Analog & Digital IC – Chapter

Design & Applications 2

Jayen Modi
Department of Electronics Engineering
Vidyalankar Institute of Technology
Wadala (E), Mumbai – 400037
Introduction to Filters
What are they ? Why are they needed ?
• Frequency selective or responsive networks

• Separates out signals according to their frequencies

• Selects a single or a certain band of frequencies

frequencies outside this band
are blocked/rejected/attenuated
• Typical applications are :-
Analog & Digital Communication
Signal & Speech Processing all use filters in some
form or the other
Electronic Instrumentation
Introduction to Passive Filters
A Brief Overview & Some Critical Issues
• Implemented using passive components → R, L, C

• It works well for the high frequency (RF) range

• At audio frequencies (AF) inductors create ‘trouble’

become large, bulky
& very expensive
• More no. of turns of coil at low frequencies
 Increases the series resistance
 Increases the power dissipation
 Degrades the inductor’s performance
Introduction to Active Filters
Any betterment over Passive Filters ?
• Use op-amps & passive components (R & C)

• Flexibility in gain & frequency adjustment

• No loading effect due to use of op-amps

• Low cost & small components, hence small size

 Require DC power supply Disadvantages
 Limited frequency range ≤ 1 MHz compared to
 Can’t handle large amount of power passive filters
General Classification of Filters
Frequency Response Characteristics
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)

• High Pass Filter (HPF)

four main categories
of active filters
• Band Pass Filter (BPF)

• Band Stop Filter (BSF)

commonly used to achieve
• All Pass Filter (APF) phase shift between i/p & o/p
1. Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
2. High Pass Filter (HPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
3. Band Pass Filter (BPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
4. Band Stop Filter (BSF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
5. All Pass Filter (APF)
Input & Output Waveforms
The Transfer Function (TF)
Introduction to LTI systems
linear time – invariant system

input LTI output

r(t) c(t)
signal System signal

 input & output relationship is of linear nature

 system parameters do not change with the time
The Transfer Function (TF)
Mathematical Definition

input r(t) LTI c(t) output

signal R(s) System C(s) signal

C(s)
Transfer Function =
R(s)

ratio of LT of output to the LT of the input

considering all initial conditions to be zero
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
Circuit Diagram
R

Vin(t) C Vout(t)
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
Calculation of the Laplace Transform
R

1
Vin(s) Vout(s)
sC
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
Transfer Function

for the derivation of transfer function

please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) 1
=
Vin(s) sRC + 1
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
Calculation of the Transfer Function

1
Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
for the derivation of the
ωH
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωH = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at – 20 dB/decade
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
• When ω << ωH
1
→ AV(s) ≈ 1 Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
• When ω = ωH ωH
→ AV(s) = 0.707
• When ω >> ωH where ωH = 1
RC
→ AV(s) << 1
AV(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – LPF
Frequency Response Characteristics
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
Circuit Diagram
C

Vin(t) R Vout(t)
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
Calculation of the Laplace Transform

1
Vin(t) sC R Vout(t)
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
Transfer Function

for the derivation of transfer function

please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) sRC
=
Vin(s) sRC + 1
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
Calculation of the Transfer Function

1
Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
for the derivation of the
ω
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωL = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at + 20 dB/decade
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
• When ω << ωL 1
Vout(s)
→ AV(s) << 1 = 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
• When ω = ωL ω
→ AV(s) = 0.707
• When ω >> ωL where ωL = 1
RC
→ AV(s) ≈ 1
AV(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
The Transfer Function (TF)
Example of First Order System – HPF
Frequency Response Characteristics
The Transfer Function (TF)
Standard First Order Transfer Functions

C(s) 1 First Order

=
Low Pass System
R(s) sτ + 1

C(s) sτ First Order

=
High Pass System
R(s) sτ + 1

τ = Time Constant
First Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

Z1
Vout
Vin
VA

Z2
First Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
→ Z1 = R
→ Z2 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = 1
sC
→ Z2 = R
First Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
• Low Pass Filter (LPF) we’ll take this first !

