NAME = MUHAMMAD AHMAD

CLASS = BSCS 21A

ROLL = 21014119-047

SUBJECT = APPLIED PHYSICS,MAM SALMA

GULZAR

ASSIGNMENT # 3
Wave is disturbance in medium tharcarries energy without a net movement
of particles. It may take the form of elastic deformation, a variation of
pressure, electric or magnetic intensity, electric potential, or

Direction of wave and its classification

TYPES OF WAVES:
Mechanical Wave
 A mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation
of matter and is responsible for the transfer of
energy through a medium.
 The distance of the wave’s propagation is limited
by the medium of transmission. In this case, the
oscillating material moves about a fixed point, and
there is very little translational motion. One
intriguing property of mechanical wave is the way
they are measured, which is given by displacement
divided by wavelength. When this dimensionless
factor is 1, it results in the generation of harmonic
 effects; for example, waves break on the beach
when this factor exceeds 1, resulting in turbulence.
There are two types of mechanical waves:
 Longitudinal waves– In this type of wave, the
movement of the particle are parallel to the
motion of the energy i.e. the displacement of the
medium is in the same direction to which the wave
is moving. Example – Sound Waves, Pressure
waves
 TRANSVERSE WAVES-When the movement of the
particles is at right angles or perpendicular to the
motion of the energy, then this type of wave is
known as Transverse wave.  Light is an example of
a transverse wave.

 MECHANICAL WAVES DIAGRAM

Water waves are an example of a combination of
both longitudinal and transverse motions.
 Surface waves – In this type, the particles travel in
a circular motion.  These waves usually occur at
interfaces. Waves in the ocean and ripples in a cup
of water are examples of such waves.
Electromagnetic Wave
 Electromagnetic waves are created by a fusion of
electric and magnetic fields. The light you see, the
colours around you are visible because
of electromagnetic waves.
 All electromagnetic waves travel through a
vacuum at the same speed, 299,792,458 ms-1.
Following are the different types of electromagnetic
waves:
 Microwaves
 X-ray
 Radio waves
 Ultraviolet waves

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Difference Between Mechanical Wave and Non-
Mechanical Wave

Mechanical Waves vs Non-Mechanical Waves

Mechanical Wave Non-Mechanical Wave

Mechanical waves are Non-mechanical waves are waves that do

waves that need a not need a medium for propagation.
medium for
propagation.

Sound waves, water The electromagnetic wave is the only non-

waves and seismic mechanical wave.
waves are some
examples of
mechanical waves.

Mechanical waves Non-mechanical waves can travel through

cannot travel through vacuum
vacuum

Matter Wave
 This concept is a little complicated to understand.
The dual nature of matter; its ability to exist both
as a particle and a wave was first brought to light
by the founders of the field of Quantum Physics.
 For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted
just like any other beam of electromagnetic
radiations or water waves.this was brought
forward by de broglie hypothesis

MATTER WAVE BY DE BROGLIE

Particle Nature of Light
The emission of free electrons from a metal surface when the light is shone on
it, it is called the photoemission or the photoelectric effect. This effect led to
the conclusion that light is made up of packets or quantum of energy. Now the
question was whether the light quantum theory was indicative of the particle
nature of light. Einstein already associated the light quantum with momentum.
This strongly supported the particle nature of light and these particles were
named photons. Thus, the wave-particle duality of light came into the picture.

Photoelectric Emission

Photons:
Some points to be kept in mind are:
 A photon is an elementary particle. It is a quantum of light.
 Energy of a photon is given by E=hν. Its momentum is p=hν/c and speed
is c, which is the speed of light.
 Irrespective of the intensity of radiation, every photon of a frequency v
has the same momentum p=hν/c and energy E=hν.
 The increase in the intensity of light only increases the number of
photons crossing an area per unit time. It does not affect the energy of
the radiation.
 A photon remains unaffected by electric and magnetic fields. It is
electrically neutral.
 A photon has a zero mass, i.e. it is massless.
 It is a stable particle.
  Photons can be created or destroyed when radiation is emitted or
absorbed.
 The total energy and momentum are conserved during a photon-
electron collision.
 A photon cannot decay on its own.
 The energy of a photon can be transferred during an interaction with
other particles.
 A photon is a spin-1 particle, unlike electrons which are ½ spin. It’s spin
axis is parallel to the direction of travel. It is this property of photons
which supports the polarization of light.

WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by the typical
human. The wave nature of light was first illustrated through experiments
on diffraction and interference. Like all electromagnetic waves, light can travel
through a vacuum. The transverse nature of light can be demonstrated
through polarization.
 In 1678, Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) published Traité de la Lumiere,
where he argued in favor of the wave nature of light. Huygens stated
that an expanding sphere of light behaves as if each point on the wave
front were a new source of radiation of the same frequency and phase.
 Thomas Young (1773–1829) and Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827)
disproved Newton's corpuscular theory.
sources
Light is produced by one of two methods…
 Incandescence is the emission of light from "hot" matter (T ≳ 800 K).
 Luminescence is the emission of light when excited electrons fall to
lower energy levels
(in matter that may or may not be "hot").
type description example(s)

photo- caused by absorption of includes fluorescence and

luminescence optical radiation (IR, light, UV) phosphorescence

radiation is emitted within fluorescent lamps, black light

fluorescence
10 ns of excitation inks

phosphor- emission is "delayed" after "glow-in-the-dark" posters,

escence excitation by more than 10 ns etc.

electro- caused by the action of an some outdoor

luminescence electric field advertising, some nightlights

radio- caused by the absorption of x- mid-century "radium dial"

luminescence rays or radioactive radiation wristwatches

chemi- caused by energy released in a

glow sticks
luminescence chemical reaction

bio- chemiluminescence in living

fireflies, anglerfishes
luminescence organisms

occurs when a solid is rubbed peeling transparent tape,

tribo-
or scratched (or ripped or biting Wint-O-Green Life
luminescence
crushed) Savers

thermo- occurs when a previously

thermoluminescence dating
luminescence excited material is heated

cathodo- caused by the impact of CRT displays in 20th century

luminescence electrons TVs and computers

Types of luminescence with special names

speed
Just notes so far. The speed of light in a vacuum is represented by the
letter c from the Latin celeritas — swiftness. Measurements of the speed of
light.
 The speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant in all reference
frames.
 The speed of light in a vacuum is fixed at 299,792,458 m/s by the current
definition of the meter.
 The speed of light in a medium is always slower the speed of light in a
vacuum.
 The speed of light depends upon the medium through which it
travels.The speed of anything with mass is always less than the speed of
light in a vacuum.
other characteristics
The amplitude of a light wave is related to its intensity.
 Intensity is the absolute measure of a light wave's power density.
 Brightness is the relative intensity as perceived by the average human
eye.
The frequency of a light wave is related to its color.
 Color is such a complex topic that it has its own section in this book.
 Monochromatic light is described by only one frequency.
o Laser light is effectively monochromatic.
o There are six simple, named colors in English (and many other
languages) each associated with a band of monochromatic light. In
order of increasing frequency they are red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, and violet.
o Light is sometimes also known as visible light to contrast it from
"ultraviolet light" and "infrared light"
o Other forms of electromagnetic radiation that are not visible to
humans are sometimes also known informally as "light"
 Polychromatic light is described by many different frequencies.
 o Nearly every light source is polychromatic.
o White light is polychromatic.
A graph of relative intensity vs. frequency is called a spectrum (plural: spectra).
Although frequently associated with light, the term can be applied to any wave
phenomena.
 A continuous spectrum is one in which every frequency is present within
some range.
o Blackbody radiators emit a continuous spectrum.
 A discrete spectrum is one in which only a well defined set of isolated
frequencies are present.
(A discrete spectrum is a finite collection of monochromatic light waves.)
o The excited electrons in a gas emit a discrete spectrum.
The wavelength of a light wave is inversely proportional to its frequency.
 Light is often described by it's wavelength in a vacuum.
 Light ranges in wavelength from 400 nm on the violet end to 700 nm on
the red end of the visible spectrum.
Phase differences between light waves can produce visible interference
effects.
(There are several sections in this book on interference phenomena and light.)
Leftovers about animals.
 Falcon can see a 10 cm. object from a distance of 1.5 km.
 Fly's Eye has a flicker fusion rate of 300/s. Humans have a flicker fusion
rate of only 60/s in bright light and 24/s in dim light. The flicker fusion
rate is the frequency with which the "flicker" of an image cannot be
distinguished as an individual event. Like the frame of a movie… if you
slowed it down, you would see individual frames. Speed it up and you
see a constantly moving image. Octopus' eye has a flicker fusion
frequency of 70/s in bright light.
 Penguin has a flat cornea that allows for clear vision underwater.
Penguins can also see into the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
  Sparrow Retina has 400,000 photoreceptors per square. mm.
 Reindeer can see ultraviolet wavelengths, which may help them view
contrasts in their mostly white environment.

WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

What are the Properties of Light?

Following are the important properties of light –
 Light travels in a straight line.
 The speed of light is faster than sound. Light
travels at a speed of 3 x 108 m/s.
 Reflection of light
 Refraction of light
 Dispersion of light
 Diffraction of light
 Polarisation of light
 Interference of light
Reflection of Light
What is Reflection of Light?
When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray
bounces back, it is called the reflection of light. The incident light ray which
lands upon the surface is said to be reflected off the surface. The ray that
bounces back is called the reflected ray. If a perpendicular were to be drawn
on a reflecting surface, it would be called normal. The figure below shows the
reflection of an incident beam on a plane mirror.
Here, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are with respect to normal
and the reflective surface.

Laws of Reflection
The laws of reflection determine the reflection of incident light rays on
reflecting surfaces, like mirrors, smooth metal surfaces and clear water. Let’s
consider a plane mirror as shown in the figure above. The law of reflection
states that
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same
plane
 The angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Types of Reflection of Light
Different types of reflection of light are briefly discussed below:
 Regular reflection is also known as specular reflection
 Diffused reflection
 Multiple reflection
Regular/ Specular Reflection
Specular Reflection refers to a clear and sharp reflection, like the ones you get
in a mirror. A mirror is made of glass which is coated with a uniform layer of a
highly reflective material such as powder. This reflective surface reflects almost
all the light incident on it uniformly. There is not much variation in the angles
of reflections between various points. This means that the haziness and the
blurring are almost entirely eliminated.

Regular Specular Reflection

Diffused Reflection
Reflective surface other than mirrors, in general, has a very rough finish. This
may be due to wear and tear such as scratches and dents or dirt on the
surface. Sometimes even the material of which the surface is made of matters.
All this leads to a loss of both the brightness and the quality of the reflection.
In the case of such rough surfaces, the angle of reflection when compared
between points is completely haphazard. For rough surfaces, the rays incident
at slightly different points on the surface is reflected in completely different
directions. This type of reflection is called diffused reflection and is what
enables us to see non-shiny objects.

Diffused Reflection
Multiple Reflection
A single image is formed when an object is placed in front of a mirror. What
happens if we use two mirrors? Since reflective surfaces such as mirrors are
very good at preserving the intensity of light in a reflection, a single source of
light can be reflected multiple times. This multiple reflection is possible until
the intensity of light becomes low until the point that we cannot see. This
means that we can have almost infinite multiple reflections. We can also see
an image at every individual reflection. This means that each image is the
result of an image or an image of an image.
The number of images we see is dependent largely on the angle between the
two mirrors. We see that as we go on decreasing the angle between the
mirrors, the number of images goes on increasing. And when the angle
becomes zero, i.e., when the mirrors become parallel to each other, the
number of images becomes infinite. This effect can be easily observed when
your barber uses another smaller mirror to show you the back of your head.
When this happens, not only do you see the back of your head, you also see
innumerable images of yourself. The variation of the number of images of an
object placed between two mirrors with the angle between the mirrors can be
described by a simple formula:
Number of images=360∘/angle between mirrors
i
What is Refraction?
Refraction is the bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to
another. The bending is caused due to the differences in density between the
two substances.
Defining Refraction
“Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one medium
to another.”
Refraction of light is one of the most commonly observed phenomena, but
other waves like sound waves and water waves also experience refraction.
Refraction makes it possible for us to have optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, lenses and prisms. It is also because of the refraction of
light that we are able to focus light on our retina.
Causes of Refraction
Change of Speed Results in Change in Direction
A light ray refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a medium of different
refractive index. This change in speed results in a change in direction. As an
example, consider air travelling into water. The speed of light decreases as it
continues to travel at a different angle.
Refraction of light in glass is shown in the figure above. When light travels from
air into glass, the light slows down and changes direction slightly. When light
travels from a less dense substance to a denser substance, the refracted light
bends more towards the normal line. If the light wave approaches the
boundary in a direction that is perpendicular to it, the light ray doesn’t refract
in spite of the change in speed.

