Road Materials, Characteristics and

Mixes
Rajat Rastogi
rajat.rastogi@ce.iitr.ac.in
Presentation Outline
Soil
Stone Aggregate
Bitumen

FLEXIBLE OR RIGID
SURFACE

SOIL AND AGGREGATE

LAYER

SOIL LAYER
Material Survey
Local availability with desired characteristics
Reduce transportation lead
Physical and engineering characteristics
Specific handling requirements
Suitability of the material for use in different layers
Soil
Soil classification
Testing of soil
Specifications
Soil
Used as a subgrade material and Binding material in soil-aggregate layer
Final load bearing surface, 500 mm thick
May need treatment – stabilized
District wise report of locally available materials is available with State PWDs
Scheme R-1 “Survey and evaluation of locally available materials” of MORT&H, GOI
Soil…1
Poor subgrade – Attributes to the formation of waves, corrugation, rutting and
shoving especially in flexible pavements
Soil consists of mineral material
Formed due to disintegration of rocks
Actions – water, frost, temperature, pressure, plant or animal life
Soil as Subgrade
If difference between subgrade top level and ground level is less than 500 mm then
ground shall be loosened upto a level of 500 mm below the subgrade level, watered
and compacted in layers
Compacted thickness of a layer shall not be more than 250 mm if vibratory
compactor is used and not more than 200 mm is static roller (80-100 kN) is used.
Moisture content of each layer shall be within -2% to +1% of OMC
Expansive clays shall be compacted on the wet side of OMC
Soil as Subgrade
Backfill material shall not be an organic soil or highly plastic clay having plasticity
index and liquid limit not more than 20 and 40 respectively
Soil Surveys
To determine the nature of soil for its suitability
To determine method of handling and its properties regarding construction
To create information regarding location of borrow areas
To collect information regarding sub-soil water level and nature and level of
inundation
To prepare data as records regarding use in subgrade, bases, surfaces and
embankments
Types of Soils
Alluvial soil: Indo-Gangetic plains, sand silt, clay
Fine sand: desert areas, lacks binder fraction, not well graded
Coastal soils: sand, good for subgrade
Black Cotton Soil: pronounced volume change, low strength at high moisture content
Red gravelly soil: less problematic
Soils Found in Uttarakhand
Alfisols (Hapludalfs – Submontane soils)
Entisols (Lithic – Skeletal soils)
Mollisols (Cryoborolis – Mountain Meadow soils)
Ultisols (Palehumults – Brown Red & yellow soils)
Snow fields
Low Grade Materials
 Moorum
 Suitable for rural road construction, usable under all climatic conditions
 Kankar
 Derived from lime stone rock, nodular in shape, usable under all climatic conditions
 Dhandla
 Calcareous, available under over-burden of desert sand, usable under all climatic conditions
 Laterite
 Deep brown in colour, porous and spongy, absorbs water
Low Grade Materials…1
 Soft stone / sand-stone
 Sedimentary rocks softer than hard rocks, susceptible to stripping
 River gravel
 Used for sub-base course
 River shingle
 Should posses at least two broken faces, used for base / surface coarse
 Compressed Shale aggregates
 Quite tough when dry
 Brick aggregates
Low Grade Materials…2
Locally available material in Uttarakhand
River shingle
Kankar
River gravel
Soft stone / sand stone
Shale aggregate
Soil Subgrade
Materials unsuitable for subgrade:
From swamps, marshes, bogs
Susceptible to spontaneous combustion
Materials in frozen condition
clays with LL > 50 and PI > 25
Materials with salt content
Expansive soils
Soil classified as OL, OI, OH or Peat
Desired Properties
Gradation
Stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions
Incompressibility
Drainage
Engineering Characteristics, Atterberg limits, dry density, moisture content,
Compaction, etc
Volume Change, Differential settlement
Frost action – Ambient temperature, capillary water, soil type (silt, sandy/silt-clay)
Gradation…1
Based on grain size - gravel, sand, silt and clay
BIS Classification
Classification Size
Gravel (G) 80 – 4.75mm
Sand (S)
Coarse 4.75 – 2.00mm
Medium 2.00 – 0.475mm
Fine 0.475 – 0.075mm
Silt (M) 0.075 – 0.002mm

