Phase Relationship w=0.0153=1.

53 %

Water Content (w) or Moisture Content (m) b. Void ratio

– is the ratio of the mass of water to the w Gs
e=
mass of solids in the soil. S
Mw 0.0153(2.84)
w= e=
Ms 1
e=0.0434
Degree of Saturation (Sr) – is the ratio of
the volume of water to the volume of void c. Porosity
space. e
n=
Vw 1+ e
Sr=
Vv 0.0434
n=
1+0.0434
Unit Weight of Water n=0.0416

Unit Water Density 2. A soil sample weighing 11.23 lb. has

3 3
kN /m 9.81 kN /m a volume of 0.092 cu. ft. If water
3 3
N /cm 9810 N /m content = 13.4% and Gs = 2.65,
compute the (a) unit weight of soil,
Density of Water (b) dry unit weight, (c) void ratio, (d)
porosity, and (e) degree of saturation.
Unit Water Density
g/cm
3
1 g / cm
3
a. Unit weight of soil
g/mL 1 g /mL M
γ=
kg /m
3
1000 kg /m
3 V
3 3 11.23 lb
lb /ft 62.4 lb /ft γ= 3
0.092 ft .
lb
γ=122.065 3
Exercises: ft .
1. The total weight of soil when
b. Dry unit weight
saturated is 1526 g and the weight of
Ms
the soil after drying is 1503 g. If the γd =
specific gravity of soil is 2.84. V
Compute the (a) moisture content,
(b) void ratio, and (c) porosity. Mw
w=
Ms
a. Moisture content M −M s
Mw w=
w= Ms
Ms 11.23−M s
M −M s 0.134=
w= Ms
Ms M s=9.903lb
1526 g−1503 g
w=
1503 g
 9.903 lb
γd =
0.092 ft .
3 d. Porosity
lb Vv
γ d =107.6 3 n=
ft . V
0.032
n=
0.092
Alternative Solution: n=0.348=34.8 % 35%

γ e. Degree of saturation 65.88%

γd =
1+ w w Gs
Sr=
122.065 e
γd =
1+ 0.134 0.134(2.65)
Sr=
lb 0.5333
γ d =107.6 3
ft . Sr=0.6659=66.59 %

Soil Composition

Effective Unit Weight of Soil, Submerged

Unit Weight, Buoyant Unit Weight
c. Void ratio '
γ =γ sat −γ w
V (G s−1) γ w
e= v '
γ=
Vs 1+e

Find V s =? Hydraulic Gradient

G −1
Ps icr= s
Gs = 1+e
P water
Ms Zero Air Void Ratio
Gs =
V s P water G γ
γ zav= s w
1+w G s
9.903 lb
2.65=
V s (62.4 lb /ft 3 ) Relative Density
V s =0.06 ft 3 (1/γ d )−(1 /γ d )
Dr = min ⁡

(1/γ d )−(1 /γ d )
V v =V −V s min ⁡ max

e max−e
V v =0.092−0.06 Dr =
V v =0.032 emax −e min

0.032 Values of e min and e max

e=
0.06 (Gs −γ max / γ w )
e min =
e=0.5333 ( ( γ max /γ w )−1 )
 (Gs−γ min / γ w ) b. Saturated Unit Weight
e max =
( (γ min /γ w)−1 )
(G s +e)γ w
γ sat =
γ d =¿ in situ dry unit weight (at void ratio e) 1+e
( 2.75+ 0.66 ) 9.81
γ d =¿ dry unit weight in the densest γ sat =
max
1+0.66
condition (at void ratio e min) kN
γ d =¿ dry unit weight in the loosest γ sat =20.15 3
min
m
condition (at void ratio e max )
c. Effective Unit Weight
Note! 
Min unit weight = loose or has bigger void (G s−1) γ w
γ '=
1+ e
Sample Problem: ( 2.75−1 ) 9.81
1. The weight of the moist soil as γ '=
1+0.66
excavated from a hole is 895 grams ' kN
with a volume of 426 cc. After γ =10.34 3
m
drying its weight was only 779
grams. Of the dried soil only 400
grams was poured into a vessel in a 2. CE Board Nov. 2005. The field unit
very loose state, and its volume was weight of the soil sample is
subsequently determined to be 276 1 960 kg /cu .m ., and the unit weight
cc. That same 400 grams dried soil
of the soil particle is 2700 kg /m3 . If
was then vibrated and tamped to a
e max =0.69 and e min =0.44 , compute
volume of 212 cc. Compute the
following: the following:

