CENG 6305 Ch3 Soil Stabilization

CENG 6305
PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Alemgena Alene, PhD, MSc. BSc.
Email: alemgena@yahoo.com
Department of Civil Engineering
Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3
Chapter Title Ref. No.
Ch1 Introduction CENG 505

Ch2 Subgrade Investigation Ref. 4, 6 & 10
Ch3 Soil Stabilization Ref. 7 & 14
Ch4 Mechanical behavior of UGM Ref. 6
Ch5 Rheology of Bitumen Ref. 1, 2, 5 &
13
Ch6 Bituminous Mixture Design Ref. 1, 3, 11 &
12
Ch7 Mechanical Tests of Asphalt Mixtures Ref. 1, 2 & 8
Ch8 Material Modeling Ref. 8 & 9
1
SOIL STABILIZATION
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Mechanical Stabilization
3.3. Lime Stabilization
3.4. Cement Stabilization
3.5. Bitumen Stabilization
3.6. Other Treatment Methods
INTRODUCTION
Why stabilization? • Often soils in their natural state
cause problems or not satisfactory
enough
Purpose of Stabilization? • Improve workability

• Improve strength and durability
• Water proofing
• Dust control
• Utilization of waste materials
eg. Fly-ash
2
Stabilisation
Alteration of existing soil properties to meet specified
engineering requirements
Strength (increase stability and bearing capacity)
Volume stability (control shrinkage-swelling)
Durability (increase resistance to erosion, weathering,

trafficking)
Permeability (reduce water penetration through soil)
Duct control (for unpaved roads as semi-bound surface)
Stabilisation
Soils may be complex Main factor to that should be
considered
Stabilization is not a straight  Can the stabilizing agent be mixed
forward application easily
 Can it be uniformly be distributed
through the soil
Number of aspects should
 Is the needed amount of stabilizing
be considered in selection material still economically feasible
of the proper mechanism of  Can it be used safely
stabilization
 Is the material available and effective
 Is it cost effective
3
Stabilisation Types
Stabilization can be achieved by:
Mechanical stabilization
• Compaction
• Grading and blending
Lime stabilization
• Lime and lime pozzolanas
Cement stabilization
Bitumen stabilization
 Emulsion bitumen
 Foamed bitumen
Other chemical additives
• Mechanical stabilization – a soil or gravel is mixed through the

original soil in order to improve the grading and mechanical
characteristics
• Cement, lime and bitumen stabilizations are used either to

improve strength, workability or waterproofing
• The principal cementing materials that may be used include

Portland cement, lime, lime-flyash mixtures and bitumen
Portland cement has been used with great success in many

countries to improve existing gravel roads as well as stabilizing
natural soils.
• It can be used for base courses and Subbases of all type.
• It can be used in granular soils, silty soils and lean clays, but
not with organic materials
• Soils cements shows strength gains over natural materials, it is
very often used for base course construction.
4
Hydrated lime increases soil strength by pozzolanic action i.e.

cementatious silicate and aluminates
• Most efficient when used in granular materials and lean clay
• The quantity required for proper hydration generally is relatively
low
• Flyash is generally high in silica and alumina -> addition to lime
stabilized soils speeds pozzolanic action, but high amount of
flyash is required for adequate stabilization
• Use of cementing material is limited because of cost, thus

limited quantities of materials may be added to the soil for
modification
• Modification – A stabilization process that results in
improvement on some engineering property but does not
result in a significant increase in soil strength or stiffness
5
Application of stabilization methods
Stabilization response of major soil components

Dominant soil Recommended reasons
component stabilizer
Organic mater Mechanical Other methods ineffective

Sands Clay loam For mechanical stability
Cement For density and cohesion
Bitumens For cohesion
Silts None known
Allophanes Lime For pozzolanic strength and
densification
Koalin Sand For mechanical stability
Cement For early strength
Lime For workability and later strength
Illite Cement As for kaolin
Lime As for kaolin
Montmorillonite Lime For workability and early strength
6
SOIL STABILIZATION
3.1. Introduction
Mechanical Stabilization
• Mechanical stabilization – The process of mixing or
blending two or more soils or more gradations to obtain a

material meeting certain specifications.
Purpose: - to meet gradation specs. by blending different