→ Z1 = R
→ Z2 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = 1
sC
→ Z2 = R
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

R Vout
Vin
VA

C
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

AOF = 1 + R2 Vout(s)
= AOF
R1
Vin(s) sRC + 1
LPF ‘gain’
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Transfer Function AOF = 1 + R2
R1
AOF
Vout(s) LPF ‘gain’
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
for the derivation of the
ωH
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωH = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at – 20 dB/decade
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
• When ω << ωH
AOF
→ AVF(s) ≈ AOF Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
• When ω = ωH ωH
→ AVF(s) = 0.707·AOF
• When ω >> ωH where ωH = 1
RC
→ AVF(s) << AOF
AVF(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Design Procedure
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωH’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωH = 1

RC
• Select R1 & R2 based on the desired value of AOF, but
preferably between 10 kΩ to 100 kΩ
If AOF is not given, then take AOF = 2 so that R1 = R2
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

R
Vout
Vin
VA

VA = Vout
C

virtual short concept voltage follower

First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function

for the derivation of transfer function

please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) 1 AOF = 1
=
Vin(s) sRC + 1
voltage follower
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Calculation of the Transfer Function voltage follower

1 AOF = 1
Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
for the derivation of the
ωH
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωH = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at – 20 dB/decade
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
• When ω << ωH
1
→ AV(s) ≈ 1 Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ω
• When ω = ωH ωH
→ AV(s) = 0.707
• When ω >> ωH where ωH = 1
RC
→ AV(s) << 1
AV(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Frequency Response Characteristics
First Order Active Filters
LPF Design Procedure – Unity Gain
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωH’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωH = 1

RC
• For unity gain LPF, use op – amp voltage follower at
the output of the low pass RC circuit
First Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
→ Z1 = R
→ Z2 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = 1
sC
→ Z2 = R
we’ll take this now !
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

C
Vout
Vin
VA

R
First Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (HPF)
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

AOF = 1 + R2 Vout(s)
= AOF(sRC)
R1
Vin(s) sRC + 1
HPF ‘gain’
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Transfer Function AOF = 1 + R2
R1
AOF
Vout(s) HPF ‘gain’
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
for the derivation of the
ω
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωL = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at + 20 dB/decade
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
• When ω << ωL
AOF
→ AVF(s) << AOF Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
• When ω = ωL ω
→ AVF(s) = 0.707·AOF
• When ω >> ωL where ωL = 1
RC
→ AVF(s) ≈ AOF
AVF(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Design Procedure
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωL’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωL = 1

RC
• Select R1 & R2 based on the desired value of AOF, but
preferably between 10 kΩ to 100 kΩ
If AOF is not given, then take AOF = 2 so that R1 = R2
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

C
Vout
Vin
VA

VA = Vout R

virtual short concept voltage follower

First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function

for the derivation of transfer function

please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) sRC AOF = 1

=
Vin(s) sRC + 1
voltage follower
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Calculation of the Transfer Function voltage follower

1 AOF = 1
Vout(s)
= 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
for the derivation of the
ω
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωL = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at + 20 dB/decade
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
• When ω << ωL 1
Vout(s)
→ AV(s) << 1 = 2
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
• When ω = ωL ω
→ AV(s) = 0.707
• When ω >> ωL where ωL = 1
RC
→ AV(s) ≈ 1
AV(s) = Vout(s)

Vin(s)
First Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Frequency Response Characteristics
First Order Active Filters
HPF Design Procedure – Unity Gain
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωL’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωL = 1

RC
• For unity gain HPF, use op – amp voltage follower at
the output of the high pass RC circuit
Higher Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filters (LPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
Higher Order Active Filters
High Pass Filters (HPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
Higher Order Active Filters
Advantages
 Sharp roll – off rate for second order & above filters
as compared to first order filters

 Better frequency selectivity due to the sharp roll – off

rate as compared to first order filters

 These characteristics are critical for applications like

signal processing, communication systems etc.
Higher Order Active Filters
Disadvantages
 For higher order filters the mathematical analysis &
design procedure are relatively complicated

 Higher order filters need more number of component

than 1st order filters for the same filter action

 Problems of instability may occur in the higher order

filters due to the sharp roll – off rate
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

Z1 VA Z2
Vin Vout
VB
I1 I2
I3 Z3 I4 Z4
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = R
→ Z3 = Z4 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = 1
sC
→ Z3 = Z4 = R
Sallen – Key Topology
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

R R
Vin Vout

C C
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) AOF
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + sRC(3 – AOF) + 1

where AOF = 1 + R2
R1
Second Order Active Filters – LPF
Standard Second Order Transfer Function

C(s) AoωH2 second order

=
low pass system
R(s) s2 + αωHs + ωH2

any physically realizable system

damping such as electrical, mechanical,
coefficient chemical, hydraulic etc.

higher cut – off

frequency
Second Order Active Filters – LPF
Standard Second Order Transfer Function
C(s) A ω
o H
2 ωH = 1
=
R(s) RC
s2 + αωHs + ωH2
α = (3 – AOF)
comparing standard 2nd order T.F.
with what we have derived below :-
Vout(s) AOF
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + sRC(3 – AOF) + 1 what to do
about this ?
Second Order Active Filters – LPF
Significance of the damping factor ‘α’
Second Order Active Filters – LPF
Significance of the damping factor ‘α’
to achieve Butterworth response

