Phonological Rules - the context in which a sound change takes place.

How words
sound.
Syntactic Rules - rules used in communication to describe how things are organized or
ordered, how words or symbols are arranged
Semantic Rules - are the agreed-upon definitions of words, the specific meaning of
words
Pragmatic Rules - how people use language in everyday interaction governs
interpretation based on content
Language Convergence - a type of language of language contact-induced change
whereby languages with many bilingual speakers mutually borrow morphological and
syntactic features, making their typology more similar
Convergence - happens when an individual adjusts his speech patterns to match those
of people belonging to another group or social identity
Divergence - happens when an individual adjusts his speech patterns to be distinct
from those of people belonging to another group or social identity
Impression Management - managing others’ views of oneself. Influencing how others
think of something or someone else
Equivocal words - can be pronounced in two different ways, meaning two different
things
Relative words - words that do not have an exact definition, and can change depending
on the context and is very subjective.
Slang - an informal nonstandard vocabulary
Jargon - the language, especially the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade,
profession, or group
Emotive language - one which uses words that will evoke the emotions of someone
Euphemism - substituting words to soften a possible negative meaning.
Equivocation - deliberate vague statement to avoid embarrassment or negative
message
Colloquial or Informal spoken language - Something that occurs between people of
different cultures including different religious groups or people of different national origins
Disparage - To speak slightingly about a person in order to lower a reputation or rank
Email Blast - A single sending of many electronic messages to many people at the same
time
Flyers - Also called a circular, handbill or leaflet, is a form of paper advertisement
intended for wide distribution and typically posted or distributed in a public place or
through the mail.
Refute - To prove wrong by argument or evidence
Text blasts - A free application that allows community groups to communicate with their
followers using mass text messages
Transactional Model - A model that sees communication or negotiation of meaning in
two or more parties responding to their environment and each other
Ambiguity - A lack of decisiveness or commitment resulting from a failure to make a
choice between alternatives
Appropriateness - The quality of being just right for the requirements
Assertiveness - The ability to express needs, desires, values and opinions in a direct
and confident manner
Briefings - The act or an instance of giving instructions or preparatory information to
someone
Channels - The means by which messages are conveyed (medium)
Empathy - The ability to understand and share the feelings of another
Euphemisms - a word or phrase used in place of a term that might be considered too
direct, harsh, unpleasant or offensive
Adverbials - A word or phrase functioning like an adverb
Culture - Consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common
to
the members of a particular group or society
Derogatory - Showing a critical or disrespectful attitude
Directives - An official or authoritative instruction
Diversity - The state of being diverse; variety; A range of different things
Dyads - Two individuals or units regarded as a pair; example: the mother-daughter dyad
Ethnicity - The fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national
or cultural tradition
Intercultural - Something that occurs between people of different cultures including
different religious groups or people of different national origins
Abhor - To regard with disgust and hatred
Accuracy - The quality or state of being correct or precise
Adherence - Steady or faithful attachment : fidelity
Appropriateness - The quality of being just right for the requirements
Blow off steam - To do or say something that helps you get rid of strong feelings or
energy
Clarity - The quality of being clear, in particular
Coherence - Something logical or consistent and something that makes sense as a
whole
Compassion - Deep awareness of the suffering of another coupled with the wish to
relieve it
Comprehensibility - The quality of being understood
Depression - A common mental disorder, characterized by sadness, loss of interest or
pleasure, feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, feelings of
tiredness and poor concentration
Effectiveness - The degree to which objectives are achieved and the extent to which
targeted problems are solved. In contrast to efficiency, effectiveness is determined
without reference to costs and, whereas efficiency means "doing the thing right,"
effectiveness means "doing the right thing"
Empathy - The ability to understand and share the feelings of another
Expertise - Basis of credibility of a person who is perceived to be knowledgeable in an
area or topic due to his or her study, training, or experience in the subject matter
Global Company - A corporation that is registered in more than one country or that has
operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation which both produces and
sells goods or services in various countries. It can also be referred to as an international
corporation.
Inclusion - The act of making someone part of something
Lashes out - To burst into or resort to verbal or physical attack
Social Isolation - The absence of social interactions, contacts, and relationships with
family and friends, with neighbors on an individual level, and with ''society at large" on a
broader level
Social Needs - In Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance and
belonging
Acquisition - The purchase of one company by another in which no new company is
formed
Business Communication - The sharing of information between people within an
enterprise that is performed for the commercial benefit of the organization; can also refer
to how a company shares information to promote its product or services to potential
consumers
Competitive Edge - The ability of being unique in the marketplace and thus differentiating
your product, service, personnel or brand from the rest
Cross-Channel Communication - A type of formal communicational network where
there is exchange of information among employees in different work units who are neither
subordinate nor superior to
one another
Domino Effect - A chain reaction that occurs when a small change causes a similar
change nearby, which then causes another similar change, and so on in linear sequence
Downward Communication - A type of formal communicational network where the
information is transmitted from superiors to subordinate
External Stimulus - The stimulus which comes through your sensory organs – your eyes,
ears, nose, mouth and skin.
Filter - An individual’s unique perception of reality
Formal Communication Network - Transmission of information through official channels
within the organization
Grapevine - An informal communication which is transmitted to non-official channels
within the organization.
Horizontal Communication - A type of formal communicational network where the
information flows among peers within the same work unit
Informal Communication Network - Also known as “grapevine”; Transmission of
information through non-official channels within the organization
Internal Stimulus - The stimulus which comes into your mind
Layoff - The act of suspending or dismissing an employee, as for lack of work or because
of corporate reorganization
Medium - The form by which the message is sent
Message - The totality of how a person delivers the information
Merger - A consolidation or combination of two companies to form a new company
Non-verbal Medium - The form of facial expressions, gesture or body language by which
the message is sent
Personal Communication - The sharing of information by one person directly to another
Preconception - An opinion or conception formed in advance of adequate knowledge or
experience, especially a prejudice or bias
Scholarly Research - Refers to original research which is based on experimentation
Socioeconomic status - The social standing or class of an individual or group based on
income, education, occupation and involvement in the community
Stimulus - A thing or event that creates within an individual the need to communicate
Upward Communication - A type of formal communicational network where the
information is transmitted from lower-level employees to higher-level employees
Chapter1
The body has many systems: circulatory system, gastrointestinal system, skeletal system,
nervous, cardiovascular, etc.
Communication has verbal and nonverbal communication, intentional and unintentional.
Like the human body, you can break it down and study certain parts, but what counts is
that all are happening at once. A doctor who couldn’t understand all the systems
functioning together is not good at diagnosing or healing.
A communicator who can’t analyze the parts (verbal/nonverbal, content/relational, and
intentional/unintentional) and also look at all the parts together is probably not competent
either.
If I’m sick, I expect a physician to know which part to pay attention to and to see the how
the other systems of my body may be affected or may be affecting my disease. I may
have a broken bone, but may be losing blood. He may also need to consider that I am
also diabetic and hypertensive. Likewise, the competent communicator needs to see what
elements of the transactional process might be causing the problem, and give attention
there, while not neglecting other aspects. But unlike the human body that is physical;
communication is relational, intangible. Communication may end in a different way than
a physical body comes to an end.