soils & aggregates
- not only for strengthening road bases and

subbases but also surface materials for gravel roads.
7
Mechanical Stabilization ‫‏‬
 Essential requirements for successful stabilization:
 Proper gradation
 A satisfactory binder soil
 Proper control of the mixture content
 Objective – to blend available soils so that, when properly
compacted, they have the required stability
 Issues:
 Gradation limits – coarse side/ fine side
 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)‫‏‬
Gradation limits – coarse side/ fine side
Fine side
Coarse side
8
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)‫‏‬
Dry Unit Weight
Moisture Content
Limitations
 When compaction is not met in mechanical stabilization it
is common to add fines to the blended soil.
 Adding “additional” fines to a “blended” soil can result in
a number of problems:
 Increased potential for frost heave
 Due to the potential for a gap graded soil, it can become
internally unstable and result in accelerated erosion
 Internal instability will result in a lost of stiffness and strength
 It is not uncommon that the main problem with
compaction is that improper equipment or techniques we
used.
9
Soil Base Requirements
 P200 < 2/3 P40
 Aggregate top size < 37.5 mm
 Mixtures should be well graded from coarse to fine
 Cu > 6
 1 < Cc > 3
 Fines: PI < 5 & LL < 25
Proportioning – Difficult without lab control
10
Use of Local Materials
 The essence of mechanically stabilized soils is the use of
local soils
 Mechanically stabilized soils require:

 Experience
 An understanding of soil action when using atypical soils, e.g.,
shells, coral, soft limestones
 Required engineering properties
 Other local factors such as field proportioning, which is
typically done by loose volume.
Additive Stabilization ‫‏‬

 Quality improvement – better gradation (mechanical),
reduced plasticity, or swelling potential, and increased
strength and durability.
 Thickness reduction – increase strength and stiffness
of a underlying pavement layer via soil stabilization can
result in reduction in the thickness of the pavement layer.
11
Factors to be considered
 The type of soil to be stabilized
 The purpose of the stabilized layer will be used for
 The type of soil improvement desired
 Required strength and durability
 Cost considerations
 Environmental factors
Additive Types
 Portland Cement – generally well-graded granular materials
that possess sufficient fines to produce a floating aggregate
matrix are best suited for Portland cement stabilization. Used
mainly for strength and stiffness stabilization.
 Lime – used to stabilize high plasticity soils to decrease
plasticity, increase workability, reduce swell, and increase
strength.
 Fly ash – a pozzolanic material that reacts with lime and is
usually used in combination with lime in soils that have little or
no plastic fines.
 Lime-cement-flyash (LCF) – used successfully for base
coarse stabilization
 Asphalt – used for waterproofing and for strength gain and
also stiffness modification for rigid pavements.
12
Selection of additives
 Required information:
 Soil classification USCS
 Grain size distribution
 Percent Passing the No. 40 (P40)‫‏‬
 Percent Passing the No. 200 (P200)‫‏‬
 Atterberg Limits of P200 materials
 Plot soil based on % sand and % P200
 Soils grouped
 Sands 1A, 1B, and1C
 Gravels 2A, 2B, and 2C
 Fined-grained soils 3
Percent Sand
Percent Passing the No. 200
13
Table 2-1 Guide for selecting a stabilizing
additive
27

additive
28
14
additive
Thickness Reduction for Base and Subbase

Courses
 Stabilized bases and subbases must meet gradation, strength
and durability criteria for reduced thickness design.
 Criteria based on unconfined compression testing and

durability testing.
 Criteria mainly for Portland cement, lime, and LCF stabilized

bases. Bituminous bases are excempted since it is assumed
that they will sufficiently waterproofed if properly designed.
15
Minimum unconfined compressive strengths and
Durability requirements
BREAK
16
SOIL STABILIZATION
3.1. Introduction
Lime Stabilization
An effective agent to stabilize clayey materials

 In general, all lime treated soils exhibit decreased plasticity,
improved workability and reduced swell.
 Not all soils show improved strength and durability with lime
treatment
 Commonly used types of lime:
 Hydrated high-calcium lime
 Monohydrated dolomitic lime
 Calcitic quicklime
 Dolomitic quicklime
 Hydrated lime used most often
since it is less caustic then quicklime.
17
Production of lime(stone)
♦ Lime production
● Mining of limestone CaCO3
● Milling of the stone
● Calcining
CaCO3 + kCal (+/- 950 °C) CaO + CO2
● Furtherfine tuning / milling / blending
● Dispatching OR
♦ Hydrated lime
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + kCal
Lime production
Produced by heating Limestone (CaCO3) or Dolomite
(CaCO3 MgCO3 ) to drive off CO2
CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2
This is commonly slaked for the market:
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime)
Stabilising reaction arises by:
Rapid modification in material properties