α = 1.414

this guarantees a flat response

in the passband of the filter
But α = (3 – AOF)
1.414 = (3 – AOF)

Hence AOF = 1.586

Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Transfer Function AOF = 1 + R2
R1
AOF
Vout(s) LPF ‘gain’
= 4
Vin(s) 1 + ω
for the derivation of the
ωH
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωH = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at – 40 dB/decade
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filters (LPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Design Procedure
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωH’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωH = 1

RC
• Select R1 & R2 such that AOF = 1.586 so as to achieve
the Butterworth response (giving a flat passband)
Select R1 = 10 kΩ, hence R2 = 5.86 kΩ
since by definition AOF = 1 + (R2/R1)
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = R
→ Z3 = Z4 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = 1
sC
→ Z3 = Z4 = R
Sallen – Key Topology
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Circuit Diagram R1 R2

C C
Vin Vout

R R
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) AOF(s2R2C2)
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + sRC(3 – AOF) + 1

where AOF = 1 + R2
R1
Second Order Active Filters – HPF
Standard Second Order Transfer Function

C(s) Aos2 second order

=
high pass system
R(s) s2 + αωLs + ωL2

any physically realizable system

damping
such as electrical, mechanical,
coefficient chemical, hydraulic etc.
lower cut – off
frequency
Second Order Active Filters – HPF
Standard Second Order Transfer Function
C(s) Ao s 2 ωL = 1
=
R(s) RC
s2 + αωLs + ωL2
α = (3 – AOF)
comparing standard 2nd order T.F.
with what we have derived below :-
Vout(s) AOF(s2R2C2)
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + sRC(3 – AOF) + 1
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Transfer Function AOF = 1 + R2
R1
AOF
Vout(s) HPF ‘gain’
= 4
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
for the derivation of the
ω
transfer function please
refer to your class note – book
where ωL = 1
RC
roll – off rate occurs
at + 40 dB/decade
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filters (HPF)
Frequency Response Characteristics
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Design Procedure
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωL’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωL = 1

RC
• Select R1 & R2 such that AOF = 1.586 so as to achieve
the Butterworth response (giving a flat passband)
Select R1 = 10 kΩ, hence R2 = 5.86 kΩ
since by definition AOF = 1 + (R2/R1)
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

Z1 VA Z2
Vin Vout
VB
I1 I2
I3 Z3 I4 Z4
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

Z1 VA Z2
Vin Vout
VB
I1 I2
I3 Z3 I4 Z4
voltage follower

VB = Vout

virtual short concept

Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram – Unity Gain
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) Z3Z4
=
Vin(s) Z1Z2 + Z3(Z1 + Z2) + Z3Z4
Second Order Active Filters
General Circuit Diagram – Unity Gain
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = R
→ Z3 = Z4 = 1
sC
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
→ Z1 = Z2 = 1
sC
→ Z3 = Z4 = R
Sallen – Key Topology
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

R R
Vin Vout

C C
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) 1
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + 2sRC + 1
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filter (LPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function

1
Vout(s)
= 4
Vin(s) 1 + ω
ωH
for the derivation of the
transfer function please
where ωH = 1 refer to your class note – book

RC
roll – off rate occurs
at – 40 dB/decade
Second Order Active Filters
Low Pass Filters (LPF) – Unity Gain
Frequency Response Characteristics
Second Order Active Filters
LPF Design Procedure – Unity Gain
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωH’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωH = 1

RC
• For unity gain HPF, use op – amp voltage follower at
the output of the high pass RC circuit
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Circuit Diagram

C C
Vin Vout

R R
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function for the derivation of transfer function
please refer to your class note – book

Vout(s) s2R2C2
=
Vin(s) s2R2C2 + 2sRC + 1
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Transfer Function

1
Vout(s)
= 4
Vin(s) 1 + ωL
ω
for the derivation of the
transfer function please
where ωL = 1 refer to your class note – book

RC
roll – off rate occurs
at + 40 dB/decade
Second Order Active Filters
High Pass Filter (HPF) – Unity Gain
Frequency Response Characteristics
Second Order Active Filters
HPF Design Procedure – Unity Gain
• Choose a value of the cut – off frequency ‘ωL’

• Select capacitor (C) between 0.01 µF to 1 µF

• Calculate resistor (R) using ωL = 1

RC
• For unity gain HPF, use op – amp voltage follower at
the output of the high pass RC circuit