Clay (C) Less than 0.002mm

Gradation…2
IS system
Gravel or Sand – Well graded, poorly graded, silty and clayey
Unit dry weight varies between 1.59 and 2.24 gm/cc
CBR% may vary between 10 and 90
Silt, Clay – organic or inorganic (High / Low Plastic)
Unit dry weight varies between 1.28 and 2.00 gm/cc
CBR% may vary between 2 and 20
Engineering Properties
Engineering requirement
Liquid Limit Test: Casagrande Liquid Limit device
Moisture content related to 25 blows is determined from a plot between number of blows and moisture
content (semi-log graph)
Plastic Limit:
The moisture content at which a soil water mix when rolled into a thread on a glass plate crumbles at 3mm
dia.
IS:2720 Part-5, 1985
Liquid Limit
CASAGRANDE APPARATUS MOVEMENT OF SOIL
Liquid Limit
CASAGRANDE APPARATUS SEMI-LOG GRAPH
Plastic Limit
Plastic Limit
Start from LL and roll soil specimen
Dry soil and repeat the test
When point is reached where thread is cracking and cannot be re-rolled to 3 mm
diameter, collect at least 6 grams and measure water content. Define as plastic limit
Indicates moisture content above which soil behaves plastic in nature
Plasticity Index
PI = LL – PL
A-Line: PI = 0.73*(LL - 20)
U-Line: PI = 0.90*(LL – 8); above this line is considered as unrealistic
Soil with LL < 16 is also considered to be unrealistic
Non-Plastic, Low / Medium / High Plastic
Requirement for construction
Material passing 425 micron sieve shall have liquid limit and plasticity index not more than 25 and 6,
respectively
Plasticity Index
Organic Content
A liquid limit test is performed on:
One sample that is only air-dried
On another that is oven-dried prior to testing
The liquid limit values are compared by computing the ratio of the 2 values
If the ratio of the oven-dried soil’s LL to the air-dry soil’s LL values is < 0.75, the soil is
organic by definition.
Ignition test. ASTM D2974
Soil sample heated in muffle furnace set at either 440 or 750 Centigrade and weight loss
measured.
Density
Proctor Compaction (IS:2720 Part 7, 1980)
Three layers, 25 blows on each side
Plot moisture content with dry density
Gives maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
Heavy compaction (IS:2720 Part 8, 1983)
Five layers, 56 blows of heavy rammer
Density…1
Proctor Compaction (IS:2720 Part 7, 1980)
Density…2
Proctor Compaction (IS:2720 Part 7, 1980)
Density…3
Density requirement for embankment and subgrade materials

Type of work Max Lab dry unit weight (IS-2720 Part-7,

1980)
Embankment upto 3 meters height, not Not less than 1.52 gm/cc (1.44 g/cc for
subjective to extensive flooding rural roads)
Embankment exceeding 3 meters height Not less than 1.60 gm/cc (1.52 g/cc for
or embankment of any height subject to rural roads)
long period of submergence
Subgrade and earthen shoulders / Not less than 1.75 gm/cc (1.65 g/cc for
verges / backfill rural roads)
Not applicable for lightweight fill materials, fly ash, etc. (IRC-SP_58)
Density…4
Density requirement for embankment and subgrade materials
Type of work Relative compaction as percentage of
max. laboratory dry density (IS-2720
Part-8, 1980)
Subgrade and earthen shoulders Not less than 97%
Embankment Not less than 95%
Expansive clays
a. Subgrade and 500 mm portion just Not allowed
below the subgrade
b. Remaining portion of embankment Not less than 95%
Not applicable for lightweight fill materials, fly ash, etc. (IRC-SP_58)
Soil Strength Tests
Shear Tests
Direct shear, Triaxial test, unconfined compression test
Bearing Test
Plate Load Bearing Test
Penetration Test
California Bearing Ratio Test
Cone Penetration Test
California Bearing Ratio
California Bearing Ratio test (IS:2720 Part-16)
Soaked v/s unsoaked
Annual rainfall less than 500mm, depth of water table greater than 1m
Curing if stabilized specimen (7 days)
Soaking for 4 days, plunger at the top of specimen
Plot of curve between load (or pressure) and penetration (mm)
CBR with respect to 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetration
Standard load 2.5 mm --- 1370 kg; 5.0 mm --- 2055 kg
CBR…1
CBR…2
CBR…3
𝐶𝐵𝑅
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= ∗ 100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Material Passing 20 mm
sieve is only used for this
test.
• Concavity –
• Due to softness of top
surface
• Due to no contact
between top surface and
plunger
Soil Investigation
Test Low High Cut
Embankment Embankment Section
Gradation test (wet sieve analysis, 
 
IS:2720 part -4, 1985)
Atterburg Limits (IS:2720 Part-5, 
 
1985)
Standard proctor Test (IS:2720 Part-
  
7, 1980)
Deleterious constituents (IS:2720
 
part-27, 1977)
Stability against slip failure 
Field density and moisture content

(IS:2720 part-28, 1974)
Aggregate Tests
Sources
Properties
Testing procedures
specifications
Aggregates
 Aggregates bear loads and transfer the same through point of contact
 They contribute to strength of the pavement
 Types – Natural or artificial (crushed)
 Mineral Aggregates
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic
Sources of Aggregates…1
NATURAL AGGREGATES ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES
Basalt (I-Volcanic) and Granite (I-Plutonic) Brick Ballast:
Limestone (S-Calcareous) Hand broken well burnt or over burnt
bricks
Quartzite (S-Siliceous & Metamorphic)
Cinder:
Sandstone (S-Siliceous) Well burnt furnace residue, fused or
sintered in lumps of varying sizes
Sources of Aggregates…2
Rocks available in Uttarakhand
Migmatite, Limesillic
Slate, Quartzite
Pockets of Granite, Limestone
Recent Alluvium
Sources of Aggregates…3
Waste materials:
Fly ash
Iron and steel slag
Processed municipal wastes
Rice husk ash
Marble slurry dust wastes
Recycled concrete
Quarry waste/mine waste
Properties of Aggregates
Desirable Properties
Strength
Hardness
Toughness
Durability
Shape of aggregates
Adhesion
Properties of Aggregates…1
 Strength
Against gradually applied loads
Cracking into smaller parts
Rolling wheel loads
Crushing strength test