Long term strength gain
18
Effects of lime
DRYING
Due to the (exothermic) reaction between the moisture in
the soil and the quicklime heat will pass, and therefore the
moisture in the soil will escape.
● Hydration
CaO + H2O ==> Ca (OH)2 + heat
● Evaporation
● Aeration :
• Process of lime modification

Ca² and OH ions
Cation exchange
Clay minerals
Flocculation- Aggregation of clay particles
Increase in effective grain size
Reduction in plasticity
Less clay-like behaviour
Improved physical properties
With time
Clay destroyed
CSH and CAH formed
Cementing action
19
Mix design procedure
A number of mix design procedures are available. These

are related to:
• Determination of the maximum amount of lime that can be taken by
the soil before free lime occurs (pH method)
• Specified strength level (Illinois procedure)
pH method
 pH mixture design concept, to some extent, is a strength based
criterion.
 Basic trust of the pH procedure is to add sufficient lime to the soil to
insure a pH of 12.4 for sustaining the strength-producing, lime-soil
pozzolanic reaction
Initial consumption of lime

Sufficient free lime needs to be available to:
allow complete reaction with clays
sustain a high pH to keep reactions stable
Achieved using (BS 1924:part 2 1990) test

Theory:
Saturated solution of lime (Ca(OH)2 in distilled water at
25oC
* pH = 12.4 (target)
Material + X% lime = pH y
Material + Z% lime = 12.4
Usual requirement will be Z + 1% lime
(providing other requirements satisfied)
20
Summary of pH procedure
i. Representative samples of air-dried, passing No. 40 soil to equal 20 g of oven-
dried soil are weighed to the nearest 0.1 g and poured into 150-ml (or larger)
plastic bottles with screw tops.
ii. Since most soils will require between 2 and 5 percent lime, it is advisable to
set up five bottles with lime percentages of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Weigh the lime to
the nearest 0.01 g and add it to the soil. Shake to mix soil and dry lime.
iii. Add 100 ml of CO2-free distilled water to the bottles.
iv. Shake the soil-lime and water until there is no evidence of dry material on the
bottom for 30 sec.
v. Shake the bottles for 30 seconds every 10 minutes.
vi. After 1 hour, transfer part of the slurry to a plastic beaker and measure the pH.
The pH meter must be equipped with a Hyalk electrode and standardized with
a buffer solution having a pH of 12.00.
vii. Record the pH for each of the soil-lime mixtures. If the pH readings go to
12.40, the lowest percent lime that gives a pH of 12.40 is the percent required
to stabilize the soil.
viii. If the pH does not go beyond 12.30 and 2 percent lime gives the same
reading, the lowest percentage which gives a pH of 12.30 is that required to
stabilize the soil. If the highest pH is 12.30 and only 1 percent lime gives a pH
of 12.30, additional test bottles should be started with larger percentages of
lime.
Illinois procedure
This procedure considers two types of stabilization

objectives
Soil-lime stabilization in which the mixture will be utilized

as a base or subbase material in the pavement system
o Based on unconfined compressive strength test data

o 51 mm dia. & 102 mm height mixture at OMC & MDD
o At various lime treatment levels are cured 48 hrs. at 49oC
o Design lime content is the lime percent with no further increase of
UCS
o Min. strength requirement are 0.69 MPa for subbase and 1.03 MPa
for base course
21
Illinois procedure
Subgrade modification
o Based on the plasticity index of the soil
o LL, PL and PI of the soil treated with various %age of lime are
determined
o Lime-soil-water mixture in loose is cured for 1 hr prior testing
o Plot of PI vs. lime content is prepared and lime content may be
designate as
i. Lime content with no further reduction of PI
ii. Min. lime content which give an acceptable PI reduction
o Depending on the stabilization objectives, CBR test can also be
conducted to evaluate stability and/or swell of the stabilized mix
Lime stabilization methods