Laws of Refraction of Light

Laws of refraction state that:
 The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two
media at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
What is Refractive Index?
The refractive index, also called the index of refraction, describes how fast light
travels through the material.
The refractive Index is dimensionless. For a given material, the refractive index
is the ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum (c) and the speed of light in
the medium (v). If the refractive index for a medium is represented by n, then
it is given by the following formula:

        n=cv

Based on the refractive index of the medium, the light ray changes its
direction, or it bends at the junction separating the two media. If the light ray
travels from a medium to another of a higher refractive index, it bends
towards the normal, else it bends away from the normal.

Refraction of Light in Real Life

 Mirage and looming are optical illusions which are a result of refraction
of light.
 A swimming pool always looks shallower than it really is because the
light coming from the bottom of the pool bends at the surface due to
refraction of light.
  Formation of a rainbow is an example of refraction as the sun rays bend
through the raindrops resulting in the rainbow.
 When white light passes through a prism it is split into its component
colours – red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet due to refraction of
light.
Applications of Refraction of Light
Refraction has many applications in optics and technology. A few of the
prominent applications are listed below:
 A lens uses refraction to form an image of an object for various
purposes, such as magnification.
 Spectacles worn by people with defective vision use the principle of
refraction.
 Refraction is used in peepholes of house doors, cameras, movie
projectors and telescopes.
Solved Problems on Refraction
1. Light travelling in air enters into an optical fibre of refractive index 1.44.
a) In which direction does the light bend?
b) If the angle of incidence on one end of the fibre is 22o, then what is the
angle of refraction?
Solution:
a) The light travels from rarer medium(air) to denser medium(optical fibre),
hence the refracted ray will bend towards the normal.
b) The angle of refraction can be calculated as follows:
Let air be medium 1 and optical fibre be medium 2. Therefore, n 1 = 1.00, n2 =
1.44, and θ1= 22o.
Now, substituting the values in the equation as follows:
(1.00) sin 22o = 1.44 sin θ2.
sin θ2 = (1.00/1.44) sin 22o = 0.260
θ2 = sin-1 (0.260) = 15o

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is defined as:
The phenomenon which occurs when the light rays travel from a more
optically denser medium to a less optically denser medium.
Consider the following situation. A ray of light passes from a medium of water
to that of air. Lightray will be refracted at the junction separating the two
media. Since it passes from a medium of a higher refractive index to that
having a lower refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the
normal. At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light is refracted in
such a way that it passes along the surface of the water. This particular angle
of incidence is called the critical angle. Here the angle of refraction is 90
degrees. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the
incident ray is reflected back to the medium. We call this phenomenon total
internal reflection.

Total Internal Reflection

Formula of Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection n1/n2=sinr/sini

Critical angle, Ө sinΘ=n2n1

Notations Used In The Total Internal Reflection Formula And Critical Angle
 r is the angle of refraction
 i is the angle of incidence
 n1 is the refractive index in medium 1
 n2 is the refractive index in medium 2
  Ө is the critical angle
What are the conditions of Total Internal Reflection?
Following are the two conditions of total internal reflection:
 The light ray moves from a more dense medium to a less dense medium.
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Examples of Total Internal Reflection
Following are the examples of total internal reflection:
Diamond:
When the incident ray falls on every face of the diamond such that the angle
formed, the ray is greater than the critical angle. The critical value of the
diamond is 23°. This condition is responsible for the total internal reflection in
a diamond which makes it shine.
Mirage:
It is an optical illusion that is responsible for the appearance of the water layer
at short distances in a desert or on the road. Mirage is an example of total
internal reflection which occurs due to atmospheric refraction.
Optical fibre:
When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal reflection as
the angle formed by the ray is greater than the critical angle. Optical
fibres have revolutionised the speed with which signals are transferred, not
only across cities but across countries and continents making
telecommunication one of the fastest modes of information transfer. Optical
fibres are also used in endoscopy.