 Hardness
Against abrasion and attrition
Higher effect in wearing course and upper layer
Affected by presence of abrasive charges
Los Angeles Abrasion Value test
Properties of Aggregates…2
• Toughness
Against impact loads
Cracking into smaller parts
Impact value test

• Durability
Against weathering and chemical action
Higher effect in wearing course and lower layers
Surface erosion or disintegration
Soundness test
Properties of Aggregates…3
 Shape of aggregate
Round, cubical, angular, flaky, elongated
Indicator of strength
Used in different layers and constructions accordingly
Flakiness Index, Elongation Index test

 Adhesion
Affinity towards water
Hydrophobic or hydrophilic in nature
Affected by mineral composition
Bitumen adhesion test
General Properties of Rock Aggregates
Classification Type of Properties generally Suitability for Bituminous
of Rock Rock encountered in most Road works
varieties
1. Igneous Granite 1. Hard, durable. 1. Good for base and
2. Texture varies from wearing courses.
fine-to-coarse-grained 2. Can be used with cationic
3. Bulk density below 2.8 emulsions
4. Resistant to abrasion 3. Can be abrasive to
5. Low water absorption crushing equipment
1. Igneous Basalt 1. Hard, Durable 1. Good for base and
2. Fine-grained texture wearing courses
3. Bulk density in the 2. Can be used with cationic
range of 2.8 to 3.0 emulsions
4. Resistant to abrasion 3. Can be abrasive to
5. Low to medium water crushing equipment
absorption
General Properties of Rock
Aggregates…1
1. Sedimentary Sandstone 1. Moderately hard and Good for base courses
durable Several varieties not suitable
2. Fine-grained texture for wearing courses
3. Bulk density in the
range of 2.3 to 2.7
4. Generally, high water
absorption
1. Sedimentary Limestone 1. Reasonably hard and Good for base courses
durable Certain varieties unsuitable
2. Certain varieties liable for wearing courses owing to
to polish to a smooth tendency to polish
surface under traffic Suitable for use with anionic
3. Water absorption may emulsions
range from low to high
4. Very good adhesion to
bitumen
General Properties of Rock
Aggregates…2
1. Sedimentary Kankar
1. Metamorphi Quartzite
c durable
1. An impure form of 1. Suitable for granular
limestone bases
2. Some varieties can be 2. Generally not suitable for
soft, not durable and wearing courses
water absorbent
1. Reasonably hard and Good for base and wearing
courses
2. Fine to medium Can be abrasive to crushing
grained equipment
3. Resistant to abrasion
4. Low water absorption
5. Bulk density in the
range 2.5 to 2.8
Tests on Aggregates
Aggregate Impact Test (IS: 2386-IV-1963)
Los Angles Abrasion Test (IS: 2386-IV )
Aggregate Crushing Value Test (IS: 2386-IV )
Elongation Index Test (IS: 2386-I )
Flakiness Index Test (IS: 2386-I )
Soundness Test (IS: 2386-IV )
Specific Gravity And Water Absorption Test (IS: 2386 Part-III)
Fineness Modulus Test IS 460, IS 383, IS 2386
Tests on Aggregates…1
Aggregate Impact Test
Sieves sizes 12.5, 10.00, 2.36 mm
Blows 15 per layer
3 Number of layers of material passing 12.50 mm and retained on 10.00 mm sieve
AIV = material passing 2.36 mm sieve × 100
Total weight of material
Tests on Aggregates…2
Los Angeles Test
Abrasion, attrition and pounding action
Abrasive charge as steel balls (6 – 12)
Sieves sizes varying in combination
Rotations ( 500, 1000) depending upon grade
Abrasion value
= material passing 1.70 mm sieve × 100
Total weight of material
Tests on Aggregates…3
Gradi Weight in kg-ms of Each test sample in the size range (mm) No. Wt.
ng of of
80-63 63-50 50-40 40.25 25-20 20- 12.5- 10-6.3 6.3- 4.75-
12.5 10 4.75 2.36 Sph charg
eres e
(gm)
A - - - 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 - - - 12
B - - - - - 2.50 2.50 - - - 11
C - - - - - - - 2.50 2.50 - 8
D - - - - - - - - - 5.00 6
E 2.50 2.50 5.00 - - - - - - - 12
F - - 5.00 5.00 - - - - - - 12
G - - - 5.00 5.00 - - - - - 12
Tests on Aggregates…4
Aggregate Crushing Value Test
Compression loading at uniform rate
Rate 4 tons per minute
Total load 40 tons
Sieve size 12.50, 10.00, 2.36 mm
Compression testing machine
Plunger for load distribution
Tests on Aggregates…4
Aggregate Crushing Value Test
Tests on Aggregates…5
Ten Percent Fines
Ten Percent Fines value (TPV), % (=100 × Wp/Wa)
Wp = Weight of aggregates passing 2.36 mm sieve, g
Adjustment to load for TPV: (If 20 < TPV < 7.5)
Loadadjusted, t = 14 × L*/(TPVave + 4)
L = Load in tons at which crushing is done to achieve required penetration as given below
15 mm for rounded / partially rounded
20 mm for normal crushed
24 mm for honeycombed aggregates
Repeat the test at adjusted load till the TPV value lies within a range of 7.5 and 12.5%
Tests on Aggregates…6
Aggregate Flakiness Index Test
The flakiness index (FI) of aggregates is the percentage of particles whose least dimension
(thickness) is less than three-fifth (0.6 times) of their mean dimension.
The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.
= weight of material passing number of sieves × 100
Total weight checked for passing through sieves
Tests on Aggregates…7
Aggregate Elongation Index Test
The elongation index (EI) of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles, whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times of their mean dimension.
The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm.
= weight of material retained on sieves × 100
Total weight checked on sieves
Tests on Aggregates…8
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test
Specific gravity – ratio of mass of a given absolute volume of aggregates to the mass of an equal
volume of water at specified temperature
For coarse aggregates, wire basket is used
For fine aggregates, pycnometer method is used
For fillers, specific gravity bottle is used