• Three recognized methods
i. In-place mixing
1. Mixing lime with existing material already a part of construction
2. Off-site mixing, lime is mixed with borrow and the mix is
transported to the site for final manipulation & compaction
3. Mixing in which the borrow source soil is hauled to site and
processed as in method 1
ii. Plant mixing
1. Hauling the soil to a central plant where
lime, soil and water are uniformly mixed
iii. pressure injection
1. Injection of lime slurry to depth of 2 to 3
meters for control of swelling and
unstable soils on highways under building site
22
23
Lime stabilisation
Effect of curing time on the

CBR value of a lime-stabilised
soil
Lime Gradation and Content
Lime soil
Gradation
 Test soils at 2, 4, 6 and 8% lime and measure the pH of the

soil
 The lowest lime content that produces a 12.4 pH is the
initial lime design content or use Figure 3-1
24
Lime Content Determination

Percent Binder
Soil PI
Diffused Double Layer
25
Stabilization with Lime-Fly Ash (LF) and

Lime-Cement-Fly Ash (LCF)‫‏‬
 Stabilization of coarse-grained soils having little to no
fines often use lime-fly ash (LF) or lime-flyash-
cement (LCF) additives.
 Types of fly ash
 Class C – lignite or subbituminous coal (Western Coal)
and has a high lime content
 Class F – anthracite or bituminous coal (Eastern Coal
generally) and has a low lime content. And generally
requires the addition of lime.
 Use of fly ash must meet
 STM C593.
Selection of Fly Ash
 For a combination of materials a number of factors

must be varied in the mix design process:
 Percent of lime-fly ash
 Moisture content
 Ratio of lime to fly ash
 Strength and durability are directly related to the
quality of the matrix material
 The matrix is defined as the fly ash, lime, and the
minus No. 4 material
 Higher strength and durability are achieved when the
coarse aggregate particles are floating in the matrix
26
Selection of Fly Ash

 The quality of matrix required for maximum dry density of
the total mixture is referred to as the optimum fines
content.
 Based on compaction tests to reach maximum dry density
 Compaction testing should be conducted on minus ¾ inch
material.
 Test should be conducted by increasing the fly ash % by 2% up
to a maximum of 20%
 It is recommended that in LF mixtures that the quantity of
the LF be 2% above the optimum fines content.
 Strength and durability is a function of the lime-fly ash
ratio so adjustment of this ratio can be made.
 Portland cement can be added to increase strength and
durability.
Effect of lime
Pozzolanic Reaction
Ca++ + SiO2 + H2O = CSH (Calcium Silica Hydrate)
Ca++ + Al2O3 + H2O = CAH (Calcium Alumina Hydrate)
Water + pH > CSH

CAH
27
Improvement of the bearing capacity

Dry density
The ‘plated structure’ of the clay/loam changes
Higher bearing capacity
28
Example after treatment
lime
lime
Min. After 1 year
29
Research on soil stabilization
Project planning – level 0
Content
o Data collection (geological,
weathering condition)
o Local experience
Findings
o Assessment of need for
treatment
o Possible hurdles
30
Pre-design – Level 1
Content Findings
● Geotechnical profile ● Kindof soil
● Sampling ● Volume to be treated
● Soil family ● Dosage of the binder
• Characteristics
• Moisture content
● Short formulation study
Design – Level 2
31
Miscellaneous tests – Level 3
Can be done if necessary

Content
Variation in moisture
content during the season
Complete tests
Findings
Validation of hypotheses
in special soil
Natural black with 6% cement with 6% lime

cotton soil
(Effect of lime and cement on the tilth of clay soil after 10

minutes mixing in a laboratory mixer (initial moisture
content 29 per cent) (actual diameter of heaps 225 mm)
32
SOIL STABILIZATION
3.1. Introduction
Soil Stabilization
The soil stabilization means the improvement of stability or
bearing power of the soil by the use of controlled compaction,
proportioning and/or the addition of suitable admixture or
stabilizers.
Basic Principles of Soil Stabilization

• Evaluating the properties of given soil
• Deciding the lacking property of soil and choose
effective and economical method of soil stabilization
• Designing the Stabilized soil mix for intended stability
and durability values
33
Soil Cement Stabilization