a. a. Dry unit weight if the water

content is 11%

γ
γd =
1+ w
Exercises:
1. A soil sample has the following
properties. Porosity=0.398, γd =
1960 ( 1000
9.81
)
Specific Gravity=2.75 . Compute the 1+0.11
following properties: kN
γ d =17.32 3
m
a. Void Ratio
b. Void ratio
n γ
e= Gs = s
1−n γ water
0.398 2700
e= Gs =
1−0.398 1000
e=0.66 Gs =2.7
 Gs γw d. Zero Air Void Unit Weight
γd = 15.08 KN/cu.m.
1+ e
2.7(9.81) 20.23 y
17.32= 0.22 w
1+e
e=0.53 Gs γ w
γ zav=
(1+ w Gs )
c. Relative density 2.70 (9.81)
γ zav=
1+0.28(2.70)
e max−e kN
Dr = γ zav=15.08 3
emax −e min m
0.69−0.53
Dr =
0.69−0.44 4. A soil sample has a dry unit weight
D r =0.64=64 % of 17.79 Kn/ m3 and void ratio of
0.50 . Compute the following:
3. For a sandy soil, e max =0.75,
e min =0.52 and Gs =2.70. Compute a. Specific Gravity of Soil
the following: Gs γw
γd =
1+e
a. Relative density if e=0.60 Gs ( 9.81)
17.79=
1+0.50
e max−e Gs =2.72
Dr =
emax −e min
0.75−0.60 b. Hydraulic Gradient at
Dr =
0.75−0.52 Quicksand Condition
D r =0.65=65 % Gs−1
icr=
1+e
b. Void Ratio Dr=65 % 2.72−1
icr=
1+ 0.50
e max−e icr=1.15
Dr =
emax −e min
0.75−e c. Effective Unit Weight
0.65= (G s−1) γ w
0.75−0.52 γ '=
e=0.60 1+ e
( 2.72−1 ) 9.81
γ '=
c. Dry Unit Weight of Soil 1+0.50
' kN
Gs γw γ =11.25 3
γd = m
1+ e
2.70(9.81) d. Bulk Specific Gravity
γd =
1+0.60 ( g )=G s−n Gs
kN
γ d =16.55 3
m e
n=
1+ e
 0.50
n=
1+0.50
n=0.333

( g )=2.72−0.333(2.72)
( g )=1.814
 Atterberg Limits ρω = Density of water (1 g / cm3)

Shrinkage Ratio
M2
Atterberg Limit Tests: S . R .=
V 2 ρω
1. Liquid limit test
2. Plastic limit test
Specific Gravity
3. Shrinkage limit test
1
Gs =
1 S .L.
Plasticity Index −
S . R . 100
P . I .=L . L .−P . L .

Liquidity Index
1. A silty clay has a plastic limit o
ω−P . L.
L . I .=
L. L .−P . L .
2.
a. Shrinkage Limit
where: ( M 1−M 2 ) ( V 1−V 2 )
ω = in sity moisture content of soil S . L .= ( 100 )− ρ w ( 100 )
M2 M2
( 44−30.1 ) ( V 1−V 2 )
Characteristic of Soil S . L .= ( 100 )− ρw ( 100 )
M2 M2
When L . I .< 0 — brittle solid
When L . I .< 1 — plastic b. Saturated Unit Weight
When L . I .> 1 — liquid c. Dry Unit Weight
Consistency Index
L . L.−ω
C . I .=
L . L.−P . I .

Toughness Index
Plasticity Index
Toughness Index=
Flow Index

Shrinkage Limit
( M 1−M 2 ) ( V 1−V 2 )
S . L .= ( 100 )− ρ ω ( 100 )
M2 M2

where:
M1 = Mass of wet soil in the dish in grams
M2 = Mass of dry soil in the dish in grams
V1 = Initial volume of wet soil in the dish in
cc
V2 = Final volume of dry soil in the dish in
cc
Exercises:
1. A soil has a liquid limit of 61 and a Liquid Limit=68 %
plastic limit of 30. A moisture Plastic Limit =24 %
content test performed on an Particles smaller than 0.002mm=44 %
undisturbed sample of this soil
yielded the following results: Compute the following:
a. The plasticity index
Mass of soil +can before placing∈oven=92.6 g P . I .=L . L .−P . L .
Mass of soil +can after removal ¿ oven=71.9 g P . I .=68−24
Mass of can=20.8 g P . I .=44 %