Water absorption – difference in weight of aggregates between 24 hours (water saturated-surface

dry and oven-dry condition)
Tests on Aggregates…9
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test
Tests on Aggregates…10
Soundness Test
Effect of sodium and magnesium sulphates
Aggregates submerged in saturated solution for 16 to 18 hr, taken out, dried to constant weight
Similar 5 cycles
Material retained on each sieve is recorded
Loss due to disintegration is computed as percentage.
Ranges of Test Values
Test Range (Bituminous Course)
Fines passing 0.075 mm sieve Max 5 percent (2 percent in SMA)
Flakiness & Elongation combined Max 35 percent
Abrasion value Max 40 percent – 30 percent
Impact value Max 30 percent – 24 percent
Soundness: MgSo4 Max 12 percent
Na2So4 Max 18 percent
Water Absorption Max 2 percent, 1 percent in case of
premix surfacing
Stripping Minimum retained coating 95 percent
Water Sensitivity Min 80 percent
Ranges of Test Values…1
Physical properties
Either ALAV or AIV to be used
Elongation test to be done only on non-flaky aggregates
Water sensitivity test is to be carried out if the minimum retained coating in the stripping test is less
than 95%.
Polished stone value – Minimum 55 percent
Maximum size of an aggregate is the mesh size of the smallest sieve through which 100% of the
material will pass.
Nominal size is the largest specified sieve size on which any of the aggregate material is retained.
Crushing value is used for rigid pavements only.
 Property Test IS code Specification for
BM / WBM / WMM / DBM BC SMA
CRM
Cleanliness Grain size analysis IS:2386 (Part-1) Max 5 percent passing Max 5 percent Max 5 percent < 2 percent
0.075 mm sieve passing 0.075 mm passing 0.075 mm passing 0.075 mm
Particle shape Flakiness and Elongation IS:2386 (Part-1)# Max 35 percent sieve sieve sieve
Index (Combined)# Max 35 percent Max 35 percent < 30 percent
Strength* Los Angeles Abrasion value IS:2386 (Part-4*) Max 40 percent
Aggregate Impact value IS:2386 (Part-4*) Max 30 percent Max 35 percent Max 30 percent < 25 percent
Polishing Polished Stone Value BS:812 (Part 114) --- Max 27 percent Max 24 percent < 18 percent
Durability Soundness: IS:2386 (Part-5) --- Min 55 percent > 55 percent
Sodium Sulphate Max 12 percent
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18 percent Max 12 percent Max 12 percent < 12 percent
Water Absorption Water Absorption IS:2386 (Part-3) Max 2 percent Max 18 percent Max 18 percent
Stripping Coating and Stripping of IS:6241 Minimum retained Max 2 percent- Max 2 percent < 2 percent
Bitumen Aggregate coating 95 percent Minimum retained Minimum retained
Water Sensitivity Mixtures AASHTO T283@ Min 80 percent coating 95 percent coating 95 percent
Retained Tensile Strength Min 80 percent Min 80 percent
Bitumen Characteristics and Tests
Types and sources
Tests
Specification
Bitumen
A paving bitumen for road works should meet the following requirements:
Adequate viscosity
Low temperature susceptibility
Adhesion (not strip off / hydrophobic)
Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing Process
Bitumen Types
Straight-run bitumen – Untreated/unblended byproduct, viscosity or composition has
not been adjusted, water content not more than 2%
Penetration grade bitumen – If degree of hardness is measured by a standard
penetration test, depends on pressure and temperature in tower
Cutback Bitumen – Blended with solvent to reduce viscosity
Application prime coat / tack coat
Cold weather construction and maintenance
Bitumen Types…1
Cutback Bitumen - Solvents
Diesel/lubricating oil
for producing Slow Curing (SC) cutbacks; Low viscosity; Six grades SC-0 to SC-5; mainly used in Cold-Laid Plant mix
Kerosene
for producing Medium Curing (MC) cutbacks; hardens relatively faster; Six grades MC-0 to MC-5; better wetting property;
mainly used for surface treatments, bases
Naphtha or Gasoline
for producing Rapid Curing (RC) cutbacks; Six grades RC-0 to RC-5; RC-5 has 15% solvent and RC-0 has 45% solvent; mainly
used for bases, surfaces and surface treatments
Bitumen Types…2
STRAIGHT-RUN BITUMEN PENETRATION GRADE
Bitumen Types…3
Emulsion
Based on the type of emulsifier used, bituminous emulsions can be Cationic or Anionic.
These are Rapid setting, Medium setting and Slow setting
Cationic emulsions are used with aggregates having a electro-negative charge (e.g granite/silieceous aggregates).
Anionic emulsions are used wit electro-positive aggregates like limestone.