• Soil Cement is an intimate mix of soil, cement and
water, compacted to form a strong base course
• Cement treated or cement modified soil refers to the
compacted mix when cement is used in small
proportions to impart some strength
• Soil Cement can be used as a sub-base or base
course for all types of Pavements
• Effective utilization of locally available soils and
other suitable stabilizing agents.
• Encouraging the use of Industrial Wastages in
building low cost construction of roads.
Stabilization with Portland Cement
Potential improvements:
 Improve plasticity
 Minimum cement content determined on a trial and error of the P40
 Improved gradation
 Binds fine aggregate – minimum cement based on trial and error testing
 Reduced swell potential
 Small amounts of Portland cement might reduce swell potential but is
not as effective as lime and is more expensive.
 Frost areas
 Should only be used after extensive freeze-thaw cycle testing
34
Factors affecting soil cement stabilization
• Soil
• Cement
• Pulverization and Mixing
• Compaction
• Curing
• Additives
Soil
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Particle Size Distribution
• Clay content
• Specific Surface
• Liquid limit and Plasticity Index
• Soils with a high clay content and a high
plasticity are difficult to mix & requires high
additive content
• A soil is regarded to be suitable if
% < 0.075 : < 35%, % >0.075 mm : > 55%
LL : < 50 PI : < 25
Maximum grain size : < 75 mm
35
Gradation and Cement Content for

Stabilized Soil
Base
Gradation
Subbase
Gradation
Cement
Requirements
Cement
A increase in cement content generally causes
increase in strength and durability
Pulverization and Mixing

• Better the Pulverization and degree of mixing, higher is
the strength
• Presence of un-pulverized dry lumps reduces the
strength
Compaction
• By increasing the amount of compaction dry density of
the mix, strength and durability also increases
• Curing is also an important factor like for concrete
36
Curing
Adequate Moisture content is to be retained in
order to accelerate the strength
Additives
There are some additives to improve properties
• Lime
• Sodium hydroxide
• Sodium Carbonate
• Calcium Chloride
Design of Soil – Cement Mix

• Soil – Cement specimens are prepared with
various cement contents in constant volume
moulds
• The compressive strength of these specimens
tested after 7 days of curing
• A graph is plotted Cement content Vs.
compressive strength
• The Cement Content Corresponding to the
required strength (17.5 kg/cm2) is taken as
design cement content
37
Cement Stabilisation
Aim to increase compressive and shear strength
CAH , CSH cementing reaction

strong inter-particle bonds
CEMENT: action is rapid

5 + MPa in 7 days
LIME: action is slow

lime takes time to attack clay
action proceeds if free lime and clay are available
Suitability of soils for stabilisation
• Determine
 Likely effectiveness
 Particle size distribution
 Coefficient of Uniformity
 Plasticity
 Chemical tests (frost susceptibility)
 Compaction characteristics
 Stabiliser content
38
Stabilisation
• Desirable properties of material before stabilisation
test sieve Percentage by mass of total aggregate passing
(mm) test sieve
CB1 CB2 CS
53 100 100 -
37.5 85-100 80-100 -
20 60-90 55-90 -
5 30-65 25-65 -
2 20-50 15-50 -
0.425 10-30 10-30 -
0.075 5-15 5-15 -
Maximum allowable value
LL 25 30 -
PI 6 10 20
LS 3 5 -
Note it is recommended that materials should have a coefficient of

uniformity of 5 or more. (D60/D10>5)
Stabilisation
• Guide to the type of stabilisation likely to be effective
Soil properties
Type of More than 25% passing Less than 25% passing
stabilisation the 0.075 mm sieve the 0.075mm sieve
10  PI  PI  6
PI  10 PI 20 PI  10 PI 10
20 PI  60
Cement Yes Yes * Yes Yes Yes
Lime * Yes Yes No * Yes
Lime-
Yes * No Yes Yes *
Pozzolan
* indicates that the agent will have marginal effectiveness
39
Stabilisation
• CEMENT:
PC contains: 60-80% Calcium silicates ( C3S & C2S)

5-10% anhydrous Calcium aluminates C2A)
With water: C3S, C2S, C2A covert to hydrates CSH & CAH
These products are :

Strongly cementitious
Harden rapidly
Bind particles together
Hydration also produces some LIME
Stabilisation
Plasticity
Ip < 10: not sufficient clay present to react with lime
Ip > 25: difficult to mix with cement
CHEMICAL
Organic content: -Reacts with Ca²+ ions at high pH
-Retards, inhibits or reverses stabilisation
process
Sulphates -React with CSH and CAH

