- 46 -
15. Question: What type of discontinuities can be detected with the radiographic inspection
method?
Answer: Volumetric discontinuities such as porosity, slag inclusions, inadequate joint

penetration, and undercut. Linear defects such as cracks or incomplete
fusion can be detected depending on angle of discontinuity in the weld.
16. Question: What type of discontinuities can be detected with the ultrasonic inspection
method?
Answer: Discontinuities such as cracks, slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, and

inadequate joint penetration. Isolated discontinuities such as porosity are
difficult to detect.
17. Question: Give some causes of incomplete fusion.
Answer: (a) Poor joint design.

(b) Incorrect size and type of electrode.
(c) Incorrect voltage and current settings.
(d) Electrode manipulation.
(e) Welding on contaminated material.
18. Question: Why is it important to have proper fit-up of a joint?
Answer: To reduce the amount of welding that is required and therefore control the
cost of production. Good fitup will also reduce the possibilities of having
certain defects in the weld.
19. Question: List some destructive testing methods.
Answer: (a) Tensile test.

(b) Bend test.
(c) Impact test.
20. Question: When is it important to have a sequence of welding?
Answer: To control the distortion in the material that is welded.
21. Question: Which discontinuity is considered to be the most serious?
Answer: A crack is considered to be the most serious defect. It takes very little
energy to keep a crack growth until eventually the product fails.
22. Question: List some of the problems that can arise from an arc strike.
Answer: (a) A hardened area at point of contact.

(b) Cracking can occur in area of arc strike.
- 47 -
Multiple Choice and True or False Format
1. Who is responsible for ensuring the proper welding procedures are carried out?
(a) The welder.

(b) The welding supervisor.
(c) The welding engineer (if applicable).
(d) (b) and (c).
2. Which of the following are listed on a Welding Procedure Data Sheet?
(a) Sequence of passes.

(b) Base metal, preheat and interpass temperatures.
(c) Welder s qualifications.
(d) Type and size of consumable to be used.
(e) (a), (b) and (d).
3. Which electrode requires special handling in the field and the shop?
(a) EXX10.
(b) EXX14.
(c) EXX18.
(d) EXX11.
4. Which of the following can cause a thick or highly restrained plate to crack when it is
welded?
(a) Inadequate preheat temperature.

(b) Inadequate postheat temperature.
(c) Proper sequence of welding.
(d) Low restrained welds.
5. What welding information should be on a detail drawing?
(a) Type of joints.

(b) Size of welds.
(c) Number of passes for each weld.
(d) Location of welds.
(e) (a), (b) and (d).
6. Which items should be checked prior to welding?
(a) All of the below answers are correct.

(b) Welder qualifications.
(c) Access to the joint.
(d) Proper joint preparation.
(e) Proper welding process to be used.
- 48 -
7. Which of the following items should be available when visually inspecting the welds?
(a) Weld gauges.

(b) Measuring tape.
(c) Flash light.
(d) Detail drawings.
(e) All of the above answers are correct.
8. Welds can be properly inspected if the slag is NOT removed.
(a) True.
(b) False.
9. Which of the following are nondestructive inspection methods?
(a) Liquid penetrant.

(b) Tensile test.
(c) Bend test.
(d) Visual inspection.
(e) (a) and (d).
10. When should visual inspection on joints of quenched and tempered steels be performed?
(a) Immediately after welding.

(b) Immediately after cooling.
(c) At least 48 hours after completion of the welds.
(d) At least 12 hours after completion of the welds.
11. Stress relieving is more effective in preventing cracks than preheating.
(a) True.
(b) False.
12. Which of the following defects can be detected by liquid penetrant inspection method?
(a) Internal undercut.

(b) Incomplete penetration.
(c) Defects that are open to the surface.
(d) Incomplete fusion (internal).
13. Which of the following are causes of incomplete fusion?
(a) Poor fit-up.

(b) Low current.
(c) Poor technique.
(d) All of the above answers are correct.
- 49 -
14. Which of the following are destructive testing methods?
(a) (b) and (c).

(b) Tensile test.
(c) Impact test.
(d) Magnetic particle test.
15. Why is it important to have a sequence of welding?
(a) To minimize the heat input in any area and reduce the possibility of distortion of the
material.
(b) To maximize the time of the welder.
(c) To use up more of the electrodes that are used.
(d) To reduce the time a welder stands in one area and increase his/her comfort.
16. Which is the most serious welding defect?
(a) Porosity.
(b) Slag Inclusion.
(c) Overlap.
(d) Crack.
17. Craters at ends of welds must be visually inspected as per CSA Standard W59?
(a) True.
(b) False.
18. What percentage of welds must be visually inspected as per CSA Standard W59?
(a) 25%
(b) 50%
(c) 75%
(d) 100%
19. What corrective action should be taken if a crack is detected in a weld?
(a) Peen the crack until it is no longer visible.

(b) Remove what you can see and reweld.
(c) Establish the extent of the crack by the use of dye penetrant, magnetic particle
inspection, or other NDE techniques; remove the crack and reweld.
(d)` Weld over the crack with high heat input to melt the crack.
20. Arc strikes should be avoided outside the area of permanent welds on static structures such
as buildings.
(a) True.
(b) False.
- 50 -
21. Which of the following are as a result of an arc strike?
(a) Brittle area of contact.

(b) Possible cracks in area of contact.
(c) Incomplete penetration.
(d) (a) and (b).
22. Which of the following defects can be detected by the magnetic particle inspection method?
(a) Incomplete penetration.