Preferred above cutbacks, as volatiles in cutback are considered as pollutants
Used for faster maintenance works, soil stabilization and even under wet conditions (rains)
Emulsion
Bitumen Types…4
Modified Bitumen
Extends service life under extremes of temperatures
Controls the surface cracking, rutting and hardening of the pavement surface due to oxidation and
reduces the damage caused by water etc.
The temperature of mixing and rolling are slightly higher than for conventional bituminous mixes
Paving Bitumen (IS:73):
Type 1 : Paving bitumen from non-waxy crude, designated by the letter ‘S’
Type 2 : Paving bitumen from waxy crude, designated by the letter ‘A’
Paving Bitumen of Type 1 is the preferred type for road works.
Bitumen Tests
The laboratory tests for paving bitumen can be divided into the following categories:
Consistency Tests
Penetration test, Softening Point test, Viscosity test, Float value test
Composition Tests
Loss on heating test, Water content test, Solubility test
Specific Gravity Tests
Ductility Test
Flash and Fire Point Tests
Bitumen Properties
Consistency Tests
Variation of consistency with temperature – Temperature Susceptibility
Consistency at a specified temperature
Durability – Loss of plastic properties
Environmental conditions, natural deterioration - brittleness
Oxidation – long term
Volatization
Temperature – rate of above processes doubles with every 10oC rise
Surface Area – affects oxygen absorption and loss due to evaporation
Bitumen Properties
Age hardening
Rearrangement of molecules on heating and then cooling
Rate of curing – affected by
Volatility of solvent; it’s quantity; consistency of base material; temperature; ratio of surface area to
volume; wind velocity
Resistance to water
Not a problem in case of thoroughly dried aggregates; in case of use of water an anti-stripping agent
has to be used during mixing
Temperature effect – coefficient of expansion; affects ratio of surface area to volume
Penetration Test
Ductility Test

27oC
Softening Point Test
Flash and Fire Point Test
Viscosity Test
Specific Gravity Test

(𝐶−𝐴)
Specific gravity = 𝐵−𝐴 −(𝐷−𝐶)
Paving Bitumen Requirements
IS: 73-1992
Specific gravity at 27oC (IS:1202)
Water, percent by mass (IS:1211)
Flash point, Cleveland open cup, oC (IS:1209)
Softening point oC (IS:1205)
Penetration at 25oC, 100g, 5 sec., 1/10 mm (IS:1203)
Penetration ratio
Matter soluble in trichloroethylene, percent by mass (IS:1216)
Paving Bitumen Requirements
IS: 73-1992
Ductility at 27oC, cm (IS:1208)
Paraffin wax content, percent by mass (IS:10512)
Frass breaking point, oC (IS:9381)
Loss on heating, thin film oven test, percent by mass (IS:1212)
Retained penetration after thin film oven test, 25oC, 100g, 5 sec, 1/10mm, percent of original
(IS:9382)
Viscosity at: 60oC, Poises (IS:1206 P-2); 135 oC, cst (IS:1206 P-3)
Test Values
Paving Bitumen Type-I (S-35, 45, 55, 65, 90, 200)
Specific gravity at 27oC (Min. 0.99 to 1.02)
Water, percent by mass (Max. 0.2)
Flash point, Cleveland open cup, oC (Min. 175)
Softening point oC (55-65 to 30-45)
Penetration at 25oC (30/40, 50/60, 60/70, 80/100)
Penetration ratio (Min. 35)
Penetration ratio = [Penetration at 4oC, 200g, 60s / Penetration at 25oC, 100g, 5s] x 100
Test Values…1
Paving Bitumen Type-I (IS: 73-1992)
Ductility at 27oC, cm (Min.50, 75)
Paraffin wax content, percent by mass (Max. 4.5)
Frass breaking point, oC (-4 to -10)
Loss on heating, thin film oven test, percent by mass (Max. 2)
Retained penetration after thin film oven test, 25oC, percent of original (Min. 55 to 42)
Matter soluble in trichloroethylene, percent by mass (Min. 99)
Specific Tests
Volatility Tests
Distillation test – Kind and amount of volatile materials
Loss on Heating test – effect of weathering or contamination
Thin Film Oven Test – material hardening and remaining life
Demulsibility test for emulsion
susceptibility of breaking down (coalescing); high requirement for surface treatment, lower for
coarse aggregates and quite low for fine aggregates
Sieve test
extent of emulsification and suitability to use through pressure distribution
Other Emulsion Tests
Particle charge test
Stability test (mixing with cement)
Coagulation at low temperature
Sedimentation
Storage stability – long period
Viscosity – Engler Flow Viscometer
Selection of Bitumen Grade
Penetration Grade for Roads carrying 10 to 30 x 106 Equivalent Standard Axles (ESA)
Tmax = Highest monthly average maximum temperature for project location.
Tmin = Lowest monthly average minimum temperature for project location.