-Resultant product occupy greater volume
expansion
loss of strength
poor durability
SO³ content 0.25% for cohesive soils
1.00% for other soils
(Assessed using strength tests)
40
Stabilisation
Stabiliser content
prepare samples to a range of stabiliser contents
Compact at pre-determined density
Cure according to specification (e.g. 7 day moist cure, 7
day soak)
Strength tests (UCS, CBR etc.)
Note: Make allowance for better laboratory mixing:

Not less than 2% cement, 2.5% lime
Stabilisation
• Relationship between unconfined compressive strength
and cement content for five types of soil stabilised with
ordinary Portland cement
41
Stabilisation
PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF

STABILISED SOILS
Density
Mixing-Compaction time
Mixing moisture content
Stabiliser content
Stabilisation
• Dry density/elapsed time relation for two materials stabilised

with 10% of cement (West, 1959)
42
Stabilisation
• Relation between unconfined compressive strength and elapsed time for specimens at constant density
(West, 1959)
Stabilisation
• Effect of lime content
on the moisture
content/dry density
relation using the BS
4.5 Kg rammer
method (Littleton et
al, 1988)
43
Stabilisation
DENSITY
* 1% increase in density gives 10% increase in strength
* increases durability
* reduces permeability
DELAYS BETWEEN MIXING AND COMPACTION
* Depends on soil - type - temperature - water content
CEMENT * Reacts quickly

* Carbonates quickly (less effective)
Affects *Densities achieved

*Disruption of early bonding
LIME: Reacts slowly (less problem)

* Complete mixing quickly
* Lightly compact - leave to mellow
* allow lime to diffuse
* maximise effect on plasticity
* Re-mix and final compaction
Stabilisation
• MIXING MOISTURE CONTENT
Enough water is required for Compaction
Hydration reactions
To little water : under hydration and higher air voids
To much water : under compaction
Both of these will have an effect on strength
STABILISER CONTENT
Cement : linear effect Lime : non-linear (optimum content)
44
Stabilisation
• Relationship between
stabiliser content and
strength of cement and
lime stabilised clay
(Dumbleton, 1962)
Stabilisation
• EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Primarily:
 Temperature
 Moisture of surroundings
45
• Relation between strength and curing temperature for three soils stabilised
with 10% of lime (Dumbleton, 1962)
• Relation between strength and curing temperature of a heavy clay stabilised with 5% of lime (Dumbleton,
1962)
46
Stabilisation
• Temperature
Cement: non-linear strength (curing temperature)
25 C
reality different
USC when cured at

o o o
Age (days) 20 C 25 C 10/30 C
7 2.9 3.1 3.2
28 3.6 3.8 3.95
(Sandy-clay + 10% cement)
Lime : relationship similar
often preferred in tropics
Thermal stresses: Low tensile stress

Cracking
Stabilisation
• Moisture
Moisture content at construction changes to Equilibrium value
 Lead to shrinkage
 Shrinkage manifests itself as cracking
 Often reflects to surface
Shrinkage influenced by:
 Loss of water (especially during curing
 Cement content
 Density
 Method of compaction
 Pretreatment moisture content
Proper moisture curing reduces cracking
 Mix and compact quickly
High cement content: widely spaced, wide cracks

Lower cement content: narrow spacing, narrow cracks, unlikely to reflect
Difficult to achieve density (Over-compaction)
Dynamic compaction causes higher shrinkage than static compaction
(use pneumatic rollers)
47
Stabilisation
• Long term durability
Cracking Water entry into pavement structure
Abrasion of edges
Peeling and pot-holes
Carbonation CaCO3 + CO2 -> CaCO3
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H2 O
Also reacts with hydration products
Reduction in pH from 12.4 to 8.3
Main problems associated with carbonation:
Loss in strength (40-60% UCS)
Reversal in plasticity (NP to Original)
Loosening of prime and surface
Stabilisation
• Determination of the presence of carbonation
Indication of Carbonate
Phenol- Dilute HCI Phenol carbonation in original
phthalein Red material
Red No - None Absent

Effervescence
Red Effervescence Red Carbonated Absent
Red Effervescence Red Unknown Present
Clear Effervescence Red Carbonated Absent
Clear No Clear Stabiliser Absent