Given: b. The activity classification of

L . L .=61 this clay
P . L .=30 P. I.
Activity=
M soil =92.6 g−20.8 g=71.8 g Percentage of clay ¿ by weight
M dry =71.9 g−20.8 g=51.1 g 44.
Activity=
44
Compute the following: Activity=1
a. The plasticity index
P . I .=L . L .−P . L . c. The rate of volume change
P . I .=61−30 potential
P . I .=31 Very High

b. The moisture content

M Very High — LL > 60 and P.I.
m= water >35
M dry
Medium — LL > 50 - 60 and P.I.
M soil− M dry
m= 25 - 35
M dry Low — LL < 50 and P.I. < 25
71.8−51.1
m=
51.1
m=0.4051=40.51 % 3. A clay soil is found to have a liquid
limit of 75%, plastic limit of 45%
c. The liquidity index and a shrinkage limit of 25%. If a
ω−P . L. sample of this soil has a total volume
L . I .= of 30 cu.cm. at the liquid limit and a
L. L .−P . L .
40.51−30. volume 16.7 cu.cm. at the shrinkage
L . I .= limit, determine the following:
61−30
L . I .=0.339
a. Mass of soil at the shrinkage
limit
2. Laboratory test results for a sample ( M 1−M 2 ) ( V 1−V 2 )
S . L .= ( 100 )− ρ ω ( 100 )
of clay soil for the purpose of M2 M2
evaluating the potential for volume ( V 1 −V 2 )
change (swelling, expansion) are S . L .=ω− ρω ( 100 )
M2
shown.
 ( V 1−V 2 )
S . L .=L. L.− ρ ω ( 100 )
M2
( 30−16.7 )
25=75− (1) (100 )
M2
M 2=26.6 g

b. Shrinkage ratio
M2
S . R .=
V 2 ρω
26.6
S . R .=
16.7 (1)
S . R .=1.6

c. Specific gravity of solids

1
Gs =
1 S .L.
−
S . R . 100
1
Gs =
1 25
−
1.6 100
Gs =2.67
 Soil Classification ¿ (% silt)100
Silt−
100−% gravel
Effective Size (D10) – This is the diameter in ¿ 45 (100)
the particle size distribution curve Silt−
100−15
corresponding to 10% finer. It is used to Silt−¿52.941 %
measure the hydraulic conductivity and
drainage through the soil.
c. The percentage of clay
¿( % clay) 100
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu) Clay−
100−% gravel
D 60
Cu= ¿ 30(100)
D 10 Clay−
100−15
Clay−¿ 35.294 %
Coefficient of Gradation or Curvature (Cc)
Cc=¿ ¿ ¿
d. Classify the type of soil
where:
D30 = Diameter corresponding to 30% finer

Sorting Coefficient (So) 2. Laboratory test results for a sample

So=
√D75
D25
of clay soil for the purpose of
evaluating the potential for volume
change (swelling, expansion) are
where: shown.
D75 = Diameter corresponding to 75% finer
Liquid Limit=66 %
D25 = Diameter corresponding to 25% finer
Plastic Limit =26 %
Particles smaller than 0.002mm=40 %
—
Compute the following:
Exercises: a. The plasticity index
1. The given soil sample having the P . I .=L . L .−P . L .
particle size distribution as follows: P . I .=66−26
10% sand, 15% gravel, 45% silt, and P . I .=40 %
30% clay. Use the triangular textural
classification chart (USDA Method) b. The activity classification of
to compute the following: this clay
P. I.
a. The percentage of sand Activity=
Percentage of clay ¿ by weight
¿(% sand )100 40.
Sand− Activity=
100−% gravel 40
¿ 10(100) Activity=1
Sand−
100−15
Sand−¿ 11.765 % c. The rate of volume change
potential
b. The percentage of silt Very High
Very High — LL > 60 and P.I.
>35
Medium — LL > 50 - 60 and P.I.
25 - 35
Low — LL < 50 and P.I. < 25
 Formula Compilation M solid
Gs =
V solid P water
Phase Relationship
 Thermal Conductivity — J / N ℃
Void Ratio T =H / M (T 2−T 1 )
e=V v /V s
e=V v /(V −V v )

e=
Vv
V( ) Soil Composition

(
1− v
V
V ) Unit Weight
M
e=n /(1−n) γ=
V

Porosity Dry Unit Weight

n=V v /V Ms
n=V v /(V v + V s ) γd =
V

n=
Vv
Vs( ) γd =
γ
1+ w
Gs γw
( )
1+ v
V
Vs
γd =
1+ e

n=e /(1+e) Saturated Unit Weigh

(Gs +e)γ w
Moisture (Water) Content γ sat =
1+e
w=W w /W s
Effective Unit Weight of Soil, Submerged
Degree of Saturation Unit Weight, Buoyant Unit Weight
S=V w /V v '
γ =γ sat −γ w
S=wG s /e (G s−1) γ w
'
γ=
1+e
Additional Notes! 
 Moist Density Hydraulic Gradient
M total
Pmoist = Gs−1
V total icr=
1+e
 Dry Density
Zero Air Void Ratio
M solid
Pdry = G γ
V total γ zav= s w
1+w Gs
 Specific Gravity
Psolid Relative Density
Gs =
P water
 (1/γ d )−(1 /γ d ) Consistency Index
Dr = min ⁡