Select one grade softer if traffic < 10 x 106 ESA. Similarly select one grade harder if traffic > 30 x 106
ESA.
Selection of Bitumen Grade
Tmax(OC) <20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50
Tmin(OC) Penetration grade of Bitumen

-10 to 0 90 90 55/PMB 55/PMB

0 to 10 90 90 55 55/PMB
10 to 20 90 65 45/55 45
> 20 -- 65 45 45
Selection of Bitumen Grade
Tmax(OC) <20 20 to 30 More than 30
Tmin(OC) Viscosity grade (VG) of Bitumen
More than -10 VG-10 VG-20 VG-30
-10 or lower VG-10 VG-10 VG-20
Tmax Highest daily mean air temperature
Tmin Lowest daily mean air temperature
Proportioning of Aggregates
Analytical, Graphical, Trial and Error
Proportioning
Fuller’s Formula
𝑑𝑖 𝑛
% (PMD) = ∗ 100
𝐷
%(PMD) = percentage passing maximum design gradation for sieve ‘i’
di = sieve size, mm
D = Maximum sieve size, mm
n = factor 0.5
Graphical – Rothfuchs method

Balanced Area
Method

Different X and Y
scale
Graphical – Equal Distance & Space
method

Different X and Y
scale
Triangular method
Graphical – Triangular method
Analytical
Table: Gradation
Sieve Required Filler Fine Coarse
size Gradation Aggr. Aggr.
(mm) Range (A) (B) (C)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
25.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
12.7 90-100 100.0 100.0 94.0
4.76 60-75 100.0 100.0 54.0
1.18 40-55 100.0 66.4 31.3
0.3 20-35 100.0 26.0 22.8
0.15 12-22 73.6 17.6 9.0
0.075 5-10 40.1 5.0 3.1
Other Methods
Asphalt Institute Method - 1984
Wallace Method (Wallace and martin 1967)
MATLAB Application
Excel Sheet programmes
Trial and Error method
Optimization Technique methods
Least square, Liner and non-liner programming, simulated annealing, genetic
algorithm, etc.
Bituminous Mix Design
Grading, Marshall Test and Calculations
Desirable Properties
High stability
Good durability
Good elastic property
Good fatigue resistance
Low permeability
Good workability
Good skid resistance
Good riding quality
Acceptable level of noise under traffic
Steps
Proportioning of aggregates to suit gradation
Specific gravity of aggregates and bitumen
Preparation of Marshall sample
Bulk density of sample and placement in water bath
Test for stability and flow
Calculations for Air Voids, Voids filled with bitumen
Proportioning - Example
To suit gradation requirement of BM, DBM, BC, etc.
Sieve Grading 10mm 6mm Dust Filler 10mm 6mm Dust Filler Total
22.4 100 100 100 100 100 33.00 13.00 52.00 2.00 100.0
13.2 85-100 98.5 100 100 100 32.51 13.00 52.00 2.00 99.5
11.2 75-90 89.94 100 100 100 29.68 13.00 52.00 2.00 96.7
5.6 57-70 0 79.9 100 100 0.00 10.39 52.00 2.00 64.4
2.36 45-55 0 8.9 98.8 100 0.00 1.16 51.38 2.00 54.5
600 23-35 0 0 53.4 100 0.00 0.00 27.77 2.00 29.8
300 16-24 0 0 39 95 0.00 0.00 20.28 1.90 22.2
150 10-16 0 0 20.8 90 0.00 0.00 10.82 1.80 12.6
75 006-9 0 0 9.2 85 0.00 0.00 4.78 1.70 6.5
%
Fraction Table 500-9 0.33 0.13 0.52 0.02
Proportioning - Example
Size Proportion % by wt of Agg Specific Gravity % by weight of mix
Aggregate 10 mm 33% 2.71 31.02%
Aggregate 6 mm 13% 2.76 12.22%
Stone Dust 52% 2.55 48.88%
Total 98% 92.12%
Mineral Filler 2% 1.96 1.88%
Total 100% 94.00%
Average Specific Gravity of Aggregates 2.68
Preparation of Sample
Grade of Bitumen to be used: VG 30
Percent bitumen by weight of aggregates: 6.38%
Percent bitumen by weight of total mix: 6.00%
Specific Gravity: 0.99 - 1.02
Total aggregate weight = 1200 gm
Bitumen weight = 76.56 gm
Blows per side = 50 or 75 as per traffic
Aggregate and Bitumen heated separately upto specified temperature and then mixed
together
Marshall Test
Marshall Test
Calculations
Specific gravity of aggregates and Percent Air Voids = 100 –
bitumen 100*(BD/MTD)
Ave Sp G. Gag = Wag/(Wi/Gi) Percent Volume occupied by
constituents = Vc = (PBTM*BD)/GB
Max Theo. Density (MTD) =
W/((WB/GB )+(Wag/Gag)) VMA = 100 – (Pag*BD/Gag*100)
Bulk Density (BD) of sample – water VFB = (Vc/VMA)*100
replacement method
Diameter and height of sample –
Correction factor for stability
Results
Mix Properties:
Bulk Density of mix 2.35 gm/cm3
Max. Theoretical Density 2.438 gm/cm3
Marshall Stability 12.23 kN
Flow Value 3.40 mm
Marshall Quotient 3.59
Percent Air Voids 3.61%
Voids in Mineral Aggregates 17.57%
Voids filled with Bitumen 79.45%
Graphs
Parameters of Mix Design
For Different Surface courses SRB ModiB
Minimum Stability (kN at 60oC) 9 10 - 12
Flow (mm) 2-4 2.5-5.0
Marshall Quotient 2-5 2.5-5.0
Compaction Level (Number of Blows) 75x2
Percent Air Voids 3-5
Percent voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB) 65-75