The Nature of Language

• Language is symbolic
• Meanings are in People, not in words
• Language is rule-governed
Language is symbolic elements create symbols (words & other symbols) sign language
is symbolic, linguistic
Symbols are the way we experience the world Meanings are in people, not in words
meanings are personal
Ogden & Richards's Triangle of Meaning
Language is symbolic. It uses words, signals (e.g., sign language) & other symbols.
Meanings are in people, not in words. This means that the meanings we attach to
words maybe personal.
Ogden and Richards Triangle of Meaning
Meanings are in People not words. This is because meanings are social constructions
– how people make sense of symbols and words. Problems arise when people mistakenly
assume that others use words in the same way they do. The broken line indicates that
there is an indirect relationship between a word and the thing it represents. A problem
arises when anyone assumes that the words mean the same thing. Thus, it is important
to clarify what words mean, to paraphrase and thereby negotiating meanings.
Language is rule-governed; understanding rules helps us understand each
other.
1) phonological rules – how words sound
Examples:
Champagne, double and occasion are spelled identically in English and French but
pronounced differently
Or you may give other examples:
weight and height having different sounds
beard and heard having different sounds
wait and weight having different spellings but the same sound
2) syntactic rules – how words or symbols are arranged:
Examples:
correct English syntax requires that every word contain at least
one vowel
Unacceptable: “Have you cookies bought?”
Text/IM messages have destroyed rules that govern structure:
r u at home? nid to study 4 finals, k bye
3) semantic rules – the specific meaning of words
Examples:
Panda Mating fails
Veterinarian takes over
Police begin campaign to run down Jaywalkers
4) pragmatic rules – how people use language in everyday interaction; governs
interpretation based on context
Examples:
Boss: Views employees as family
Employee: Depends on boss’ goodwill for advancement
Boss: Concerned about appearance – look smart and sexy
Employee: Sensitive to sexual harassment
Language shapes attitudes towards things and one another
1) naming - The way we call (name) things or persons reflects our attitude.
2) credibility - The language we speak, how we speak and what we speak about
shape or speak about our credibility, social status including our
3) social and sexual preferences.
4) Status
5) sexism & racism
Language reflects attitudes; the way we feel about things and people.
Power & affiliation
a) convergence
Language convergence is a type of language contact-induced change whereby
languages with many bilingual speakers mutually borrow morphological and syntactic
features, making their typology more similar. Convergence happens when an individual
adjusts his speech patterns to match those of people belonging to another group or social
identity.
Example:
Most Filipino students and professionals speak Filipino and English
and often mix the two languages in speech.
b) divergence
Divergence happens when an individual adjusts his speech patterns to be distinct from
those of people belonging to another group or social identity.
Example:
Students from some exclusive schools speak differently from
activist students from state-run universities.
Attraction & interest
a) demonstrative pronouns
b) negation
c) sequential placement
Responsibility
a) "it" vs. "I" statements – It isn’t finish vs I didn’t finish
b) "you" vs. "I" statements – Sometimes you make me angry vs
Sometimes I get angry
c) "but" statements – It’s a good idea but it won’t work
d) questions vs. statements – Do you think we ought to do that? vs. I
don’t think we should do that.
Impression management is managing others' views of oneself. It also involves
influencing how others think of something or someone else. How successful one is in
influencing others points back to the impression he makes on others. Impression
management involves issues of honesty, choices of faces and impressions and choice
of words & tone. Impression management is useful to shape what people think and how
people would receive and respond to a particular message. We (may also need to)
manage impressions to fit to certain social rules and social roles. We may also manage
impressions based on our personal goals.
Ask the students of their impressions about certain people and ask them how these
impressions affect their reception, understanding and reaction to the message.
You may mention any of the following people:
1) Mother Theresa
2) Willie Revillame
3) Sharon Cuneta or any other actor or actress
4) a politician
5) their professors
How do we manage impressions?
a) manner - The way we talk (volume, pace, tone, intonation, language used, pitch and
pronunciation) affect the way we impress on others.
b) content - This is what one talks about or what one is capable of talking or discussion
about.
c) appearance - Our physical appearance, including our gestures, mannerisms and eye
contact influences the impression we make on others.
d) setting - Where we deliver our message also influences the impression, we make on
others.
The language of misunderstandings
1.) equivocal words – the word “period” means punctuation or a point in time or a
woman’s menstrual cycle
2.) relative words – possible (0-99%) vs. good chance (35-90%) vs. unlikely (0-40%)
3.) slang and jargon
“bonking” – in cycling means running out of energy
“Bling-bling” – rap language means jewelry
“Whip” – rap language means nice looking car
LOL – chat language means Laughing out loud
4.) overly abstract language
Abstract ladder (notes from slide)
a) useful as a short cut
b) useful to avoid confrontations
c) problematic as stereotyping
d) problematic when confusing others
5.) Behavioral descriptions avoid overly abstract language
a) identify specific, observable phenomenon
b) person(s)—who?
c) circumstances-- when and where?
d) observable behaviors—what?
6.) fact-opinion confusion
a) factual statements can be verified (objective)
b) opinion statements are beliefs (subjective)
7.) fact-inference confusion