(b) Lack of sidewall fusion.
(c) Root undercut.
(d) Cracks, porosity, slag inclusions that are open to or just below the surface.
23. Which defects can NOT be detected by the radiographic inspection method?
(a) Porosity.
(b) Very tight cracks and defects which do not have any depth in relation to the X-ray
beam.
(c) Slag inclusions.
(d) Incomplete penetration.
24. What corrective action should be taken if the weld has overlap?
(a) Reweld with high heat input.

(b) Reduce by removal of excess weld metal.
(c) Weld over to the next size of weld.
(d) Remove the complete weld and reweld at higher welding speeds.
25. Which of the following can be classified as visual defects?
(a) Incomplete penetration.

(b) Surface porosity.
(c) Internal undercut.
(d) Incomplete sidewall fusion.
- 51 -
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. (d) 14. (a)

2. (e) 15. (a)
3. (c) 16. (d)
4. (a) 17. (b)
5. (e) 18. (d)
6. (a) 19. (c)
7. (e) 20. (a)
8. (b) 21. (d)
9. (e) 22. (d)
10. (c) 23. (b)
11. (b) 24. (b)
12. (c) 25. (b)
13. (d)
- 52 -
The Canadian Welding Bureau (the Bureau), federally incorporated, "not-for-profit" organization is
accredited by the Standards Council of Canada as a Certification Body for the administration of CSA
Standards W47.1, W47.2, W186, W178.1 and the W48 Series of Standards.
Le Bureau canadien de soudage (le Bureau), une organisation fédéralement incorporée à but non lucratif
est accréditée par le conseil Canadien des normes comme une organisation de certification pour
l'administration des normes CSA W47.1, W47.2, W186, W178.1 et des normes CSA de la series W48.
Canadian Welding Bureau Offices
HEAD OFFICE:
7250 West Credit Avenue,

Mississauga, Ontario L5N 5N1
Tel: 1-800-844-6790
Fax: (905) 542-1318
Email: info@cwbgroup.org
web site: www.cwbgroup.org
OFFICES ACROSS CANADA
Western Operations: Suite 206, 2528 Ellwood Drive

Edmonton, Alberta T6X 0A9
Ontario Operations: 7250 West Credit Avenue

Mississauga, Ontario L5N 5N1
Quebec Operations: 950 Michelin

Laval, Quebec H7L 5C1
Atlantic Operations: Suite 304, 73 Tacoma Drive

Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2W 3Y6

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CWB Form 113E/2007-1

WELD QUALITY AND

CANADIAN WELDING BUREAU

“CERTIFICATION MAKES THE DIFFERENCE”

It contains background information on weld discontinuities and their causes, and

Included in this publication are the following topics:

A. Weld Discontinuities and the Practices that Cause Them

A. WELD DISCONTINUITIES AND THE PRACTICES THAT CAUSE

During production or inspection, disruptions in the weld or nearby parent material

a. Discontinuity: A discontinuity is any observable in the weld (or the parent

b. Defect: A defect is a discontinuity which has been evaluated and judged to be

In keeping with these definitions, standard practice is to refer to all observations as

Weld inspection and examination is a continuous process which involves actions

a. Geometric discontinuities are those which are observed as dimensional

Some geometrical discontinuities, such as an incorrect root face or incorrect bevel

Geometrical discontinuities become geometrical defects once their actual

1.1 Geometrical Discontinuities Before Welding

Prior to welding, the geometry or dimensions of the pieces to be welded may be

Discontinuities related to weld joint preparation and fitup include incorrect

a. Bevel or groove angle;

Discontinuities on the surfaces of the materials to be joined could include nicks,

1.1.1 Discontinuities Related to Joint Preparation or Fitup

1.1.1.1 Bevel or Groove Angle

Figure 1: Excessive Groove Size Requires More Weld

The second possible consequence would be excessive distortion resulting from a

Figure 2: Distortion Due to Weld Shrinkage

1.1.1.2 !J or !U Groove Joints

Figure 3 shows a !J and a !U groove preparation. The primary advantage of this

Figure 3: A J-Groove Preparation

1.1.1.3 Root Face

Figure 4: The Root Face of a Joint Penetration

Figure 5: Burn Through Due to Insufficient Root Face

Figure 6: Incomplete Penetration Due to Excessive Root Face

The sharp transition between misaligned parts causes a !stress concentration . In

1.1.1.5 Root Opening

Figure 10: Excessive Root Opening Allows Burn-Through

Figure 11: Insufficient Root Opening Limits Penetration

1.1.2 Irregularities in Surfaces to be Joined

Such discontinuities as laminations in the plate may need to be explored further to

Figure 12: Plate Edge Defects May Need Correction

The control of geometrical discontinuities prior to welding is an important step in

1.2 Geometric Irregularities After Welding

Figure 13: Acceptable and Unacceptable Fillet Weld Profiles

Figure 14: Acceptable and Unacceptable Groove Weld Profiles

1.2.1 Fillet Welds - Basic Terminology

Figure 15: Parts of a Fillet Weld

1.2.2 Fillet Weld Profiles

Figure 16: Convex, Flat and Concave Fillet Welds

Figure 17: Weld Profile as Indicated in Welding Symbol

1.2.3 Legs of a Fillet Weld

Figure 18: Unequal (and Undersize) Leg Dimension in Fillet Weld

1.2.4 Fillet Weld Measurement

Fillet and combination gauges.

Figure 19: Combination Gauge

1.2.5 Unacceptable Fillet Weld Profiles

1.2.5.1 Insufficient Throat

Figure 20: Correcting Insufficient Throat

1.2.5.2 Excessive Convexity

Figure 21: Excessive Convexity Produces Sharp Corners

Figure 22: Undercut and Its Repair

Figure 23: Overlap

1.2.5.5 Insufficient Leg Size