SRB – Straight Run Bitumen; ModiB – Modified Bitumen

Parameters of Mix Design…1
Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA)
Nominal Maximum Minimum VMA, percent related to
Particle Size (mm) Design Percent Air Voids
3.0 4.0 5.0
9.5 14.0 15.0 16.0
12.5 13.0 14.0 15.0
19.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
26.5 11.0 12.0 13.0
37.5 10.0 11.0 12.0
Concrete Mix Design
Materials, Mix
Concrete Mix Design
Materials
Cement
OPC 43, 53 Grade IS:269
PPC IS:1489 Part 1
PSC IS:455
Composite Cement IS:16415
Admixtures
Retarders, plasticizers, superplasticizers
Air entraining admixtures
Fibers
Aggregates
Concrete Mix Design
Table: Combined Gradation for Pavement Quality Concrete
Percentage passing for Nominal Size
Sieve mm
31.5 mm 26.5 mm 19 mm
37.5 100 100 100
31.5 90 – 100 100 100
26.5 85 – 95 90 – 100 100
19 68 – 88 75 – 95 90 – 100
9.5 45 – 65 50 – 70 48 – 78
4.75 30 – 55 30 – 55 30 – 58
600 micron 8 – 30 8 – 30 8 – 35
150 micron 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 12
75 micron 0–5/0-2 0–5/0-2 0 – 5* / 0 – 2**
* Crushed sand, ** natural sand
Concrete Mix Design
Mineral Admixtures
Pozzolonas
Flyash – Max 25% by mass of cementitious material
Silica Fume - Max 5-10% by mass of cementitious material
Metakaoline – up to 20% by mass of cementitious material
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
up to 50% by weight of cementitious material
Water
Potable water as per IS:456
Concrete Mix Design
Target Strength for Mix
Based on flexural strength
f ’cs = fcr + 1.65*Sf OR
f ’cs = fcr + 0.55, whichever is higher
Based on compressive strength
f ’ck = fck + 1.65*Sc OR
f ’ck = fck + X, whichever is higher
X = 5, 6.5, 8 N/mm2 as per grade
f’ = target strength, N/mm2
f = characteristics strength, N/mm2
S = standard deviation, N/mm2
Concrete Mix Design
Standard Deviation can be calculated or assumed as
Based on flexural strength: 0.35 – 0.40
Based on compressive strength: 5.0 / 6.0

Selection of Mix Proportions

Air content: Nominal size, mm Entrapped air,% of volume of Concrete
9.5 1.5
19 1.0
26.5 0.9
31.5 0.8
Concrete Mix Design
Selection of Water-Cement ratio
Flexural strength 28-d OPC 43 OPC 53
3.5 – 5.5 N/mm2 0.50 – 0.28 0.50 – 0.32
Compressive strength 28-d
32 – 68 N/mm2 0.47 – 0.24 0.50 – 0.29