a) fact – as things happened; the evidence (what one sees, hears, smells, touches and
tastes – the actual action NOT a judgment of it)
b) inferential statements are conclusions from interpretations of evidence
8.) emotive language – men are forceful vs. women are pushy; men are assertive vs.
women are aggressive; He’s committed vs. She’s obsessed
9.) Evasive language
a) Euphemism – substituting words to soften a possible negative meaning: restroom vs.
toilet, senior citizen or mature vs. old
b) Equivocation - deliberate vague statement to avoid embarrassment or negative
message:
c) Question: How do I look? Answer: If you don’t like the look you could answer “You
look unique” or “Interesting”

Chapter 2
The Importance of Global Business
Most major businesses operate globally, and an increasing share of profits comes
from outside the headquarters' country. Many companies depend on vendors or
operations in other countries. These international operations help companies spend more
time with customers, focus more on innovation, and fund projects that otherwise would
have been unaffordable. For their own careers, managers often find they need
international experience if they want top-level jobs.
The last two decades has seen a growing emphasis on diversity.
This list provides some of the most common forms of diversity.
• Gender
• Race and ethnicity
• Regional and national origin
• Social class
• Religion
• Age
• Sexual orientation
• Physical ability
Gender plays an important role in the way language operates.
What they talk about
Female friends spend much more time discussing personal and domestic subjects,
relationship problems, family, health and reproductive matters, weight, food and
clothing, men, and other women. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to discuss
music, current events, sports, business, and other men. Both men and women are equally
likely to discuss personal appearance, sex, and dating in same-sex conversations. True
to one common stereotype, women are more likely to gossip about close friends and
family. By contrast, men spend more time gossiping about sports figures and media
personalities. Women’s gossip is no more derogatory than men’s.
Reasons for Communicating
Regardless of the sex of the communicators, the goals of almost all ordinary
conversations include making the conversation enjoyable by being friendly, showing
interest in what the other person says, and talking about topics that interest the other
person. How men and women accomplish these goals is often different, though. Although
most communicators try to make their interaction enjoyable; men are more likely than
women to emphasize making conversation fun. Their discussions involve a greater
amount of joking and good-natured teasing. By contrast, women’s conversations focus
more frequently on feelings, relationships, and personal problems. Because women use
conversation to pursue social needs, female speech typically contains statements
showing support for the other person, demonstrations of equality, and efforts to keep the
conversation going. Traditionally female speech often contains statements of sympathy
and empathy: “I’ve felt just like that myself,” “The same thing happened to me!” Women
are also inclined to ask lots of questions that invite the other person to share information:
“How did you feel about that?” “What did you do next?” The importance of nurturing a
relationship also explains why female speech is often somewhat powerless and tentative.
Saying, “This is just my opinion...” is less likely to put off a conversational partner than a
more definite “Here’s what I think” Men’s speech is often driven by quite different goals
than women. Men are more likely to use language to accomplish the job at hand than to
nourish relationships. This explains why men are less likely than women to disclose their
vulnerabilities, which would be a sign of weakness. When someone else is sharing a
problem, instead of empathizing, men are prone to offer advice: “That’s nothing to worry
about . . .” or “Here’s what you need to do . . .” Besides taking care of business, men are
more likely than women to use conversations to exert control, preserve their
independence, and enhance their status. This explains why men are more prone to
dominate conversations and one-up their partners. Men interrupt their conversational
partners to assert their own experiences or point of view. (Women interrupt too, but they
usually do so to offer support: quite a different goal.) Just because male talk is competitive
doesn’t mean it’s not enjoyable. Another common theme was appreciation of the practical
value of conversation: new ways to solve problems. Men also mentioned enjoying the
humor and rapid pace that characterized their all-male conversations.
Conversational Style
Women ask more questions in mixed-sex conversations than do men—nearly three times
as many. Other research has revealed that in mixed-sex conversations, men interrupt
women far more than the other way around. Women’s speech that is less powerful and
more emotional than men’s. Women’s talk was judged more aesthetic, whereas men’s
talk was seen as more dynamic, aggressive, and strong. In another, male job applicants
were rated more fluent, active, confident, and effective than female applicants. Other
studies have revealed that men and women behave differently in certain conversational
settings. For example, in mixed-sex dyads men talk longer than women, whereas in
same-sex situations women speak for a longer time. In larger groups, men talk more,
whereas in smaller groups, women talk more. In same-sex conversations there are other
differences between men and women: Women use more questions, justifiers, intensive
adverbs, personal pronouns, and adverbials. Men use more directives, interruptions, and
filler words to begin sentences. Given these differences, cross-sex conversations do run
smoothly because women accommodate to the topics men raise. Both men and women
regard topics introduced by women as tentative, whereas topics that men introduce are
more likely to be pursued. Women seem to carry the wheels of conversation by doing
more work than men in maintaining conversations. A complementary difference between
men and women also promotes cross-sex conversations: Men are more likely to talk
about themselves with women than with other men; and because women are willing to
adapt to this topic, conversations are likely to run smoothly, if one-sidedly. An
accommodating style isn’t always a disadvantage for women. One study revealed that
women who spoke tentatively were actually more influential with men than those who
used more powerful speech. On the other hand, this tentative style was less effective in
persuading women. (Language use had no effect on men’s persuasiveness.) This
research suggests that women who are willing and able to be flexible in their approach
can persuade both other women and men—as long as they are not dealing with a mixed-
sex audience.
if one-sidedly.
It is best to be aware and understand your workmates’, customers’ and clients’ culture,
beliefs and practices. Many of the miscommunication instances could be averted if people
are aware of each other’s culture, beliefs and practices. Our values, priorities, and
practices are shaped by the culture in which we grow up. Understanding other cultures is
crucial to succeed in global business organizations. Effective customer service is founded
on a good understanding of the clients’ or customers’ culture.
Each of us grows up in a culture that provides patterns of acceptable behavior and belief.
We may not be aware of the most basic features of our own culture until we come into
contact with people who do things differently. We can categorize cultures as high-context
or low-context. In high-context cultures, most of the information is inferred from the social
relationships of the people and the context of a message and little is explicitly conveyed.
Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, and Latin American cultures are high context. In low-context
cultures, context is less important and most information is explicitly spelled out. German,
Scandinavian, and North American cultures are low-context.

Successful intercultural communicators are aware of the values, beliefs, and practices in
other cultures; sensitive to differences among individuals within a culture; aware that his
or her preferred values and behaviors are influenced by culture and are not necessarily
“right”; sensitive to verbal and nonverbal behavior; and flexible and open to change. It is
best to keep in mind that understanding another culture is to realize that people, things,
actions and reactions may vary. Also, it is good to keep in mind that the difference is not
bad or inferior. There is no such thing as better culture. Within the corporate environment,
some people are more successful than others, and one major reason for the variation is
their interpersonal communication skills.
Interpersonal communication is communication between people. Successful
professionals communicate well with different categories of people in a variety of settings.
To do so, they cultivate skills in diverse areas such as listening, conversation, nonverbal
communication, and networking.
Nonverbal communication is communication that doesn’t use words. Smiles, frowns,
who sits where at a meeting, the size of an office, how long someone keeps a visitor
waiting, all communicate pleasure or anger, friendliness or distance, power and status.
Nonverbal signals can be misinterpreted just as easily as words. And the
misunderstandings can be harder to clear up because people may not be aware of the
nonverbal cues that led them to assume that they aren’t liked, respected, or approved.
Learning about nonverbal language can help us project the image we want to present
and make us more aware of the signals we are interpreting. However, even within a single
culture, a nonverbal symbol may have more than one meaning.
Oral communication is not just about spoken language. The effectiveness of spoken
language – both in using and understanding it – requires cultural understanding.
During business meetings, even words as distinct as yes and no may cause confusion.
In some cultures where saying no is considered rude, a yes may mean merely “I heard
you.” Learning at least a little of the language of the country where you hope to do
business will help you, especially if you begin to understand how the culture treats
understatement/exaggeration and compliments. It is also important to understand
idiomatic expressions, be familiar with nuances in pronunciations and grammatical
structures. In any organization, you will work with people whose backgrounds differ from
yours. These differences affect how people behave in teams. For example, some Western
cultures use direct approaches; others, especially Eastern cultures, consider such
approaches rude and respond by withholding information. Another pitfall of team
differences is that people who sense a difference may attribute problems in the team to
prejudice, when other factors may be responsible. Savvy team members play to each
other’s strengths and devise strategies for dealing with differences.
Dealing successfully with conflict requires attention both to the issues and to people’s
feelings. Make sure the people involved really disagree. Sometimes different
conversational styles, differing interpretations of symbols, or faulty inferences create
apparent conflicts when no real disagreement exists. Check to see that everyone’s
information is correct. Sometimes people are operating on
outdated or incomplete information. Discover the needs each person is trying to
meet. The presenting problem that surfaces as the subject of dissension may or may not
be the real problem. Search for alternatives. Sometimes people are locked into conflict
because they see too few alternatives. Repair negative feelings. Conflict can emerge
without anger and without escalating the disagreement.

Most cultures are more formal than the United States. When you write to international
audiences, use titles, not first names; avoid contractions, slang, and sports metaphors.
Write in English unless you’re extremely fluent in your reader’s language. Remember also
to re-think audience benefits. Learning to communicate with people from different
backgrounds shouldn’t be a matter of learning rules. You can also learn by seeking out
people from other backgrounds and talking with them.

Chapter 3
Communication Defined
Communication is Human: Although animals communicate, only human beings use
spoken language to communicate. Business communication is all about human
communication.
Communication is a Process: Communication is a continuous, ongoing process. Being
so, it is affected by different factors.
Communication is Symbolic: Communication is a process by which information is
exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
Most forms of communication are represented by the transactional model, where
communications are two-way exchanges. This reflects the fact that we usually send and
receive messages simultaneously. Communication starts when a sender encodes a
message, then transmits it using a channel to convey them to the receiver who decodes
them. A channel is the method in conveying the message. It can be anything from the
most common face-to-face interaction, to telephone, voice mail, email, chat etc.
It is important that you use the appropriate channel, as this can make a big difference in
your message. For example, an email will not have the same impact as a face-to face
interaction. In this model, the sender also responds as there is feedback from both the
sender and receiver. Feedback is a receiver’s response to a message. Note that not all
feedback is verbal. Someone yawning or sleeping while you are talking is an example of
such.
In the transactional model:
Feedback is the seen and understood response of a receiver to a sender’s message
Both parties involved are sending and receiving messages simultaneously.
Noise and environment are also elements involved with the transactional model.
Self-talk is the inner speech that includes the questions and comments you make to
yourself. It is a powerful influence.
Dyad means two things of similar kind or nature or group and dyadic communication; it
is face to face verbal communication between two persons involving their mutual ideas,
thought, behavior, ideals, liking and disliking. Dyads are the most common
communication setting. Even communication in larger groups consists of small dyadic
interactions.
Small group communication is the communication that is carried out within a small
group. A small group is generally defined as a group that consists of at least three
members or a maximum of around twelve to fifteen members. A small group may be a
professional group, an educational group or a social group, for example, a family, class,
athletic team, etc.
A group should have:
1.Interaction: Members of the group must interact. Without it, it isn’t called a group. For
example, people who are in the same place, looking at a car accident can’t be considered
a group in our context. If they started working together, providing first aid, etc., then they
will be considered a group.
2.Interdependence: In groups, members are interdependent. The behavior of one
person affects all the other members of the group. Interdependence refers to people who
need each other. The relationship between a manager and a direct report is an example
of interdependence.
3.Time: Most groups spend more time interacting, rather than just a short period of time.
4.Size: A bigger group would have less interaction and interdependence.
5.Goals: Most groups have a common goal that is aligned with their individual goals. For
example, an athletic team wants to win games.
Effective team communication is vital in any group. In a small group, it is a mix of good
manners, good attention and open-mindedness. You should think before you speak and
never raise your voice unnecessarily. Consider the personalities, preferences,
temperaments and personal objectives of group members before communicating with
them.
In public communication, one or a few people are likely to deliver their remarks and the
rest act as an audience. In most settings, the audience isn’t able to talk back as much as
in a dyad or a small group. In a way, this is the setback for public communication because
the sender of the message will most likely not get any immediate or direct feedback.
Public communication is rarely done in business organizations except during townhall
meetings.
Public speaking or speaking before an audience has been rated as the number one fear
among individuals. But this fear may be minimized by observing the following:
Know your material. Pick a topic you are interested in. Know more about it than you
include in your speech. Use humor, personal stories and conversational language – that
way you won’t easily forget what to say.
Practice. Practice. Practice! Rehearse out loud with all equipment you plan on using.
Revise as necessary. Work to control filler words; Practice, pause and breathe. Practice
with a timer and allow time for the unexpected.
Know the audience. Greet some of the audience members as they arrive. It’s easier to
speak to a group of friends than to strangers.
Look good, smell good, sound good. Be visually appealing. Relax.
Confidence is everything. Begin by addressing the audience. It buys you
time and calms your nerves. Pause, smile and count to three before saying
anything. ("One one-thousand, two one-thousand, three one-thousand.
Pause. Begin.) Transform nervous energy into enthusiasm.
Begin with something to get the attention of the audience. This might be a startling
statement, statistic, or your own story. Listeners pay close attention when a person begins
with, “Two weeks ago as I was driving to work a car pulled out in front of me....” You could
begin with a current event: “You might have read in the paper this morning about the flood
that....” A question is another way to make people listen. “How many of you feel our
society spends too much on medical care?” might be a way to begin a presentation about
curbing costs.
Go beyond Words
Eye contact: Look at the audience as you speak. If it is a small audience, you can look at
each person in a short period of time. Use gestures and non-verbal language: Be visually
appealing and don’t be so stiff. Gestures help you ease your nerves as well. Remember
that big movements can be too distracting. (Moving around too much, tapping your foot,
hand in the pocket)
Be energetic in delivery. Speak with variety in your voice. Slow down for a dramatic
point and speed up to show excitement. Pause occasionally for effect.
Include visual aid
To add interest and understanding to your speech, include a visual aid. A visual aid could
be an object, a flip chart, a PowerPoint presentation, overhead projector slides, or a dry
erase board. Whatever visual you are using, make sure everyone can see it. Don’t allow
the visual to become a silent demonstration. Keep talking as you show the visual. You
are still the main event and your visual is an aid. Look at your audience, not your visual.

Chapter 4
Communication is crucial to our health. Lack or absence of communication can lead to
health problems. Social isolation, for example, can lead to depression and mental
problems.
Some of the social needs we satisfy by communicating are:
Pleasure: because it’s fun communicating using various tools; to have a good time
Affection: to help others, let others know that I care
Inclusion: because I need someone to talk to, or listen, because it makes me less
lonely
 Relaxation: because it lets me unwind
Control: because I want someone to do something for me, to get something I don’t
have or can’t do
Communication is used to achieve our everyday needs
- to get where we need to go
- to accomplish what we need to accomplish
- to better understand our environment and what is expected of us
Communication Does Not Always Require Complete Understanding
There are forms of communication that do not completely require understanding. For
example, when you ask someone “How are you?”, and he says “ I’m okay”., this is just
mutual acknowledgement and it is not necessary to exchange information.
More Communication is Not Always Better
Although it is certainly true that not communicating enough is a mistake, there are
situations where too much communication may do more damage. Communication is not
always a good thing. It could be unproductive, like trying to talk a problem to death and
end up going around in circles. There are even times when no communication is
necessary. For example, a salesman needs to give you time to just think about a product.
Or when both parties are angry, it’s best to blow off steam and not say anything.
No single Person or Event Causes Another’s Reaction
Communication skills can make a big difference, but sometimes, it’s not just
communication. There are underlying “realities” or factors that affect how people react to
communication. For example, Mark was having a bad day at work. What Sarah said didn’t
necessarily trigger Mark’s reaction, but it was Mark’s state of mind.
Communication Will Not Solve All Problems
This is just an assumption. Not everything can be solved by communication. Sometimes
it is even necessary not to communicate.
Meanings rest in People, Not Words
Meanings are greatly affected by people’s realities and interpretations. For example, “I
hate you” can mean, “ I don’t really hate you, I just wanna make you feel bad” or “ I totally
abhor you” or “I really like the way you catch me unaware.”
Communication is Not Simple
Although humans learn to communicate as a way of life, communication, or effective
communication takes time, influence and practice.
What is communication competence?
Communication Competence is "the ability to interact well with others". The term 'well'
refers to accuracy, clarity, comprehensibility, coherence, expertise, effectiveness and
appropriateness" -Spritzer (1988) Some people may speak good English – correct
pronunciation, appropriate intonation and correct grammar but they are not necessarily
competent communicators.
How can we become more effective communicators?
1. Adaptability (flexibility) - The ability to change behaviors and goals to meet the needs
of interaction; being sensitive to amount and type of info; being articulate- ability to
express ideas through language; ability to use humor in adapting to social situations; ease
tensions
2. Appropriateness - The ability to choose appropriate behavior based on a situation;
knowing what appropriate responses would be in a given situation
3. Communication Skills - Use of language in communication; articulation, grammar,
cohesiveness, clarity and tone. This can be improved over time and through practice
4. Conversational Management
a. How communicators regulate their interactions
b. Who controls the interaction flow and how smoothly the interaction proceeds
c. How topics proceed and change
5. Empathy - The ability to demonstrate understanding and share emotional reactions to
the situation; putting yourself in their shoes or understand their point of view
6. Self-monitoring - Paying close attention to one’s own behavior and using this to
instruct oneself on how to behave. Ability to determine when to speak or not, or if you are
saying something awkward. Listening to oneself.
Communication competence includes three components:
1. The Content
a. The message (The what) - Example: All employees need to update their dependents
names.
b. The reason (The why) - As reference for the new medical benefits
c. The way (The how) - Get the form from the HR office and fill out the necessary
information
d. The timeframe (The when) - From January 5-23, 20__
e. The impact/result (The So what happens next) - Compliance will facilitate the
issuance of medical cards
f. The expectation (The what you ought to do) - All employees should comply with all
the requirements and provide the correct data/information
g. The consequence (The What happens if the message fails) - Dependents may not
get their medical cards and won’t be able to avail of the benefits
2. The Manner
a. The Delivery - Your tone of voice, volume, language, pacing, the communication
tool/gadget used
b. The Emphasis (What you emphasize)
c. The Timing
d. The Approach – suitability to the culture of the team and sensitivity to individual
differences and preferences
3. The Form
a. The Heart (Your sincerity, your passion, your compassion – listening before reacting)
b. The Confidence (Your EQ – staying calm all throughout; the way you carry and handle
yourself and the way you respond to all questions; your adherence and full understanding
of the message)
Functions of Communication
• Physical Needs - Communication is necessary for overall physical health.
The absence or lack of satisfying communication can lead to:
Social isolation, which increases the risk of terminal cancer and death Mental
problems Stress and complications for pregnant women
• Identity Needs - Communication is the only way for us to learn who we are.
Through communication, we are able to: Gain an idea of our identity the way we
define ourselves, gain an idea of our identity the way others define us and Establish
a self-image
 • Social Needs - Communication provides a vital link to others. Some of the social
needs we satisfy by communicating are: Pleasure, Affection, Inclusion, Relaxation,
Control,
• Practical Needs - Communication is the important key to effectiveness in a variety
of everyday situations. Every day, we perform important functions through
communicating. Cite examples of everyday tasks and situations that you deal with
the use of communicating.

Chapter 5
Communication is made possible through different channels. Channels are means or
tools by which messages are conveyed. The effectiveness of communication is
influenced by the appropriateness of the channel to the message, purpose of
communication and situation.
There are many channels, both traditional and new, by which messages can be
communicated around workplaces or organizations. Such channels
can be:
one-way (top-down or down-top), two-way or multidirectional
technologically mediated (for example, via telephone, internal/ external mail,
computer or video) or unmediated (for example, delivered personally)
synchronous (sent and received virtually simultaneously) or asynchronous (received
and perhaps responded to at a later time)
individual (involving a dyad, or two people) or group (involving more than two people).
(Note that communications may be characterized as Individual → Individual; Individual →
Group; Group → Individual or Group → Group.)
hard copy (taking a physical form, such as a letter or printed report) or electronic
(viewed and/or stored using an electronic device)
permanent or transient (can the message be stored or not?)
formal or informal (is the message official or unofficial?)
lean or rich (a rich medium transfers a range of verbal and non- verbal information,
including color, auditory and visual elements).
Traditional communication channels include:
1. memos
2. formal meetings
3. suggestion boxes
4. plenary or large-scale official briefings
5. team or department briefings
6. newsletters
7. charts and posters.
Current approaches include:
1. email
2. websites—the internet (accessible by all) and intranets (accessible only by those
inside the organization)
3. 360-degree feedback (in which a person is appraised or evaluated by those above,
below and at the same level in an organization)
4. MBWA (management by walking around), a management approach that entails
leaders simply walking through work areas, making themselves available to listen to all
staff members, rather than remaining inaccessible in management offices
5. closed-circuit telecast—private television programs broadcast via cable or satellite
throughout an organization
6. videotapes—for example, briefings or training programs
7. position papers—documents outlining organizational policy
8. focus groups—small groups brought together to discuss particular issues
9. instant messaging—real-time messages sent via computer networks, often viewed
on screen on an ongoing basis
10. ombudsman or ombudswoman—a person whose role is to mediate conflicts and
communication problems within an organization.
There are 4 main criteria that should be considered before choosing the medium
of communication:
1. Appropriateness - Matching the channel to the message itself and the receiver,
audience or target. Channel appropriateness requires you to choose a channel with
strengths greater than its weaknesses interms of the nature of the message and the
audience or target.
2. Reinforcement - The surest way to get a message across to others is to use
more than one channel. This means the message may have to be tailored to different
channels, exploiting the strengths of a particular channel while avoiding its weaknesses.
Communication effectiveness may therefore depend on saying something more than
once, and in different ways. Reinforcement and repetition, or planned redundancy,
applied through different channels, will increase the chances of the message getting
through.
3. Preferences - While being aware of your own preferences in communication
style, in choosing channels you can work with you should not reject other channels that
are effective but with which you may not be as comfortable.
For example, some workplace managers who feel
uncomfortable interacting directly with people may keep them
at arm’s length with a barrage of emails and memos, most of
which are ignored by their staff, who feel demoralized and
unsupported. These managers may be more effective if they were to hold
informal meetings or begin to trust their area supervisors to brief staff on important
matters. By contrast, other managers who depend too much on informal meetings and
random conversations may confuse their staff with inconsistent messages and policies,
and could perhaps benefit from sending out electronic and paper documents setting out
policies in a consistent way. Practice will help to reduce the shortcomings in your delivery
of messages using new or unfamiliar channels.
4. Transformation - People cannot assume that the channels or media they use will
necessarily convey a message in a neutral and mechanical way—they may affect or
transform the content of the message in subtle or significant ways, and these effects may
be positive or negative. Indeed, some people may consciously or unconsciously send out
quite different messages depending on the channels they use (Chandler 2002). In effect,
this is another type of noise in the communication process. Media theorist Marshall
McLuhan once famously claimed ‘the medium is the message’—in other words, media
are not neutral, but actually transform messages and, ultimately human institutions.
The effectiveness of the communication Channels depends on:
matching the channel to the message and the target audience
repeating and varying the message via different channels to reinforce the message
being ready to step outside your comfort zone to use new or unfamiliar channels
being aware that the channel chosen may transform the content of the message
The best channel through which to convey information will depend on the situation.
Effective organizational communicators use a number of channels, taking care to ensure
that messages are repeated and reinforced in different ways.
You also need to take account of your own communication style, both to ensure that you
choose channels you can work with and that you do not reject effective channels with
which you are less comfortable. Practice in the use of new channels should help iron out
any shortcomings in delivery.
The most important thing in communication is to hear what isn’t being said. - By Peter
Drucker
The context of the communication process is also important. Context issues include:
Power and status relationships: who has control or influence over whom, and what are
people trying to achieve in sending a particular message?
Cultural factors: do the message sender and receiver understand each other’s cultural
programming (which affects their choice of words and their non-verbal communication)?
Interpersonal relationships: what dynamics of empathy/lack of empathy
assertiveness/lack of assertiveness, confidence/lack of confidence, openness/lack of
openness exist between receiver and sender?
Time: how does time affect the message? Is it still relevant? Was the response too quick?
For example, did a hesitation undercut the impact of the response? How does the
communication pattern between people change over seconds, minutes, hours, days,
months, years?
One must understand that messages may not always be received exactly as you
intended. Sometimes the message may not be received at all; at other times, they will be
received incompletely or inaccurately. The communicator may have been able to match
strategies, messages, channels, and audiences but there are certain barriers for effective
communication.
Verbal Barriers are related to what you say or write. These include:
1. Inadequate Knowledge or Vocabulary - Before you can even begin to think
about how you will communicate an idea, you must, first of all, have the idea; that
is, you must have sufficient knowledge about the topic to know what you want to
say.
2. Differences in Interpretation - Sometimes senders and receivers attribute different
meanings to the same word or attribute the same meaning to different words. When this
happens, miscommunication can occur.
3. Language Differences - This includes the nuances of the same language. For
instance, the English language may have different pronunciation, terms, expressions
depending on whose English language it is (American, Australian, British, Filipino,
Singaporean).
4. Inappropriate Use of Expressions - Examples include: slang, jargon, and
euphemisms. Slang is an expression, often short-lived, that is identified with a
specific group of people. Jargon is the technical terminology used within specialized
groups. Euphemisms are inoffensive expressions used in place of words that
may offend or suggest something unpleasant.
5. Over abstraction and Ambiguity - An abstract word identifies an idea or a feeling
instead of a concrete object. For example, communication is an abstract word, whereas
memorandum is a concrete word, a word that identifies something that can be seen or
touched. Abstract words are necessary in order to communicate about things you cannot
see or touch. However, communication problems result when you use too many abstract
words or when you use too high a level of abstraction. The higher the level of abstraction,
the more difficult it is for the receiver to visualize exactly what the sender has in mind.
6. Polarization - At times, some people act as though every situation is divided into two
opposite and distinct poles, with no allowance for a middle ground. What you do not say
may also communicate a message. Ex. you congratulate only one of the three people
who took part in making a company presentation. How would the other two presenters
feel—even though you said nothing negative about their performance?

Non-Verbal Barriers
Not all communication problems are related to what you write or say.
Some are related to how you act. Nonverbal barriers to communication include
inappropriate or conflicting signals, differences in perception,
inappropriate emotions, and distractions.
1. Inappropriate or Conflicting Signals - When we say one thing—for example, that we
are pleased to meet someone—but our actions, posture, or expression suggests
something contradictory, others will usually believe what we do rather than what we say.
2. Difference in Perception - This may be influenced by people’s differences in
orientation, exposure or experience, knowledge, values etc.
3. Inappropriate Emotions - It is generally more effective to depend on logic instead of
emotions when communicating. Expressions are groups of words whose intended
meanings are different from their literal interpretations.
Example: Excessive anger can create such an emotionally charged
environment that reasonable discussion is not possible
4. Distractions - Any environmental or competing element that restricts one’s ability to
concentrate on the communication task hinders effective communication. Such
distractions are called noise.
The 3Ps Model provides a practical demonstration of a particular type of communication.
This process helps one focus on one aspect of writing at a time so that ideas will not be
cluttered.
Problem – defines the situation and discusses the need for a particular communication
task
Process– a series of questions that provides step-by-step guidance for accomplishing
the
specific communication task
Product– the result- the finished product

Chapter 6
Business communication - Any action undertaken to promote an idea, product, service
or organization, internally or externally, with the objective of propagating the cause of the
business by creating value or making a sale. A process of transmitting information and
thoughts between various parts of an organization and people outside the organization.

Ideally business communication begins with a notice to inform job vacancies in a certain
company. Other times, it begins when an applicant hands over his resume to the
receptionist. The rest is a domino effect. When their application is in process, the recruiter
interviews the applicant and asks him/her to answer series of tests and interviews. Once
they get accepted, is it the end of business communication? No. Communication is
a continuous process. Another example, when we go out and buy food, by the time we
reach the counter and give our order, business communication is established. The person
behind the counter listens to the customer, notes the orders, calls out the order to the
kitchen crew, confirms the order and takes the customer’s payment. What is the
importance of business communication? It is an essential element and vital part to make
a business move. Without that, there will be no business. Given that communication is
something that is vital to every business’ success, it is important to understand the
components on how the communication process works. How does communication
process work? Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages.
These may be shown by spoken, written, or non-verbal communication. Spoken
communication is a message delivered by word of mouth or by speaking. Written
communication is to set the messages down in writing. Non-verbal communication is
delivering messages by means of facial expressions, gestures and voice qualities.
The communication model consists of five components:
1. Stimulus – an event that creates within an individual the need to communicate. This
stimulus can be internal or external. Internal stimulus is simply an idea that forms within
your mind. External stimuli come to you through your sensory organs- your eyes, ears,
nose, mouth, and skin.
2. Filter – An individual’s unique perception of reality. Based on a person’s experience,
culture, emotions at the moment, personality, knowledge, socioeconomic status, and
other variables influence an individual’s perception of reality. If everyone has the same
assumption of reality, communication would be easier. Since not everyone has the same
idea of reality, communication can be interpreted in different ways. Once the brain
receives the message, it begins to interpret the stimulus to derive the meaning from it so
that a person would know how to react on it. Whether an individual would respond or
choose not to respond.
3. Message- This is the totality of how a person delivers the information. Success at
communicating depends not only on the purpose and content of the message but also on
how skillful the person is in communicating; how well one knows the person; and how
much you hold in common with the audience.
4. Medium- Once the sender has encoded a message, the next step in the process is to
transmit that message to the receiver. At this point, the sender must choose the form of
message to send. Common forms of medium are: oral, written, and non-verbal. Oral
communication happens in a meeting, personal conference, telephone conversation,
voice mail, press conference, etc. Written may be in the form of a memo, report,
newsletter, email, letter, contract, manual, etc. Non - verbal communication may be
observed in facial expressions, gestures, and body language.
5. Destination – The message is transmitted and then enters the sensory environment
of the receiver, at which point control passes from the sender to the receiver. Once the
message reaches the destination, there is no guarantee that communication will actually
occur. Every individual has their own perception on reality and the communication they
received may be interpreted either the way the sender intends or the other way around.

For any business organization to be successful, communication must follow

two directions:
• Formal Communication Network- transmission of information through official
channels within the organization
• Informal Communication Network- which is also called as grapevine. It transmits
information through non-official channels within the organization
The Formal Communication Network has 4 types. These are:
1. Downward Communication - This means that information may be transmitted
from superiors to subordinate.
 2. Upward Communication - This is the flow of information from lower-level
employees to upper-level employees. This type is important because it provides
higher management with the information needed for decision making. This type
can take the form of email, memorandums, conferences, reports, suggestion
systems, employee surveys, or union publications among others.
3. Horizontal Communication - This is the flow of information among peers within
the same work unit. This is important because it helps coordinate work
assignments, share information on plans and activities, negotiate differences, and
develop interpersonal support, thereby creating a more cohesive work unit.
4. Cross-Channel Communication - Exchange of information among employees in
different work units who are neither subordinate nor superior to one another. Staff
specialists use cross-channel communications frequently because their
responsibilities typically involve many departments within the organization.

The Informal Communication Network is also known as grapevine.

This is the type of communication wherein information is passed on to different people in
the organization through the use of non-official channels. A simple coffee break is an
example of a non-official channel. Whenever people in the organization get a chance to
talk to someone (may it meets at the corridor, or meet while waiting for the photocopier
to finish the task, simple talk, etc.) or wherever co-workers come together, they are likely
to hear and pass information about possible happenings in the organization.

Employees often say that the grapevine is their most frequent source of information on
company plans and performance. In one survey of 451 executives, 91% reported they
typically use the grapevine for information on company “bad news” such as layoffs or
takeovers. 73% for office politics, and 41% for “good news”

Common characteristics of Grapevine:

• Most information passed along the grapevine (about 80%) is business related, and most
of it (75-95%) is accurate.
• The grapevine is pervasive. It exists at all levels in the organization- from corporate
boardroom to the assembly line.
• Information moves rapidly along the grapevine
• The grapevine is most active when change is taking place and when one’s need to know
or level of fear is highest—during layoffs, plant closings, acquisitions, mergers, and the
like.
• Grapevine is a normal, often vital part of every organization.
How can an organization stop this type of communication?
there is no way to eliminate this type of communication. Because the grapevine is
something that would be impossible to stop and eliminate, competent managers accept
its existence and pay attention to it. They act promptly to counteract false rumors. Most
of all, they use the formal communication network to ensure that all news
(positive/negative) gets out to employees as quickly and as completely as possible. The
free flow of information within the organization not only stops rumors, but is also simply
good business.