L . L.−ω
(1/γ d )−(1 /γ d ) C . I .=
L . L.−P . I .
min ⁡ max

e max−e
Dr =
emax −e min
Toughness Index
Plasticity Index
Values of e min and e max Toughness Index=
Flow Index
(G −γ / γ )
e min = s max w
( (γ max /γ w)−1 ) Shrinkage Limit
(Gs−γ min / γ w ) ( M 1−M 2 ) ( V 1−V 2 )
e max = S . L .= ( 100 )− ρ ω ( 100 )
( (γ min /γ w)−1 ) M2 M2

γ d =¿ in situ dry unit weight (at void ratio e) where:

γ d =¿ dry unit weight in the densest M1 = Mass of wet soil in the dish in grams
M2 = Mass of dry soil in the dish in grams
max

condition (at void ratio e min)

γ d =¿ dry unit weight in the loosest V1 = Initial volume of wet soil in the dish in
min
cc
condition (at void ratio e max ) V2 = Final volume of dry soil in the dish in
cc
Bulk Specific Gravity ρω = Density of water (1 g / cm3)
( g )=G s−n Gs
Shrinkage Ratio
M2
Atterberg Limits S . R .=
V 2 ρω
Atterberg Limit Tests:
Specific Gravity
1. Liquid limit test
1
2. Plastic limit test Gs =
1 S .L.
3. Shrinkage limit test −
S . R . 100
Plasticity Index
P . I .=L . L .−P . L . Soil Classification

Liquidity Index Effective Size (D10) – This is the diameter in

ω−P . L.
L . I .=
L. L .−P . L .
where:
ω = in sity moisture content of soil
Characteristic of Soil
When L . I .< 0 — brittle solid
When L . I .< 1 — plastic
When L . I .> 1 — liquid
the particle size distribution curve
corresponding to 10% finer. It is used to
measure the hydraulic conductivity and
drainage through the soil.
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
D
Cu= 60
D 10
Coefficient of Gradation or Curvature (Cc)
Cc=¿ ¿ ¿ Ro
R=
1−D r (1−R o)
where:
D30 = Diameter corresponding to 30% finer Ro = γ d / γ d
min ⁡ max⁡

Sorting Coefficient (So)

So=
√D75
D25
Relative Density

[
Dr = d
][
γ ( field )−γ d (min) γ d ( max )
γ d (max)−γ d (min) γ d ( field) ]
where:
D75 = Diameter corresponding to 75% finer
D25 = Diameter corresponding to 25% finer
Notes!
W1 = Combined weight of jar + cone + sand
———
W4 = Combined weight of jar + cone +
remaining sand
Soil Compaction
W5 = Weight of sand to fill the hole and
cone
Moist Unit Weight
W
γ=
V (m) Dry Weight of Soil
W2
Dry Unit Weight W 3=
w(%)
γ 1+
γd = 100
w (%)
1+
100
where:
W2 = Weight of moist soil excavated from
Dry Unit Weight for a Given Moisture the hole
Content and Degree of Saturation, S
W3 = Dry weight of soil
G γ
γd = s w
G w Volume of Excavated Hole Equals V
1+ s
S
W 5−W c
Relative Compaction V=
γ d ( sand )
γ d ( field )
R( %)=
γ d (max−lab ) where:
W5 = Weight of sand to fill the hole and
where: cone
Yd (field) = Compacted field dry unit weight WC = Weight of sand to fill the cone only
Yd (max – lab) = Maximum dry unit weight Yd (sand) = Dry unit weight of sand used
determined in the laboratory by either the
standard or modified Proctor Test Dry Unit Weight of Compaction Made in the
Field
γ d =Dry Unit Weight of Soil Excavated ¿ the Hole ¿
Volume of the Hole
W3
γd =
V
 Permeability
2. Falling Head Test
Methods of Computing Coefficient of
Permeability This is used to determine the
coefficient of permeability of fine-
1. Constant Head Test grained soil.
This is used to determine the
coefficient of permeability of coarse- Temp. Correction
grained soil. e.g. sands or gravels RT =2.42−0.475 lnT
containing little or no silt
Coefficient of permeability
Temp. Correction aL h
RT =2.42−0.475 lnT K= ln 1
At h 2

where: q=KiA
T = temp. in ºC at which the
measurement was made where:
K = Coefficient of permeability
Baseline Temperature is 20 ºC. (cm/s)
a = Cross-sectional area of stand pipe
Coefficient of permeability (cm2)
QL qL L = Length of soil specimen (cm)
K= =
Aht Ah A = Cross-sectional area of soil
specimen (cm2)
q=KiA t = Duration of water collection (s)
h1 = Initial head difference, when t =
where: 0
K = Coefficient of permeability h2 = Final head difference
(cm/s) q = Discharge of water collected or
Q = Volume of water collected (cm3) Flow rate (cm3/s)
q = Discharge of water collected or i = Hydraulic gradient
Flow rate (cm3/s) ( h1−h2 )
L = Length of soil specimen (cm) i=
L
A = Cross-sectional area of soil
specimen (cm2) Corrected K 20 ℃=RT K
h = Constant head causing flow (cm)
t = Duration of water collection (s)
i = Hydraulic gradient
h Absolute Permeability
i= Kη
L K=
γω
Corrected K 20 ℃=RT K
where:
K = Hydraulic Conductivity
η = Viscosity of water
γ ω = Unit weight of water
Hydraulic Conductivity or Coefficient of Discharge Velocity
Permeability of Saturated Soils V =Ki