Effervescence not added
Red Effervescence - Possible Present
Red Effervescence - Carbonated Absent
48
Stabilisation
• PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CARBONATION AND OTHER
DURABILITY PROBLEMS
Keep material moist during curing (avoid wet/dry cycles)

Seal as soon as possible to exclude CO
Compact as soon as possible to reduce permeability
Compact to a low air void content (Do not over-stress)
Reduce possibility of reflection cracking
If delays: remove 2-3mm of carbonated surface
Stabilisation
ERA & ROAD NOTE 31 STRUCTURAL CATALOGUES
• Allow cement and lime stabilised:

Road Base
 Sub-base
 Capping
 Selected fill
49
Stabilisation
PURPOSE AND REQUIREMENT OF STABILISED MATERIALS
Process Purpose Requirement
Improvement of access Increase in Wp

Modification on wet site Rapid increase in bearing
strength
Improvement in Large and rapid decrease in
pulverisation and plasticity
workability Increase in passing
5mm sieve
Improvement of Increase in bearing
Cementation subgrade material capacity and durability
Improvement of base and Decrease in Ip

sub-base material Decrease in swell
Increase in strength
Bearing capacity CBR>80
• ERA FPD Manual
• ROAD NOTE 31
STRUCTURAL
CATALOGUES
50
• ERA FPD Manual
• ROAD NOTE 31
STRUCTURAL
CATALOGUES
SOIL STABILIZATION
2.1. Introduction
51
What is a bitumen stabilized material?

• Granular materials mixed with either
• Bitumen emulsion
• Foamed bitumen or
• Liquid asphalt
• Non-continuously bound material
• Increased strength and stiffness
• Improved durability
(Reduced moisture susceptibility)
Soil- Bituminous Stabilization

• The Basic Principles of this stabilization are
Water Proofing and Binding
• By Water Proofing inherent strength and
other properties could be retained
• Most Commonly used materials are Cutback
and Emulsion
• Bitumen Stabilized layer may be used as sub-
base or base course for all the roads
52
Bituminous Stabilization
 Bituminous stabilization differs greatly from cement
and lime stabilization
 Basic mechanism for fine-grained soils is water-
proofing
 Basic mechanism for coarse-grained soils is water-
proofing and adhesion.
 Criteria for design is based almost entirely on
stability and gradation requirements.
105
Type of Bitumen
 Bituminous stabilization
uses the following products:
 Asphalt cement
 Liquid asphalt
 Asphalt emulsions
 Foamed asphalt
53
Types of Bitumen
 Type used depends on soil type
 Frost areas – use of tar as a binder should be

avoided
 General rule – most satisfactory results are obtained

when the most viscous liquid asphalt that can be
most readily mixed into the soil is used.
 Most bituminous stabilization is performed in-place

with the bitumen being applied directly to the soil or
soil-aggregate system.
107
Types of Bitumen
 The specific type and grade of bitumen will depend
on the characteristics and the aggregate, the type of
construction equipment and climatic conditions.
 General recommendations:
108
54
Types of Bitumen
109
Gradation for subgrade and bases

Subgrade
Subbase and base
110
55
EFFECT OF BITUMEN STABILISATION
56
Factors affecting properties of soil-bitumen

Soil
• The particle size, shape and gradation of the soil
influence the properties of the soil-bitumen mix.
Types of Bitumen
• Cutbacks of higher grade should be preferred
• Emulsions generally gives slightly inferior results than
Cutback.
Amount of Mixing
• Increasing proportion of bitumen causes a decrease in
dry density but increases the stability after a certain
bitumen content
• The optimum bitumen content for maximum stability
generally ranges from 4 to 6%
Mixing
• Improved type of mixing with low mixing period
may be preferred
57
Compaction
• Effective Compaction results higher
stability and resistance to absorb water
Additives
• Anti stripping and reactive chemical additives have
been tried to improve the properties of the mixes
• Portland cement can also be used along with the soil
bitumen
SOIL STABILIZATION
2.1. Introduction
58
Others treatments (Reading assignment)
Mechanical treatment
Geo textile
Geo synthetic
Geo grid
Chemical treatment
Various chemical
additives
Enzymes
Biological treatment
• Grass sod
SOIL STABILIZATION
2.1. Introduction
59
The Basics Soil Stabilization Process