Nominal size of aggregate Suggestive water content kg/m3

9.5 mm 208
19 mm 186
31.5 mm 165

Values are for 50 mm slump. Change is 3% per 25 mm slump. Reduce water content by 5-10% if water
reducing admixture is used and by 20% if superplasticizer is used.
Concrete Mix Design
Cement Content
Calculated from free water-cement ratio
Minimum 360 kg/m3
Maximum without mineral admixtures 450 kg/m3
Blended with flyash, minimum cement content 310 kg/m3
With GGBFS, minimum cement content 250 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Design
Coarse aggregate content in total aggregate
Nominal size, mm Volume per unit volume of total aggregates
Zone III Zone II Zone I
9.5 0.48 0.46 0.44
19 0.64 0.62 0.60
26.5 0.69 0.67 0.65
31.5 0.68 0.65 0.63

Above values are for W:C ratio of 0.50. For more workable mixes, if required, coarse aggregate content can be reduced by
up to 10%.
W:C adjustment: increase volume of coarse aggregates @0.01m3 for decrease in W:C ratio by 0.50. Or vice versa
Concrete Mix Design
Estimation of content of coarse and fine aggregate
1. Find absolute volume of cementitious material, water and chemical admixture
A. find specific gravity of constituents
B. find mass of constituents
2. Find volume of total aggregates
1.0 – ((M/SG)*1/1000)
3. Divide into coarse and fine aggregate based on proportion of coarse aggregates in total
aggregates
4. Coarse or fine aggregate content = absolute volume * SG * 1000
5. Check for combined grading of fine and coarse aggregate as per table
Concrete Mix Design - Example
Data
Grade – 4.5 N/mm2 Flexural Str.
Cement – OPC 43 Grade
MNSA – 31.5 mm
Min Cement content – 360 kg/m3
Max W:C ratio – 0.40
Workability - 25±10 mm slump
Aggregate – Crushed angular
Max cement content – 450 kg/m3
Chemical admixture - superplasticizer
Test Data
Specific gravity
Cement – 3.15
Coarse aggregate – 2.74
Fine aggregate – 2.62
Water absorption
Coarse aggregate 0.5%
Fine aggregate 1.0%
Free (surface/absorbed) moisture
Coarse aggregate – NIL
Fine aggregate – NIL
Fien aggregates confirming to zone II
Concrete Mix Design - Example
Proportioning Concrete Mix based on Flexural Strength
f ’cs = fcr + 1.65*Sf = 4.5 + 1.65*0.40 = 5.16 N/mm2 (sta. dev. from table) OR
f ’cs = fcr + 0.55 = 4.5 + 0.55 = 5.05 N/mm2 whichever is higher
Air content (entrapped) = 0.8% for 31.5 mm MNSA
W:C ratio – Max 0.40, from interpolation 0.32 (5.0- 0.34, 5.5-0.28 for OPC 43)
Calculating water content:
50 mm slump – for 31.5 mm aggregate = 165 kg/m3
For 25 mm slump @ 3% reduction = 165 – 0.03*165 = 160 kg/m3
For use of superplasticizer reduction @20% = 160*0.80 = 128 kg/m3
Calculating Cement content:
W:C ratio = 0.32; cement content = 128/0.32 = 400 kg/m3 okay as this is within minimum and maximum limits specified
Concrete Mix Design - Example
Proportioning Concrete Mix based on Flexural Strength
Calculating proportion of coarse and fine aggregates
Volume of coarse aggregates per unit volume of total aggregates for 31.5 m MNAS and fine aggregate zone II = 0.65
This is for W:C ratio = 0.50
For W:C ratio of 0.32, volume of coarse aggregate will increase = 0.65 + (0.50-0.32)*0.01/0.05 = 0.686
Volume of fine aggregates = 1 – 0.686 = 0.314 per unit volume of total aggregates
Now check shall be made for combined grading of fine and coarse aggregates
Concrete Mix Design - Example
Mix Calculations
Absolute volume of concrete = 1 – entrapped air = 1 – 0.08 = 0.92 m3
Volume of cement = (400/3.15)*(1/1000) = 0.127 m3
Volume of water = (128/1)*(1/1000) = 0.128 m3
Volume of admixture @1% by mass of cementitious material = (400*0.01/1.2)*(1/1000) = 0.0033 m3
Total aggregates volume = 0.92 – 0.127 – 0.128 – 0.0033 = 0.7337 m3
Mass of coarse aggregates = 0.7337*0.686*2.74*1000 = 1379 kg/m3
Mass of fine aggregates = 0.7337*0.314*2.62*1000 = 603.4 ~ 604 kg/m3

Final quantity
Cement = 400 kg/m3; water = 128 kg/m3; fine aggregates = 604 kg/m3; coarse aggregates = 1379 kg/m3; Chemical
admixtures = 4 kg/m3; water-cement ratio = 0.32
THANKS