Hydraulic Flow Rate

Conductivity Type of Soil q=Ki A=VA
(cm/sec)
1 – 100 Clean Gravel Seepage Velocity or Interstitial Velocity
0.01 – 1.0 Coarse Sand Ki V
V s= =
0.001 – 0.01 Fine Sand n n
0.00001 – 0.001 Silty Clay
<0.00001 Clay where n, porosity:
e VV
n= =
1+ e V

Coefficient of Leakage
K'
¿= '
b

where: ???
K2 = Coefficient of permeability of semi
pervious layer of thickness b2

Retardation Coefficient
K
a= ' '
K /b

where: ???
K = Coefficient of permeability of
aquifer of thickness “b”

Leakage Factor

√
'
K b
b=
K ' /b'

where: ???

Transmissivity of Soil Stratum

T =K b

where:
Sample Problem: V =0.081cm/ sec
1. For a falling head permeability test,
the following are given. Length of c. Compute the head difference
the specimen is 380 mm, area of at time equal to 6 min.
specimen = 6.5 sq.cm., hydraulic
conductivity of soil specimen is aL h 1
0.175 cm/min. K= ln
At h 2

a. What should be the area of

the stand pipe for the head to
0.175=
0.31(38)
6.5(6)
ln
( )
650
h2
h2 =364.16 cm
drop from 650 cm. to 300 cm.
in 8 minutes?

aL h 1
K= ln
At h 2
0.175=
a(38)
6.5 (8)
ln ( )
650
300
2
a=0.31 cm

b. Compute the interstitial

velocity under the test
condition if the soil specimen
has a void ratio of 0.50 in
cm/sec.

Ki V
V s= =
n n

(h1−h2 )
i=
L
(650−h2 )
i=
38
i=9.21

e
n=
1+ e
0.50
n=
1+0.50
n=0.333

0.175( 9.21)
V=
0.333
V =4.84 cm/min
Permeability Test by Pumping from
Wells

Well in an Unconfined Permeable Layer

Underlain by an Impermeable Stratum
Q ln(r 1 /r 2 )
K= 2 2
π (h 1 −h2 )

Well in a Confined Aquifer Underlain by an

Impermeable Stratum
Q ln(r 1 /r 2 )
K=
2 πt (h 1−h2 )

Transmissivity of Aquifer in a Pumping Test

Q ln (r 1 /r 2 )
T=
2 π (z 2−z 1 )

h1 =H−z 1
h2 =H−z 2

Ka H1+ Kb H2+ Kc H3
where: KH eq= x x x

K = Permeability H
Q = Rate of discharge
r1 = The farthest distance from the center of
the test well
r2 = The nearest distance of observation well B. Equivalent Vertical Hydraulic
from the test well Conductivity
z1 = Draw down of the farthest observation The flow rate and velocity
well through each layer are equal.
z2 = Draw down of the nearest observation
H
well K=

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in ( H1 H2 H3

+ +
Ka Kb Kc
y y y
)
Stratified Soil

A. Equivalent Horizontal Hydraulic

Conductivity
Consider a cross section of
unit length passing through the layers
of soil and perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
 Effective Stress in Soil B. Effective Stress of Point A

Saturated Unit Weight

( G s+ e ) γ ω
γ Sat =
1+e

Submerged Unit Weight, Effective Unit

Weight or Buoyant Unit Weight
( Gs−1 ) γ ω
γ¿=
1+e
γ ¿ =γ Sat −γ ω
γ '=γ Sat −γ ω
Total Stress at A
σ A=γ ω ( h1 ) + γ Sat ( h2 )
A. Effective Stress of Point A
Pore Water Pressure or Neutral
Stress
U =γ ω ( h1+ h2 )

Effective Stress at A
Effective Stress = Total Stress – Pore
Water Pressure
Eff . Stress=γ ω ( h 1) + γ Sat ( h2 )−γ ω ( h 1+h 2 )
Eff . Stress=γ Sat ( h2 )−γ ω ( h2 )
Eff . Stress=( γ Sat −γ ω ) h2
Eff . Stress=γ ' h 2
Total Stress at A
σ A=γ dry ( h1 ) +γ Sat ( h2 )
C. Effective Stress of Point A
Pore Water Pressure or Neutral
Stress
U =γ ω ( h2 )