Both new construction and Assessment and testing
rehabilitation projects are
candidates for soil stabilization
 Soils of the site are thoroughly
Stabilization procedures varies tested to determine existing
depending on many factors condition
including  Based on condition additives are
 Location selected and specified
 Environment
 Time requirements  Design mix depth are defined for
 Budget the contractor
 Available machinery &  Prepare mix samples and allow
workmanship
 Weather to cure
 Test to ensure that the additives
The following process are will produce desired results
generally practiced
The basics
Site preparation
Existing materials on site
is pulverized utilizing a
mixer
Any additional soils/
aggregates are introduced
Brought the material to
OMC by drying or adding
water
Shape the grade if
necessary to obtain
specified layer depth
60
The basics
Introduce additives
Cement, lime or fly ash can
be applied dry or wet
• Dry – spread at required
amount per square meter using
spreader or other
• When lime is applied as slurry,
either spread with tanker or
rotary mixer
• Bituminous additives are
usually added using on-board
emulsion spray system on a
rotary mixer. It can also be
spray on surface with additional
mixing
The basics
Mixing
To fully incorporate the
additives with the soil for
homogeneity
Maintain optimal mixing
depth
Inappropriate proportioning
results in reduced load-
bearing properties
Some times multiple layer of
treated and compacted soil
When applying cement and
fly ash, finish mixing as soon
as possible due to the quick-
setting characteristics of the
additives
61
The basics
Compacting and
shaping/trimming
• Usually follows immediate after
mixing esp. for cement & fly ash
• Some bituminous additives
require delay to allow for
chemical reaction
• Several passes using various
machines
• Usually start with vibratory
padfoot compactor
• Shape & trim the surface
• Follows pneumatic compactor to
provide certain kneading action
• To provide smooth surface finish
with a tandem drum roller
The basics
Curing
• Sufficient curing to allow the
additive to fully achieve its
engineering potential
• Weather and moisture are
critical factors for curing cement,
lime and fly ash stabilization
• Bituminous stabilized bases
often require a final membrane
of medium-curing cutback
asphalt or slow-curing
emulsified asphalt as a moisture
seal
• Generally a min. of 7 days are
required to ensure proper curing
62

CENG 6305 Ch3 Soil Stabilization

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CENG 6305 Ch3 Soil Stabilization

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CENG 6305

Department of Civil Engineering

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

Chapter Title Ref. No.

Ch1 Introduction CENG 505

3.2. Mechanical Stabilization

3.3. Lime Stabilization

3.4. Cement Stabilization

3.5. Bitumen Stabilization

3.6. Other Treatment Methods

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

Purpose of Stabilization? • Improve workability

Strength (increase stability and bearing capacity)

Volume stability (control shrinkage-swelling)

Durability (increase resistance to erosion, weathering,

Permeability (reduce water penetration through soil)

Duct control (for unpaved roads as semi-bound surface)

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

Other chemical additives

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

• Mechanical stabilization – a soil or gravel is mixed through the

• Cement, lime and bitumen stabilizations are used either to

• The principal cementing materials that may be used include

Portland cement has been used with great success in many

Hydrated lime increases soil strength by pozzolanic action i.e.

• Use of cementing material is limited because of cost, thus

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

Application of stabilization methods

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

Stabilization response of major soil components

Organic mater Mechanical Other methods ineffective

3.2. Mechanical Stabilization

3.3. Lime Stabilization

3.4. Cement Stabilization

3.5. Bitumen Stabilization

3.6. Other Treatment Methods

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

blending two or more soils or more gradations to obtain a

Purpose: - to meet gradation specs. by blending different

- not only for strengthening road bases and

Gradation limits – coarse side/ fine side

Proportioning – Difficult without lab control

 Mechanically stabilized soils require:

Additive Stabilization ‫‏‬

 The purpose of the stabilized layer will be used for

 The type of soil improvement desired

 Required strength and durability

Percent Passing the No. 200

Table 2-1 Guide for selecting a stabilizing

Thickness Reduction for Base and Subbase

 Criteria based on unconfined compression testing and

 Criteria mainly for Portland cement, lime, and LCF stabilized

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

3.2. Mechanical Stabilization

3.3. Lime Stabilization

3.4. Cement Stabilization

3.5. Bitumen Stabilization

3.6. Other Treatment Methods

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

An effective agent to stabilize clayey materials

Alemgena Alene, PhD CENG 6305 - Ch3

CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2

This is commonly slaked for the market: