PRELIM NOTES IN EPP 2

”EDUKASYON PANTAHANAN AT PANGKABUHAYAN WITH

ENTREPRENEURSHIP”

Fruit and Tree Crop Production and Management

Growing Fruit and Tree Crops

The Philippines has fertile lands and a diversified climate which make the growing of various fruit
and tree crops feasible. The culture of trees should be done continuously and vigorously because this is
necessary for our nation's growth and development. All civic-minded citizens should be involved in tree
planting activities because these are important to our existence.
Humans and animals depend upon plants for sustenance.
Both wild and domesticated animals feed on grasses, leaves, stems, and fruits of wild trees and tree crops.
Trees also give us shade and pleasure, and supply lumber used for the construction of houses. Wood,
provided by trees, is also used for furnishing and furniture. It is also used in manufacturing paper. The
energy used in driving farm machinery such as tractors and automobiles is derived from wood. When wood
is burned, stored energy obtained by a tree from the sunlight duringits lifetime is released in the form of
heat.
Fruit and tree crops beautify our environment. Some fruit and tree crops are also used as
ornamental plants. Such trees as talisay, guava, palm, ilang-ilang, and golden shower can be effective
screens.Tree planting is also a wholesome form of exercise and a healthy hobby.
Fruit trees furnish much of the fresh fruits commonly found on our dining tables. Many fruit trees
bear highly nutritious fruits. Atis, caimito, santol, chico, lanzones , guava, cashew, calamansi, pomelo,
orange, papaya, and mango contain vitamins and minerals which help in regulating body processes and
protect us from common ailments.
If we grow tree crops, we can save a lot. We can also earn by selling excess fruits which the family
cannot consume.
With the expressed desire of many Asian and European countries to import our fruit and tree crops,
many agriculturists are growing not only these crops but also those which they think are export potentials.
When more fruit and tree crops are grown, there is less soil erosion in mountains and hillsides.
Water and soil are held by the roots of trees, thus, preventing the surface soil from breaking.
During heavy rains, the soil is not loosened because of the protection given by trees.
The interest in fruit and tree crop production grew during the latter part of the 1980's. Agriculturists
turned to planting such tree crops as ipil-ipil, narra, molave, mahogany, Benguet pine, and bangkal and fruit
trees such as mango, chico, avocado, kaong, guava, cashew, dalanghita, and calamansi . Wealthy
landowners grew trees on their estates, farmers expanded their fruit tree plantations, while private and
government executives, teachers, and retired government employees either invested their savings in small
fruit tree farms or bought interest in fruit crop development schemes in Southern Tagalog, Visayas, and
Mindanao.
A large variety of nutritious fruits can be grown with a ready market here and abroad. In 1988, for
instance, the Bureau of Agricultural Economics (BAE) reported that close to P350 million worth of bananas
were exported to Japan, Hongkong, and the United States. In that same year, the country produced
300,000 metric tons of mangoes worth P450 million which were exported to Japan and Hongkong. Other
Philippine fruits like papaya, avocado, jackfruit, dalanghita, and calamansi are likewise in demand in other
countries.
Many farmers realize that growing fruit trees is more profit able than raising other agricultural farm
crops. Recent studies show that the demand for bananas and mangoes is higher than copra and its by-
products. In terms of export prospects, our country has the climate, soil, labor, capital, and technology for
fruit production. It is also near Hongkong, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, countries which are
large potential fruit markets.
If local fruit growers will follow the necessary care, maintenance, and approved management
practices for these fruit bearing trees, the Philippines may yet become one of the world's top fruit producers
by the year 2000. The fruit growing industry may become one of the country's top dollar earners.
There are also large numbers of tree crops or forest trees in the country which are of great
commercial importance. A few from which high grade furniture is made are narra, tindalo, supa, molave,
palomaria, catmon, and kamagong.
Some trees whose wood is not hard still yield valuable commercial lumber. The dipterocarpaceae
is one tree family with many such tree species. Other tree species which yield timber for commercial
purposes are teak or molave, mangrove, mahogany, and kamagong . Molave is the best known of all
Philippine trees because it is very durable. Yacal and guijo are almost as durable as molave.
There are several lumber companies in the country engaged in tree crop growing and the
manufacture of wood and wood products. One of these companies is the Sta. Clara Lumber Company
which specializes in the manufacture of plywood and lawanit board. The Paper Industries Corporation of
the Philippines (PICOP) is another company which manufactures our domestic needs for pulp, local paper,
and other wood products.

Choosing Types and Species of Trees

There are a number of important points to consider in choosing the types and species of trees to
grow. The following guidelines should be considered:
1. Select types and species of trees that thrive in your locality. One common mistake in home orchard or
tree crop plantation is the planting of varieties that are not adapted to the locality. Varieties of fruit and tree
crops find some places unsuitable, some places tolerable, and other places decidedly unsuitable to their
growth and proliferation. Because of factors such as soil and climate, some places are better suited to tree
farming than others. This is true for many types and species of fruit and tree crops.
No matter where you live, there are many varieties of fruit and tree crops that you can grow. The
important thing is to choose which will grow best in your locality. Prospective fruit or tree crop growers can
make a good choice of varieties to culture if they are guided by the experience of successful tree growers in
the neighborhood than if they seek the advice of some expert pomologists or foresters. However wide this
expert's general knowledge of variety adaptation may be, he or she cannot make allowances for minor
variations of soil and climate in the region. It is always good, therefore, to get the advice of farm
management technicians from your locality.
Heed their advice while using your own judgment and relying on neighborhood experience.
2. Give preference to types and species with high quality. The chief requisites of fruit and tree crops of a
commercial variety are productiveness and appearance while the chief requisite of a variety for home use is
quality. It will be best for the fruit or tree crop grower to study varieties from the following viewpoint: place
emphasis on quality, not quantity or appearance. However, if you can find varieties that possess all three
points when grown in your locality, so much the better.
3. Select the type and species of trees you like best. The fruit orchard or tree crop plantation, like the home
and farm grounds, reflects the taste and ideals of its owner. Select varieties that are your favorite even
though these are not the kinds commonly considered of high quality. If the varieties you like best can be
grown in your locality with a considerable degree of success, plant them even though they are not
considered desirable for your locality. You can overlook this point for the sake of planting what you like.
4. Decide how many varieties to plant. A home fruit tree grower should plant more varieties than a
commercial fruit or tree crop grower. In the commercial fruit orchard, it is better to have only a few varieties
for business reasons. With only a selected variety, the trees can be better cared for and the fruit harvested
and marketed to better advantage. A home fruit grower is not troubled by economic problems because all
that he or she desires is for the varieties to ripen in succession throughout the season. On the other hand,
a commercial fruit grower finds it profitable to plant only three or four varieties which will ripen at about the
same season for economy in harvesting.
5. Consider the market you are to serve. An orchard or tree farm is a long-time enterprise. It is important for
growers to consider the demands of the market than to attempt to persuade consumers to accept their
personal preferences. Tree growers know what the consuming public want and can project when their trees
will bear fruit. They should also be keen about trends and tendencies that will aid in forecasting market
demands.
Tree growers must consider all these items in choosing varieties to plant. However, quality must be
given a higher rating than any other factor.

Selecting the Tree Farm Site

Whatever the dimensions of the farm area that a prospective fruit or tree crop grower will use for
this type of agriculture, several points should be carefully considered before planting. The most important
consideration is the site. The best sources of information for fruit and tree crop farming are those people
who are successfully engaged in this industry. If no such persons are found in your community, then there
may be a good reason for this. It may be because your locality is poorly adapted to fruit or tree crop
enterprise. If, however, there is an opportunity for you to select a site, the following factors should be given
attention:
Sloping site. Select a gentle slope rather than level land. Generally, rolling lands, uplands, or
sloping lands that are not too steep are better than level areas on river bottoms or valley flows. A slope
generally provides good water drainage; fruit trees cannot thrive with "wet feet." A good slope also gives
trees good air drainage. On the other hand, avoid very steep slopes which can be tilled with difficulty and
are likely to be top wind-swept. A slope of four to five feet in a hundred is sufficient. The general point to
keep in mind is not to put the tree farm on flat lands or land pockets but to select a gentle slope.

Exposure of the tree farm. The subject of exposure is specially important in tree planting for
commercial purposes. With small fruit gardens, however, it is of much less consequence.
Generally, planting should be done on the northern slope when late blossoming or ripening of fruit is
desired. Plant on the southern slope when earliness is desired. If there is danger of fruit trees being cut off
by strong typhoons in your locality, a southern slope should not be chosen. Trees, particularly caimito,
mangoes, and bananas, blossom several days earlier so they should be planted on the northern slope
where they are less liable to injury.
Generally, the slope opposite the direction of prevailing winds is richer and deeper than the slope
facing the wind. One should consider this factor and locate the tree farm on this slope where watering,
tilling, spraying, harvesting, and other farm operations can be performed with ease.
 Type and drainage of soil. The soil must be well drained and must provide extensive root range.
Fruit and tree crops thrive on a variety of soil types but they will not tolerate wetness. For trees to have long
life, their roots must be able to penetrate the soil thoroughly. Good trees can be grown in almost any kind of
soil, provided it is not very sandy, rocky, shallow, or wet. As a general rule, the soil should have at least
three essentials, namely: good drainage, good texture, and a fair amount of plant food. Good texture
means soil that is fine and mellow, not hard or lumpy.

Consider the market where produce will be sold. This market may be one that is some distance
away or the local market nearby. For the distant market, growers should be able to transport their products
in trucks, jeepneys, or buses. The larger the quantity that can be supplied, the greater consideration should
be received from dealers and the more readily the grower can make a permanent place for himself in the
market. The local nearby market will not absorb as large a quantity of fruit at a given time as the distant or
general market. However, it will respond well to a continuous supply in smaller quantities throughout the
consuming season. This calls for a careful survey by prospective tree growers before determining the site
and size of the tree farm.

Starting Seedlings and Managing Nurseries

Fruit and forest trees such as mango, avocado, citrus, chico, narra, and mahogany are started from
seeds, cuttings, and other means of vegetative propagation.
The beds for starting fruit and forest tree seedlings may be constructed out of banana stalks,
hollow blocks, or logs. These should be placed in sheltered spots where they can be shaded by other trees
or placed inside a nursery shed made for this purpose. The latter is preferred by most growers as it
provides ample protection for seedlings to grow healthy. Most seeds of fruit and forest trees should be
planted very shallow. Stray animals such as chickens, goats, pigs, and other enemies may be kept out by
fencing the nursery site. Suitable covers may also be used until the seeds germinate and are ready for
transplanting. Wire screens such as chicken or hog wire are often used for this purpose.
The beds should be watered frequently to ensure the steady or desired growth of the seedlings. If
glass, fiberglass, or other covers are used over the beds, ventilation must be monitored. Overheating the
beds must be avoided as this will cause the seedlings to wilt and die.
Year-old seedlings may be transplanted onto areas where they are to stand permanently or in
nursery rows to obtain a healthy growth and better root systems before final transplanting is made. Before
the onset of the rainy season or early in the rainy season is a good time for transplanting.
Many kinds of tree seeds may be drilled separately in nursery rows, tin cans, or plastic bags where
the trees are to remain a year or more. This treatment is suitable for jackfruit, santol, atis, avocado,
rambutan, lanzones, and duhat. Seeds planted directly in nursery rows should be cultivated between rows
every now and then. As a general rule, tree species which have tap roots should remain in the nursery rows
only for one year before transplanting. This is true for most nut-bearing trees such as pili nut, coconut, and
betel nut. Such trees as guava, duhat, rambutan, and lanzones may remain for one or two years in nursery
rows.

Layout and Preparation of the Soil

 There are important pointers to consider in preparing the soil for planting and setting the seedlings
in the field. These are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
Preparation of the soil where fruit and forest trees are to be planted should be done with the same
thoroughness as is done in the preparation of a vegetable garden. Plow the area. It is not good to set
young trees in holes dug out of the soil. If the subsoil is stiff within twelve inches of the surface, break it up
with a plow so that the trees can take deep root. Do not leave a dead furrow where a row of trees is to be
planted. Prepare deeply and thoroughly, plowing under a heavy coating of manure or compost if the soil is
very light or poor. Thorough preparation of the land saves time, money, and effort after the trees have been
established in the field.
If tree beds, young saplings, or seedling trees are to be used in starting an orchard or tree
plantation, the soil should be prepared sufficiently to allow the growth of the young trees without serious
interference from grasses, weeds, and other vegetative growth. Generally, trees which start with
competition from weeds and other growth bear inferior kinds of fruits.
A tree farm's layout is as important as the preparation of the soil. The following are the most
common systems used in planting fruit and tree crops:

The square system. This method is widely used by most fruit and tree growers. In this system, the
trees are distanced apart at right angles to each other, with a tree in the corner of each square.
Simplicity in layout and ease of cultivation and spraying characterize this arrangement. If the trees are
planted too closely, it is also easy to thin them out by removing alternate trees.
The quincunx method. The square system is the most desirable method if fillers are to be used.
However, with a permanent tree in each corner of the square, a filler or semipermanent may be placed in
the center of the square. Thus, if the permanent trees are 3x3 metres apart, the semipermanent trees will
be half a metre apart from each other. This method of adding semipermanents is known as the quincunx
method.
The rectangular system. The square system may be modified by making the rows farther apart
from east to west than north to south, permitting the maximum access of sunlight to the trees. This is called
the true alternate or rectangular system, as distinguished from the square system.
The hexagonal or triangular system. This system brings the permanent trees in the adjacent row,
not opposite the trees in the first row adjoining, but opposite the center of the spaces between the trees.
The trees are the same distance apart as in the square system, but space is saved and more trees may be
planted per hectare. This system is a little more difficult to lay out than the square system and is not well
adapted to the use of fillers.
Special systems may be developed by growers to meet conditions where land is steep, the
topography irregular, or the soil inclined to wash badly during heavy rains.

Planting and Transplanting Seedlings

After the soil has been prepared and the field laid out and staked, the next step is to plant where
the trees have been set. Planting is done easily with the aid of a planting board. This board may be 122
centimetres long, eight centimetres wide, and two centimetres thick. Make a notch four centimetres wide at
the end and another of the same size exactly in the middle of the board. The stakes that have been placed
to mark the position of the tree should be small enough to fit into these notches.
Place the middle notches against the stakes. Drive the peg into the notch at each end and pull up
the middle stake. Dig a hole and then replace the board against the two outside pegs. The tree may then
be set against the middle notch and will be exactly where the stake was so that no sighting will be
necessary. After the tree has been set, pull up the two outside pegs and use them in planting the next tree.
Dig a hole large enough to accommodate all the roots without bending them and deep enough so
that the tree may be set a little deeper than it stood in the nursery. The harder the digging, the bigger
should the hole be. Trees have greater need for a rich, mellow surface in order to get a good start. Digging
may be greatly lessened by plowing a deep furrow along a line where a row of trees is to be set. Put the
rich surface soil on one side of the hole and the subsoil on the other. Throw compost in the bottom of the
hole, set in the tree, and spread the roots naturally.
Shake the rich surface soil down among the roots. Make sure there are no air spaces left around
them, specially beneath the fork of the roots. Use the fingers to poke dirt between the roots and shake the
tree up and down slightly to settle the dirt. Half fill the hole using the richest dirt, then tramp the soil down
firmly. The lighter the soil, the firmer it should be tramped. Fill the hole completely and tramp the soil again
very firmly. Before leaving the tree, throw a few shovelfuls of loose dirt around it to check the evaporation of
moisture, or better yet, mulch it with manure.
Take enough time when planting a tree. It is cheaper to spend plenty of time in planting a tree than
to reset it because of careless planting.
Do not prune the tops of a tree until after the entire orchard is planted. Some branches may be
injured or broken in the planting operation. Better progress will be made if one person digs the holes,
another plants the tree, and another goes through and prunes the plants according to the plan and
standards set. After the planting job is completed, map the orchard or plantation as to the varieties and their
location. This will be helpful later when the trees start to bear fruit.
For trees that have top roots, planting seeds directly in the field may be practiced economically.
This condition may occur with pili nuts, tamarind, caimito, chico, atis, and other varieties of fruit trees.
Sometimes, other trees are sown in the fields, particularly when the soil is rocky, stumpy, or otherwise
unsuitable to the careful planting of trees.
There are three common methods used in tree planting. These are the deep-hole, slit, and trench
methods.

Deep-hole Method

1. Make two holes as illustrated. The depth of the first hole depends upon the dryness of the surface soil.
The depth and size of the second hole depends upon the root system of the seedling.
2. Only the best and fresh soil should come in contact with the root system.
3. Set the plant in the second hole at the correct depth. This method of planting is applicable to arid areas
where the subsoil is not hard and drainage is good. Seedlings are set below the ground level to protect
them from the downward dessication of surface soil during the summer months.
4. A variation of the deep-hole method is to make two holes as illustrated a long way before planting to
break the hard subsoil.
5. Make a hole following the illustration. Soil to be placed at the center of the hole should be the top soil.
Subsoil should be used on both sides of the first hole.
6. During the rainy season, plant seedlings either by the slit or dibbling method. This variation is applicable
to areas with hard subsoil. The purpose of digging a hole as illustrated and filling it up again afterwards is to
break the hardness of the soil.

Slit Method

1. Plunge a grub-hoe into the ground then lift the handle to create a slit in the soil.
2. Pull the tool's handle downward to make an opening at the top of the soil.
3. Place the tree seedling at the correct depth. Make sure that the hole is deep enough to cover the entire
root system.
4. Plunge the grub-hoe two inches from the seedling and pull up the handle of the grub-hoe to close the slit.
Make sure that the tool does not come in contact with the seedling.
5. Close the last hole by firmly stamping on the soil with your foot. Be careful not to move and harm the
seedling as you close the hole.

Trench Method

1. Drive a spade into the ground at an angle as shown in the illustration. Remove the soil.
2. Drive the spade once more into the soil opposite the first slit to make a V-shaped trench.
3. Place the tree seedling at the center of the hole and at the correct depth so as not to harm the root
system.
4. Fill the hole with soil. Only the best and fresh soil should come in contact with the root system of the
seedling. Level off the soil around the stem of the plant by tramping it carefully with your foot.

Fertilizing, Weeding, and Cultivating the Orchard and Mini-Forest

Fruit or tree crop growers must remember that there is little opportunity for crop rotation in tree
farming compared with other agricultural crops. Trees occupy the same site for many years, making a
heavy unremitting drain on the soil with the trees receiving the same kind of plant food in about the same
proportions. This explains why tree farms are the quickest to become hard, lifeless, and worn out. It is not
true that trees need less care in fertilizing, weeding, and cultivation than a vegetable or field crop farm.
Neglect in fertilizing, weeding, and cultivation shows in the poor stand of trees in the field and consequently
results in poor fruit harvests.
Various practices have been used to determine when it is desirable to fertilize the orchard each year. The
grower should carefully make a study of the tree growth, fruit yields, and environ- mental conditions. In
diagnosing individual tree farms or orchards, the following factors should be considered:
1. Color of foliage. Is foliage dark green or yellow and sickly looking?
2. Height of trees. Are the trees dwarfed or overgrown for their age?
3. Total growth of trees. Are the trees making a satisfactory growth of new wood each year?
4. Height and width of trees. Are the trees very tall and narrow or well-balanced?
5. Length of terminal growth. Is the terminal growth of a tree eight to ten centimetres in length?
6. Tree productivity. Are the fruit spurs-numerous and vigorous? Are fruit buds formed?

With this information, the physiological condition of trees can be diagnosed and intelligent
treatments can be prescribed.
Let us assume that a five- or seven-year-old orchard on fertile and moist soil is being pruned
regularly, cultivated thoroughly, and nitrated heavily so that a vigorous growth of wood is produced.
However, no fruit buds appear. In this case, less nitrogen fertilizer should be applied and lighter pruning of
the trees should be practiced in order to have proportionately more carbohydrates and less nitrogen in the
tissues of the trees. When this is accomplished, the trees would be producing only a fair growth of foliage
and sufficient fruit crops.
 In another example, if a middle-aged tree from an orchard is growing under bad conditions or on
poor soil with no fertilization, the growth of fruit spurs and terminals would probably be very short and few
fruit buds would be formed. Since very little growth is taking place, carbohydrates would probably
accumulate in the tissues. It is apparent that heavier application of nitrogen, weeding, cultivation of the soil,
and heavier pruning would be beneficial. Such treatment will result in better growth and fruiting conditions.
Inorganic fertilizers are expensive. Fruit tree crop growers should aim to utilize home resources as
much as possible. Green manures and cover crops are examples of inorganic fertilizers readily available in
the farm. The use of these fertilizers is an old practice. This is nature's method of maintaining the fertility of
the soil. The tree's leaves branches, trunks, stems, and herbiage are all returned to the soil from which they
came, not only enriching it with what has been taken from it, but also giving it new life through the
numerous activities that are set to work by the decay of these materials. The key to keeping the fertility of
the soil is to have plants decaying in it all the time.

Controlling Insect Pests and Fruit Diseases

Insect pests and diseases are among the most formidable enemies of successful fruit and tree crop
growing. According to conservative estimates, 20 to 30 percent of fruit crops and forest trees in the
Philippines are annually destroyed by insect pests and diseases.
In 1988, the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) estimated the annual loss from insect pests and diseases at
about P12, 570,000. This sum includes the cost of spraying and other repressive measures to control fruit
insects and diseases.
Fruit growers must know the major organisms that are destructive and injurious to fruit and tree
crops before proceeding intelligently with the job of controlling them.

Insect Pests

According to their feeding habits, insect pests may be roughly grouped into three: chewing,
suckling, and lapping insects.
Chewing insects. Caterpillars and beetles belong to this class. They have hard horny jaws or
mandibles to bite off and swallow portions of stems, leaves, fruits, and buds, actually taking some of these
materials into their bodies. The tent caterpillar and codling moth are also chewing insects, both being
destructive in their larval stage. The former feeds chiefly on leaves, the latter, on fruit. It is possible to kill
these insects by poisoning their food with arsenic.
Suckling insects. Plant lice and other true bugs have beaks containing four bristles united into a
slender tube. In feeding, the tip of the beak sucks the surface of a plant to extract plant juices. Aphids, plant
lice, and San Jose scales are examples of these insects.
Lapping insects. These insects possess mouth parts which permit them to lap or lick up liquids
from the outer surfaces of objects on which they feed. Arsenical poisons have been used successfully for
the control of this class of insects. The adult fly of the apple maggot and the cherry fruit fly are examples of
this class.
As an insect passes through different stages of its development, it may have different kinds of
mouth parts and may feed on entirely different foods. For instance, caterpillars have biting mouth parts and
may feed on leaves or stems while adult moths have sucking mouth parts which they use to extract the
nectar from flowers.

Fruit Diseases
 With a few exceptions, fruit diseases are basically of the fungus type. A fungus is a plant. It differs
from other plants in an important aspect: it has no chlorophyll and cannot manufacture food for itself, as
other plants do in their leaves. Hence, it must live by stealing the food of other plants.
Some fungi are saprophytic. They live on dead or dying higher plants. An example is the toadstool
which lives on decaying wood and leaves.
Other fungi are parasitic. They live on live plants. Some fungi are parasites of fruits, thus causing
common plant diseases such as brown rot, black knot, downy mildew, and strawberry rust. Nearly all kinds
of diseases commonly called scabs, rusts, smut, mildews, molds, rots, and some of the so-called blights
are caused by fungi.
Fungus diseases are caused by very small, imperfect plants. Plant propagation takes place by
means of the development of seeds called spores. The wind, including even light air currents, rain, insects,
and other agents are responsible for the dissemination of spores. Fungi need moisture in order to develop
from the spore stage and to establish themselves upon the host. After the spore has germinated and the
mycelium enters the plant, nothing can be done to remedy the disease.
The only way to control most fungus diseases is to prevent the spore from germinating and
entering the plant. In other words, spraying for fungus diseases must be preventive since it cannot be
curative.
A few serious fruit diseases such as the true blights are caused by bacteria, not by fungi. Bacterial
diseases cannot be controlled by spraying because they work entirely within the plant where no spray can
reach them. Bacteria gain entrance chiefly through the fruit flowers. Fire blight and the scourge diseases
are two of the worse diseases on fruits. The only effective treatment is the immediate removal and burning
of affected fruits and trees.

Controlling Fires and Other Injurious Factors

Forest fires are often started by accident. Picnic fires are not always extinguished by campers and
the wind may scatter their sparks to leaf litter or ground cover, often causing serious conflagrations. Dry
weather also encourages the starting and spreading of fires. Lighting camp fires during hot, dry periods of
the year may start serious forest fires, particularly in areas with coniferous trees.
In the Philippines, the deliberate setting of fires by local farmers through the kaingin system is one
of the common causes of forest fires. Farmers burn litter and undergrowth with the idea of obtaining land
for farming or grass for cattle grazing. This is usually done because of ignorance. Farmers do not realize
that the under- growth and ground cover are of more value in promoting tree growth than the grazing
obtained. The ground cover maintains moisture which trees need for their growth. Burning the ground bare
hastens both the run-off of soil caused by rainfall and the evaporation of soil moisture, thereby stunting tree
growth.
Educating the public on the value of fruit and forest trees and the losses incurred when these are
burned can be the best method of preventing forest and fruit plantation fires. The public should be
instructed on what to do in all kinds of situations. There are laws on the prevention of forest fires in the
provincial and municipal levels. Such laws not only prevent the setting of fires but provide funds for
suppressing them through a forest fire control organization.
Forest fires cause losses in several ways, namely: through direct destruction of wood; destruction
of seeds and young tree seedlings which will renew the forest; partial killing of trees, which encourages
attacks of bark beetles, other insects, and diseases; checking of growth, which often causes premature
harvesting; and destruction of humus and ground cover. Thousands of pesos are lost annually due to forest
fires. This is true specially in the mountain provinces and parts of our country with extensive forest areas.
Forest fires can be controlled by establishing firebreaks. This is established by leaving open areas
around the timber and keeping these closely pastured with goats or cattle to prevent the growth of
combustible material such as cogon and talahib. Piling brush and other trash after forest products are cut is
a valuable precaution against fires. Such materials are fire hazards and should be burned or disposed of
during damp periods. Plantation tree owners should see to it that their woodlands áre properly posted with
warnings against fires. They should obtain suitable posters and sets of rules from the municipal, provincial,
or regional forestry office and post these prominently in their tree farms.
In the Philippines, as s0on as the dry season sets in, trees of different species suffer greatly from
dry weather. Much of these damages may be prevented by constant cultivation of the soil using mulching
materials such as straw or hay which conserve moisture. Mulching not only protects trees during the dry
season, but is also valuable in conserving soil fertility.
Wind injury is another factor that causes heavy losses to our forests. Trees are often felled, limbs
broken, the soil around its roots badly blown, and the timber damaged by heavy wind. Heavy thinning is
often a cause of wind injury resulting in trees becoming sparse. The planting of trees should be close
enough to break strong winds specially during the typhoon season.
Trees may also be injured by sunscalding specially in places where the climate is very hot during
certain months. This usually occurs on the trunks of unprotected trees. Sunscalds can be pre-
vented by planting an undergrowth along the trunks of unprotected trees to produce shade during the
afternoon.

Propagating Fruit and Tree Crops

Good fruit or tree crop varieties, with rare exceptions, do not really come from seeds. The seeds of
some fruit trees might give red, green, or striped, large or small, and sweet or sour fruits. Some may
resemble the parent variety but many of them would be worthless for commercial purposes. There is only a
slight chance that from thousands of seeds would come a single seed that is an improvement over the
parent.
For this reason, it is necessary to secure new plants of a given variety by transferring vegetative
parts of this variety to a stock upon which these parts may grow. Another method is by rooting the
vegetative parts without the use of a stock. This is done by inducing the development of roots on the
mother plant which may later be separated and used for new plants. These procedures are asexual
methods of propagating trees.
The name given to the process of making the transfer depends upon the nature of the particular
method employed and the vegetative parts used. These processes are grafting, budding, cutting, and
marcotting or layering.
Grafting. This is an artificial vegetative process in which a stem of one plant is inserted or placed
into another plant so that the two will unite to form one plant and grow.
There are several good reasons why grafting is widely used as a method of propagating fruit and
tree crops. One of them is to change the variety of an old established tree farm from an undesirable variety
to a new one which is more desirable and profitable. Another reason is to maintain a good variety. A better
variety can be obtained with the transfer of a vegetative part of a selected tree to the growing limb of a
stock produced from seed. Grafting is also done to repair fruit and tree crops damaged by adverse weather
conditions or injured by pests and diseases
Grafting is classified into cleft, side, whip or tongue, saddle, bark, and crown grafting. The most
common form used by fruit growers is cleft grafting.
 Cleft grafting consists of making a cleft in the stock into which the graft or scion is to be inserted.
The operation is feasible on limbs varying in size from those just strong enough to hold the scions firmly in
place to those so large that the clefts or wedge-shaped openings in the branches can be made with
difficulty. Cleft grafting is usually employed when grafting a new top on a tree which is several years old.
Even mature trees may be grafted, but the difficulty increases with the age of the tree and the size of the
branches.
The following are the steps in cleft grafting:
1. Select a clean, smooth limb preferably between two to three centimetres in diameter, and saw it off at
right angles.
2. Split the stub through the middle with a sharp, narrow blade, taking care to make a clean slit in the bark.
3. Cut two scions with three buds each and about 10 to15 centimetres long. Whittle the lower end of each
scion to form a long, evenly-tapering wedge.
4. Open the cleft in the stub by forcing a chisel or similar instrument into its center.
5. Insert the wedge-shaped end of a scion in such a way that its innermost bark lies against the innermost
bark of the split stub.
6. Cover all cut surfaces immediately with budding or grafting wax. Let both scions grow for one to two
years, then cut one off or remove the one close to the bark.
Whip or tongue grafting is used for parts too small to be cleft grafted. Nursery growers use it to
establish known varieties on seedling roots. Fruit growers use it to graft the trunks of small trees either after
planting or later, and to change the tops of young trees by working over the branches to the variety desired.
The following are the steps in whip or tongue grafting:
1. Select a smooth, clear place on the trunk or branch and sever the part with a clean, drawing motion of
the knife, exposing a sloping surface three to five centimetres long. Start the knife just above the center and
cut toward the center and through it, working the knife downward against the grain to prevent splitting and
making an incision about two to four centimetres deep. This action prepares the tongue.
2. Take the scion, selected and prepared as for cleft grafting, and sever a piece bearing a number of buds,
usually 10 to 15 centimetres long. Make a long, even, sloping cut just as in the case of the stock and
complete the tongue in the same manner.
Make the tongue on the proper end of the scion so that when the scion is in place the buds will grow away
from rather than towards the stock.
3. Unite the stock and scion. Slip the tongue of the scion inside the tongue of the stock until the scion is
firmly in place. Disregard one side of the cut surface of the scion, but make certain that the cambium of the
other side is in contact with the cambium of the stock.
4. With the scion in place, cover the union with a waxed string or a plastic sheet without tying or attempting
to cover the entire union with the cord. Wash all cut surfaces thoroughly, taking care not to disturb the
scion.
5. After union and growth take place, cut the waxed cord to prevent girding, unless the cord pulls apart
itself. Several or all of the buds on the scion may grow. Rub or cut off those that are not desired and train
the branch in the usual manner.

Budding. The process of transferring the lateral bud taken from the scion to the stock of the same
family or genus is known as budding. Budding is confined generally to young plants or to smaller branches
of large plants where the buds can be inserted into shoots which are one to three centimetres in diameter.
Budding is used by nursery growers to establish the desired variety in seedling stock. It is used by fruit
growers to work over young trees, on either the trunk or branches. The most common form of budding is
shield budding, taking its name from the shape of the bark cut off with the bud.
The steps in shield budding are as follows:
1. Take well-developed buds from the terminal growth of the current season of trees of the desired variety.
These shoots are bud sticks. Clip off the leaves immediately to stop evaporation, but allow part of the leaf
stalks to remain attached to the buds to serve as handles in manipulating them. Use the bud stick at once
or, if this is not possible, put them in a cool, moist place.
2. Select a smooth place on the stock and make a T-shaped split through the bark. If the bark is in good
condition, the flaps will loosen and turn up on the points. Work the corners loose carefully.
3. Insert the bud. With a thin bladed knife, cut a bud from the bud stalk with a shield-shaped piece of bark
and a very thin layer of wood under the slit. Slip the bud by means of the leaf stalk handle under the loose
flaps on the stock and shove it into position. Make certain that the bud goes in such a direction that it may
grow outward or upward and push it in far enough so that the bark of the stock completely envelops it. The
cambium tissues are then joined together as in the case of graftage. Tie the bud securely above and below
with a fine, soft cord and a plastic sheet or raffia.
4. Inspect the bud in about two weeks. If union has taken place, cut the raffia on the side away from the
bud to prevent girdling. A living bud is greenish in color, while a dead one is blackish- brown. When the bud
has attained a height of about 30 centimetres, the stock should be cut off smoothly and the cut surface
covered with pine tar or any house paint to prevent rotting.

Cutting. Cutting is the easiest and simplest of all methods of vegetative propagation. A cutting is
the detached portion of a selected mother plant intended to be multiplied. At least 1/3 to ½ of the cutting's
length is inserted in the soil or rooting media. With this method, when the vegetative parts of plants such as
the root, stem, and leaves are cut off and placed under conditions favorable to rooting, they develop into a
complete plant with characteristics similar to those of the parent or mother plant.
Stem, leaf, and root cuttings are often used in ornamental plants. Very few fruit trees are
propagated commercially by cuttings. If cuttings are used, the choice of which part to use is usually
between the roots and the stem.
Hardwood and softwood cuttings are the two general kinds of stem cuttings. Hardwood cuttings are
taken from mature woody stems of plants like grapes, gumamelas, and bougainvilleas. Stems of these
plants, about a pencil size or smaller in diameter and 15 to 30 centimetres in length, are cut. Make a
slanting cut at the bottom, or just above a leaf joint. Retain the leaves, thin them out slightly, or cut the very
large leaf halfway. As a rule, the more leaves are retained, the faster the rate of rooting. The stems are
then planted in a planting position in the desired soil mix. Softwood stem cuttings are used for herbaceous
plants like camote, kangkong, and yerba buena. These are planted in the same manner as hardwood
cuttings.
The rimas, which has seedless fruits, is propagated by hardwood root cutting. Healthy roots of
rimas with a basal diameter of two to three centimetres are cut into pieces ranging from 15 to 20
centimetres long. Piant these pieces horizontally in well-drained rooting medium or soil mix and water them
regularly to prevent drying out. When the growing plants have attained a height of 25 to
30 centimetres, pot them in preparation for transplanting in the backyard or orchard.
Some plants, particularly those with fleshy leaves and thick petioles or leaf stems, can be
propagated through leaf cuttings. Among these are African violets, kataka-taka, sedum, and begonia.
Healthy leaves should be chosen for leaf cuttings. Choose leaves that are neither too old nor too young.
These leaves should have petioles of three to five centimetres in length.

Marcotting or air layering. Plants which do not propagate readily by means of cuttings may
sometimes be increased by layerage or marcotting. Layerage consists of the formation of the roots from a
portion of the stem, but differs from cuttings in that the roots and stems of the new plant are formed while it
is still attached to the mother plant.
Marcotting is considered to be one of the oldest methods of propagating fruit trees. It is a laborious
method because it necessitates keeping the rooting media always moist to encourage root formation. In the
Philippines, this is done during the rainy season although some nursery growers do it during the dry
season.
The following are the steps in marcotting:
1. Select a vigorous branch of a healthy tree which you want to propagate. Depending upon the size of the
branch, remove a ring of bark, three to five centimetres long. When the ring of the bark is removed, scrape
the cambium layer slightly.
2. Get a certain amount of sphagnum moss and place it around the cut surface. If sphagnum moss is not
available, use moistened soil. Cover the sphagnum moss or moistened soil securely with a piece of plastic
sheet or coconut husk. Tie both ends with pieces of string to prevent the root medium from drying. When
wrapping materials other than plastic sheet or coconut husk are used, the marcot must be watered
regularly to prevent drying and hardening of the soil.

Forest Care, Maintenance, and Conservation

A lot of destruction has been happening to our forest resources since 1945. Our forests are slowly
but surely dying. They are continually being degraded by illegal logging, the kaingin system of farming,
firewood gathering, forest sires, and the like.
After 45 years of continuous forest destruction, almost two- thirds of forest areas have been robbed
of their natural environs. It is now recognized that drought and water and power shortage being
experienced by the Philippines can be attributed to the wanton destruction of its watersheds and forest
areas.
To be assured of future forest resources, intensive education and information campaign on tree
planting should be done. The responsibility to help reforest the denuded mountains, valleys, and hills of the
country lies on all able-bodied citizens. To begin with, we should put into crop production land that can be
safely used for this purpose, leaving the rest of the land for forest conservation and development. Among
the other measures that we can use to preserve our forest resources is to practice approved methods of
tree planting in the right place and time.
This lesson discusses the importance and value of reforestation and the care, maintenance, and
conservation of forests and forest resources. It also underscores the symbiotic relation of forest care and
Philippine agriculture.
A forest is not merely a group of trees, and trees are not merely logs and lumber. A forest is a
community of trees covering a large tract of land. Growing and living under these trees are herbs, shrubs,
lower forms of plants, and forest animals. Trees grown in the forest should be similarly cared for as
cultivated crops. They need to be planted, maintained, harvested, and used to supply human needs.
We need forests for our survival. They provide tangible and in-tangible benefits. Forest products
such as logs, veneer, plywood, lumber, and other minor products help build our country's economy as they
constitute one of our principal exports.
Forests ensure a steady supply of water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs and to
generate power for electricity. We need forests to protect our rivers and streams from rapid siltation.
Thick forest growth minimizes the impact of rainfall on the ground. It also lessens the direct pressure that
could displace soil particles. Plant debris on the ground absorbs rain water and hinders the fast movement
of water, thus minimizing soil erosion, flash floods, and the occurrence of drought.
 Nearby forests provide fresh and cool air because trees give off oxygen as well as absorb carbon
dioxide, making our environment a healthful place to live in.
The forest is a sanctuary to wildlife which provides humans with food. The contribution of wildlife
resources to our physical and mental well-being cannot be assessed in terms of money value.
Many wild animals help make the work of farmers easier. Forests beautify the landscape and provide areas
for relaxation and enjoyment. The importance of forests cannot be emphasized enough yet our available
forest resources have deteriorated compared to 50 years ago. A bright, progressive future is being dimmed
by an increasing rate of wanton forest destruction. Wood lots are disappearing. Shrubs, hedges, grasses,
and weeds which provide the necessary cover, nesting, and protection to many kinds of birds and game
animals are unnecessarily being cleared out. The remaining watershed and wild grassland are being
plowed, destroying wildlife's nesting cover and man's source of water and food.
The current drought in many parts of the Philippines can be attributed to years of indiscriminate
logging, uncontrolled upland migration, and the slow pace in the implementation of our reforestation
program and other forest development activities. It would take 50 to 75 years to reverse the present state of
our forests. Due to the gravity of the situation, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) has taken steps to rehabilitate our forests by regreening some 1.4 million hectares of denuded
forests. Out of 59 watershed reservations declared critical, 22 were re- forested. This involves an area of
433.771 hectares out of 854,000 hectares classified by the DENR as denuded areas. The DENR has also
opted to take two important measures to rehabilitate the watersheds through reforestation and agro-
forestry.
Forest destruction is defined as the damage or disturbance inflicted on forest trees and other wild
plants. There is forest destruction if the primary vegetation, particularly the trees or woody plants in a forest
area, are damaged or destroyed whether slowly or rapidly by natural or artificial means leaving little or no
chance for normal recovery. From the economic point of view, there is forest destruction if the commercial
species of trees that command marketable prices are radically reduced in number such that only the weed
species and defective trees are left in the area.

Agents of Forest Destruction

There are a number of agents responsible for the destruction of our forests. These can be classified into
human, biological, and atmospheric agents.
Human activities. Man is the principal agent of forest destruction. Some human activities that cause
the destruction of our forests are destructive logging, illegal logging and timber smuggling, shifting
cultivation and slash-and-burn agriculture or kaingin, collection of timber for firewood, charcoal making, and
forest fires.
Biological agents. Among the biological agents which contribute to forest destruction are wild
animals, fungi, forest weeds, and forest insects.
Wild animals such as deer, birds, wild pigs, rats, and mice are known locally to cause damage to
our forests. Damage is inflicted through their browsing of foliage, buds, and young shoots; gnawing of barks
to the extent that trees are girdled; trampling of young and tender seedlings, and compacting and
hardening of the soil in case of cattle.
Fungi cause many forest tree diseases. These are nonflowering plants that have no chlorophyll.
They are usually reproduced asexually and grow on dead organic matter or live parasitically.
Forest weeds include all wild plants which, by their vigorous growth, more or less retard the
development of young favored plants.
Forest insects include defoliators or insects that injure and destroy the foliage or trees; wood
borers or insects that bore in the sapwood or heartwood of the stem, branches, and roots of a tree;
cambium miners of insects that cause the death of trees by girdling the cambium layer of its stem; gall
makers or those that cause gall-like swelling to appear on leaves, twigs, or the bark of the main stem; fruit
and nut feeders or insects that feed upon the seeds of forest trees; and ovipository insects that cut the tips
of the lateral branches for the purpose of laying eggs.
Atmospheric agents. These are climatic occurrences which humans practically have no control of.
These include excessively high temperature, drought, abnormal water supply, wind velocity, lightning, and
poisonous gases and smoke.

Effects of Forest Destruction

At the rate forests are being destroyed and converted for other land uses there will come a time
when the wealth and opportunities offered by forests will not be enjoyed by future generations. The
indiscriminate clearance of forests must be stopped to avoid several ill-effects of forest destruction to our
socio-economic and ecological conditions.
Shortage of timber for construction. Today, a number of wood-based and logging industries have
closed or stopped operation because of wood shortage problem. Exorbitant wood prices and supply
shortage impose severe social burdens and hamper our national economic development. For example, the
high prices of wood products and their shortage are already undermining the efforts of thę government to
provide adequate housing for the poor. In some extremes cases, this has even impeded the construction of
railroad tracks, bridges, and electric power systems due to the necessity of using expensive steel and
concrete materials for this purpose.
Shortage of nontimber products for cottage industries. The Philippines is now importing rattan cane
from Malaysia and Indonesia in order to cope with the demands of the rattan craft industries in the country
for this raw material. Many of our comercially important nontimber forest areas have been continuously
converted into other land uses. Another reason behind the importation of rattan cane and other nontimber
products is our unregulated and indiscriminate harvesting of these raw materials, thus, resulting in supply
becoming very scarce and expensive.
Environmental degradation. Environmental degradation or ecological imbalance is one of the
immediate effects of forest destruction. This situation can be best explained hy looking at the adverse
effects of forest destruction on soil, water, wildlife, climate, and other environmental factors.
Flooding. The water that flows to our rivers, lakes, streams, and dams is traceable to forests. This
is because of the important influence of forests in our water cycle, mountain precipitation, and in the
efficient conservation of water resources. Frequent and severe flooding in Central and Northern Luzon and
in Mindanao is now being experienced yearly. This has been linked to the wide spread denudation of the
forests in these areas. Instead of being absorbed and stored in the soil, water runs offthe surface of
denuded mountains to the lowlands causing severe floods not only in these areas but in other regions as
well.
Siltation or sedimentation. Siltation of lakes and rivers adversely affects the fishing industry and its
potential for recreational purposes. Continuous siltation or sedimentation also contributes to the shortening
of the life span of many hydroelectric dams.
Effects on plants and animals. The world has about ten million species of plants and animals. An estimated
five million live in forests. Destruction of forests, therefore, means destruction of the habitat of these
organisms. This may lead to the loss or extinction of plant and animal species and their genetic resources.
Civilization and world empires have fallen and disappeared because forests had been wantonly
destroyed. Land once fertile is turned into deserts and civilization becomes extinct. For example,
Mesopotamia, once a fertile and prosperous land at the time of the Babylonians and Persians, is now
virtually a desert. The poverty in China and India iş due to the wanton destruction of their forests, which
brought about erosion followed by aridity. People now realize the many benefits of forests. In the
Philippines, the government as well as the citizenry have finally awakened to the need for stepped-up
reforestation of denuded forest areas. Many provincial and municipal governments have launched tree
planting activities in the school, home, and barangay levels. Every citizen of this country must give full
support and cooperation to the present reforestation program decreed by the government.
Our forest should not only be protected and preserved for economic reasons. Above all, they must
be conserved and developed for the future of our children and our children's children.
Experience has shown that forest conservation can only be successful if it is supported by the
government and its citizens. Considering the need to save our forests now, it is imperative that Filipino
citizens be personally involved not only because it is a civic duty but also a patriotic commitment to save
the country. We must conserve our forests because we need them for our survival. We must conserve
them so that the material and nonmaterial benefits that only our forests can give would not diminish.
To summarize, forest care, maintenance, and conservation should be every Filipino's concern for
the following reasons:
1. To building the economy
2. Regulate waterflow
3. Prevent soil erosion and control floods
4. Maintain a beneficial environmental influence
5. Serve as venue for outdoor recreational purposes
6. Preserve our wildlife and game.