Effective Stress at A
Effective Stress = Total Stress – Pore
Water Pressure
Eff . Stress=γ dry ( h1 ) +γ Sat ( h2 ) −γ ω ( h2 )
Eff . Stress=γ dry ( h1 ) + ( γ Sat −γ ω ) h2
Eff . Stress=γ dry ( h1 ) +γ ' h2
 Total Stress at A where:
σ A=γ Sat ( h1 ) +γ Sat ( h2 ) U = Pore pressure of partially saturated soil
σ A=γ Sat ( h1+ h2 ) caused by capillary action in kPa
S = Degree of saturation in percent (%)
Pore Water Pressure or Neutral ϒω = Unit weight of water in kN/m3
Stress H = Capillary rise in meters
U =γ ω ( h1 )+ γ ω ( h2 )
U =γ ω ( h1+ h2 )

Effective Stress at A
Effective Stress = Total Stress – Pore
Water Pressure
Eff . Stress=γ Sat ( h1+ h2 )−γ ω ( h 1+ h2 )
Eff . Stress=(γ Sat −γ ω) ( h1 +h 2)
Eff . Stress=γ ' ( h 1+ h2 )

Effective Stress in the Zone Capillary Rise

Capillary Rise
C
hmm=
e D 10

where:
hmm = Capillary rise in mm
C = A constant that varies from 10 to 50
mm2
e = Void ratio
D10 = Effective size (mm)

Range of Capillary
Type of Soil
Rise
0.1 – .0.2 m Coarse Sand
0.3 – 1.2 m Fine Sand
1.3 – 7.5 m Silt
7.5 – 23 m Clay

Pore Pressure at a Point in a Layer of Soil

Partially Saturated Caused by Capillary
Action
−(S γ ω h)
U=
100
 Flow Nets Example (refer to the illustration
below:
Flow Nets N f =5
is a combination of a number of flow N d =8
lines and equipotential lines.

Flow Line
is a line along which a water particle
will travel from upstream to the downstream
side in the permeable soil medium.

Equipotential Line
is a line along which the potential
head at all points is equal.

Characteristics of a Flow Net

1. The equipotential lines intersect the
flow lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are 2. For Non-Isotropic Soils
approximate squares.
Q=
√ Kx Kz H Nf
Nd
Rate of Seepage Through the Foundation
1. For Isotropic Soils when K x ≠ K z :
KH N f K= √ K x K z
Q=
Nd
Uplift Pressure Under Hydraulic
where: Structures
Nf
Shape Factor=
Nd
KH
∆ q=
Nd
Δq = Flow rate per unit

where:
Q = Flow rate
Kx = Kz = K = Coefficient of
permeability
H = Difference in water levels
(Between upstream and the
downstream)
Nf = Number of flow channels
N d =7
Nd = Number of potential drops
H
Loss of head for each potential l¿
Nd
 H 21m
¿ = =3 m
Nd 7

2.

K ( h12−h22)
Q=
2L

3.

Uplift Force=(18 γ ω+3 γ ω )(36) ( 12 )

Uplift Force=378 γ ω=378 ( 9.81 )
Uplift Force=3708.18 kN /m

Seepage through an Earth Dam on an

Impervious Base

1.

Q=KL tan θ sin θ

L=
d
cos θ
−
√d2
2
H2
− 2
cos θ sin θ

KH N f
Q=
Nd
N f =3
N d =11
Q = Seepage through the Earth dam
K = Coefficient of Permeability
Seepage through the Foundation
N f =5
N d =14

KH N f
Q=
Nd
0.002 ( 20 ) (5 )
Q= (1 m)
14
3
Q=0.014 m /sec

KH N f
Q=
Nd
N f =4
N d =9

Additional Notes! 😊

h
hi =H upstream−( Positionequipotential line )
Nd

Potential Drop
H
¿
Nd

Sample Problem:
1. Compute the seepage flow under the
foundation of the dam shown.
 Soil Settlement Es = Modulus of elasticity of soil

Defined as: Primary Consolidation Settlement

 A stress increase caused by the
construction of foundations or 1. For normally consolidated clays
other loads compresses soil layers.
The compression is caused by a)
deformation of soil particles, b)
S p=
Cc H
1+e 0
log
( )
P 0+ ∆ P
P0

relocations of soil particles, and c)

expulsion of water or air from the
S p=
Cc H
1+e 0
log
P1
P0( )
void spaces.
Or in terms of the change in void
ratio, Δe
Three Types of Soil Settlement
1. Elastic Settlement (or immediate
∆ e=Cc log
(P0 +∆ P
P0 )
settlement), which is caused by the
elastic deformation of dry soil and of Therefore,
moist and saturated soils without any ∆e
S p= H
change in the moisture content. 1+e 0
Elastic settlement calculations
generally are based on equations where:
derived from the theory of elasticity. Cc = Compression index
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement,
which is the result of a volume e0 −e 1
change in saturated cohesive soils C c= or
log P1 −¿ log P 0 ¿
because of expulsion of the water ∆e
that occupies the void spaces. C c=
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement,
which is observed on saturated
log
( )
P1 or
P0
cohesive soils and organic soil an is C c =0.009(¿−10) Skempton,
the result of plastic adjustment of 1994
soil fabrics. It is an additional form
of compression that occurs at 2. For over-consolidated clays
constant effective stress.
a. If P0 +∆ P ≤ P c:

( )
Elastic Settlement (Immediate Settlement) Cc H P 0+ ∆ P
Bq (1−μ2 )I f S p= log
Se = 1+e 0 P0
Es
where:
where: Cs = Swell index
B = Width of the foundation
q = Net pressure at the base of foundation 1 1
C s= C c ¿ C c
μ = Poissons ratio of the soil 5 10
If = Influence factor
b. If P0 +∆ P> P c:
 S p=
Cs H
1+e 0 ( )
log
Pc Cc H
+
P 0 1+ e0
log
(
P 0+ ∆ P
Pc ) '
Ss =C α H log
()
t2
t1

Over-Consolidation Ratio where:

P Cα
OCR= c '
C α=
P0 1+e p

Vertical Stress Increase (Surcharge Therefore,

Load)
∆ P=
∆ P t +4 P m +∆ Pb
6
Ss =
Cα H
1+e p
log()
t2
t1

where: where:
ΔPt = Increase in pressure at the top Ss = Secondary consolidation settlement
of the layer Cα = Secondary compression index
ΔPm = Increase in pressure at the H = Thickness of clay layer
middle of the layer ep = Void ratio at the end of primary
ΔPb = Increase in pressure at the consolidation
bottom of the layer e p=e0−∆ e
t1 = Time for completion of primary
where: consolidation settlement
Sp = Primary consolidation settlement t2 = Time after the completion of primary
Cc = Compression index consolidation settlement
H = Thickness of clay layer (m)
e0 = In situ void ratio Time Rate of Consolidation
P0 = Average effective stress at the mid-
height of clay layer (Axial stress from half 1. Coefficient of Compressibility
of the clay layer to the NGL, disregard the ∆e
foundation) (kN/m2) av=
∆P
ΔP = Average increase of effective stress on
clay layer (Stress of the foundation to the 2. Coefficient of Volume
mid-height of the clay layer) Compressibility
Pc = Pre-consolidation stress av
Cs = Soil index mv =
1+e ave

Secondary Consolidation Settlement 3. Coefficient of Consolidation

∆e ∆e k
C α= = c v=
( )
log t 2−log t 1 log t 2 γ ω mv
log t 1
4. Time factor
where: cv t
T v= 2
Cα = Secondary compression index H dr
Δe = Change of void ratio
where:
 T v= ( )
π U 2
4 100 C c=
e0 −e 1
when (0<U≤60%) log P2 −¿ log P 1 ¿
0.70−0.65
C c=
T v =1.781−0.933 log (100−U ) log 100−¿ log 50 ¿
when (60%<U≤100%) C c =0.166

5. Degree of Consolidation Exercises:

U z=
u0−u z
u0
= 1−
( )
uz
u0
100 %
1. A layer of soft clay is 6m thick and
lies under a newly constructed
building. The weight of sand
overlying the clayey layer produces a
pressure of 260 kN/m2 and the new
Sample Problem:
construction increases the pressure
1. In a consolidation test the following
by 100 kN/m2. If the compression
results have been obtained. When the
index is 0.5, compute the settlement
load was changed from 50kN/m2 to
(cm). Water content is 40% and
100 kN/m2, the void ratio changed
specific gravity of grains is 2.65.
from 0.70 to 0.65.
2. The void ratio of clay A decreased
a. Determine the coefficient of
from 0.572 to 0.505 under a change
compressibility (m2/kN). in pressure from 120 to 180 kN/m2.
The void ratio of clay B decreased
∆e from 0.612 to 0.597 under the same
av=
∆P increment of pressure. The thickness
e 0−e 1 of sample A was 1.5 times that of B.
av=
P 1−P0 Nevertheless, the time required for
0.70−0.65 50% consolidation was three times
av= longer for sample B than sample A.
100−50
2 What is the ratio of the coefficient of
a v =0.001 m /kN
permeability of A to that of B?

b. Determine the coefficient of kA

volume compressibility Ratio of K =
kB
(m2/kN).

av k
mv = c v=
1+e ave γ ω mv
0.001 k =c v γ ω mv
mv =
1+( 0.70+ 0.65
2 ) Ratio of K =¿ ¿
Ratio of K =¿ ¿
−4 2
mv =5.97 × 10 m /kN
T v H dr2
c. Determine the compression c v=
t
index.
 c v A ( T v H dr ) A t B Cc H P1
( )
2

= S p= log
c vB ( T v H dr 2) B t A 1+e 0 P0
c v A ( 1.5dr ) A 3t B
c vB
=
2
S p=
0.25(5)
1+2.02
log
19
10 ( )
(1 2 ) t
dr B A S p=0.1154 m=11.54 cm
cv A
=6.75
c vB c. Determine the time (clays)
required for 40%
av ∆ e/ ∆ P consolidation if drainage is
mv = = one-way (T40=0.126)
1+e ave 1+ e0

(0.572−0.505)/(180−120) cv t
mv A = T v= 2
1+0.572 H dr
2
mv A =0.71× 10−3 T v ( H dr )
t=
cv
(0.612−0.597)/(180−120)
mvB =
1+0.612 Solution for Tv:
−3
m vB =0.155 ×10
T v= ( )
π U 2
4 100

( )
−3
0.71 ×10
Ratio of K =6.75
0.155 ×10−3 T v= ( )
π 40 2
4 100
Ratio of K =30.92 T v =0.126

3. A saturated soil has a compression k

c v=
index of 0.25. Its void ratio at a γ ω mv
stress of 10kN/m2 is 2.02 and its
permeability is 3.4 x 10^(-7) mm/s. k =3.4 ×10
−10

a. Compute the change in void av ∆ e/ ∆ P

ratio if the stress is increased mv = =
1+e ave 1+ e0
to 19kN/m2.
( 2.02−1.95)/(19−10)
mv =
e 0−e 1 1+ 2.02
C c= mv =2.5 × 10
−3

log
P1
P0( ) 3.4 ×10
−10

2.02−e 2 cv= −3
0.25= 9.81(2.5 × 10 )
log ( 1910 ) c v =13.46 × 10
−8

−8
c v =1.386 × 10 ? ?
e 2=1.95
t=0.126 ¿ ¿
b. Compute the settlement (cm)
if the soil stratum is 5m thick.
4. The soil at a building site consists of ' (G s−1) γ w
dense sand up to 2m depth, normally γ=
1+e
loaded soft clay 2m to 6m depth, and ' ( 2.65−1 ) 9.81
stiff impervious rock below 6m γ=
1+1.325
depth. The ground-water table is at '
γ =6.962
0.40m depth below ground level. The
sand has a density of 18.5 kN/m2 '
σ Eff =γ (h)
above water table and 19kN/m2
below it. For the clay, natural water σ Eff =6.962(2)
content is 50%, liquid limit is 65% σ Eff =13.924
and grain specific gravity is 2.65.
P0=7.4 +14.704+13.924
a. Calculate the probable P0=36.028=36
ultimate settlement (cm)
resulting from a uniformly
distributed surface load of S p=
0.495( 4)
1+ 1.325
log (
36+40
36 )
40kN/m2 applied over an S p=0.2764 m
extensive area of the site. S p=27.64 cm

S p=
Cc H
1+e 0
log(P 0+ ∆ P
P0 ) b. In a laboratory consolidation
test with porous discs on
either side of the soil sample,
C c =0.009(¿−10) the 25-mm thick sample took
C c =0.009(65−10) 81 minutes for 90% primary
C c =0.495 compression. Calculate the
value of coefficient of
w Gs consolidation (cm2/s) for the
e= sample. (Note: T90 = 0.848)
S
0.5(2.65) cv t
e=
1 T v= ¿ ¿
e=1.325 c v =T v ¿ ¿

P0=?
Solution for Tv:
Sand above water table: T v =1.781−0.933 log(100−U )
σ Eff =γ dry (h) T v =1.781−0.933 log(100−90)
σ Eff =18.5( 0.40) T v =0.848
σ Eff =7.4

Sand below water table:

σ Eff =(γ sat −γ ω)(h) c v =0.848 ¿¿
σ Eff =(19−9.81)(1.6) 2
c v =1.636 mm /min
σ Eff =14.704
c v =2.727× 10−4 cm2 / sec
Clay:
https://pdfcoffee.com/permeability-formula-
and-some-more-problems-pdf-free.html

http://pbw.eng.cu.edu.eg/wp-content/
uploads/sites/14/pbw1/2016/soil_lec10.pdf
MISC.

Primary Consolidation Settlement on

Normally Consolidated Clay

1.

2.

Secondary Consolidation Settlement

 3.

Source:
Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering-
Consolidation Settlement [Tagalog]
CE Corner TV
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=CEpBxY2Bntc