Diffraction of light
Diffraction of light is defined as the bending of light around corners such that it
spreads out and illuminates areas where a shadow is expected. In general, it is
hard to separate diffraction from interference since both occur
simultaneously. The silver lining which we witness in the sky is caused due to
diffraction of light. When the sunlight passes through or encounters the cloud,
a silver lining is seen in the sky.
When the double-slit in Young’s experiment is replaced by a single narrow slit,
a broad pattern with a bright region at the centre is seen. On both sides of the
centre, there are alternating dark and bright regions. The intensity becomes
weaker away from the centre. In this article, we discuss the single
slit diffraction of light in a detailed manner.
What is Single Slit Diffraction?
In the single-slit diffraction experiment, we can observe the bending
phenomenon of light or diffraction that causes light from a coherent source to
interfere with itself and produce a distinctive pattern on the screen called the
diffraction pattern. Diffraction is evident when the sources are small enough
that they are relatively the size of the wavelength of light. You can see this
effect in the diagram below. For large slits, the spreading out is small and
generally unnoticeable.
 

Single Slit Diffraction Formula

We shall assume the slit width a << D. x`D is the separation between slit and
source.
 
We shall identify the angular position of any point on the screen by ϑ
measured from the slit centre which divides the slit by a2 lengths. To
describe the pattern, we shall first see the condition for dark fringes. Also, let
us divide the slit into zones of equal widths a2. Let us consider a pair of rays
that emanate from distances  a2 from each other as shown below.
The path difference exhibited by the top two rays shown is:

ΔL=a2sin⁡Θ

Remember that this is a calculation valid only if D is very large. For more details
about the approximation check out our article on the Young’s Double Slit
experiment.
We can consider any number of ray pairings that start from a distance a2 from
one another such as the bottom two rays in the diagram. Any arbitrary pair of
rays at a distance a2can be considered. We shall see the importance of this
trick in a moment.
For a dark fringe, the path difference must cause destructive interference; the
path difference must be out of phase by λ2. (λ is the wavelength)
For the first fringe,

ΔL = λ2 = a2sin⁡Θ
 λ = a sin θ

For a ray emanating from any point in the slit, there exists another ray at a
distance a2 that can cause destructive interference.
Thus, at θ = sin−1λa, there is destructive interference as any ray emanating
from a point has a counterpart that causes destructive interference. Hence, a
dark fringe is obtained.
For the next fringe, we can divide the slit into 4 equal parts of a/4 and apply
the same logic. Thus, for the second minima:

λ2=a4sin⁡Θ

2λ=asin⁡Θ

Similarly, for the nth fringe, we can divide the slit into 2n parts and use this
condition as:

nλ = a sin θ

The Central Maximum

The maxima lie between the minima and the width of the central maximum is
simply the distance between the 1st order minima from the centre of the
screen on both sides of the centre.
The position of the minima given by y (measured from the centre of the
screen) is:

tanθ≈θ≈y/D

For small ϑ,
sin θ≈θ 
⇒ λ = a sin θ≈aθ
⇒ θ = y/D = λa
⇒ y = λDa
The width of the central maximum is simply twice this value
⇒  Width of central maximum = 2λDa
⇒  Angular width of central maximum = 2θ = 2λa
The diffraction pattern and intensity graph is shown below.

Interference of light waves

is a natural phenomenon that happens at every place and at every moment.
Yet we don’t see interference patterns everywhere. Interference is the
phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the resultant wave of the
lower, higher or same amplitude. The most commonly seen interference is the
optical interference or light interference. This is because light waves are
randomly generated every which way by most sources. This means that light
waves coming out of a source do not have a constant amplitude, frequency or
phase.
The most common example of interference of light is the soap bubble which
reflects wide colours when illuminated by a light source.
Example, incandescent bulbs generate a wide range of frequencies of light,
including all colours of the rainbow. Moreover, the light coming out of the bulb
is randomly generated every moment in all directions. This means that the
starting point of the wave generated may be a maximum, a minimum or any
point in between. There is no way of predicting in which phase the wave will
start. Such a source is said to be incoherent.
What are Coherent Sources?

Two sources are said to be coherent when the waves emitted from them have
the same frequency and constant phase difference.
Interference from such waves happen all the time, the randomly phased light
waves constantly produce bright and dark fringes at every point. But, we
cannot see them since they occur randomly. A point that has a dark fringe at
one moment may have a bright fringe at the next moment. This cancels out the
effect of the interference effect, and we see only an average brightness value.
Characteristics of Coherent Sources
Coherent sources have the following characteristics:
1. The waves generated have a constant phase difference
2. The waves are of a single frequency
Coherent Source Example
 Laser light is an example of coherent source of light. The light emitted by
the laser light has the same frequency and phase.
 Sound waves are another example of coherent sources. The electrical
signals from the sound waves travel with the same frequency and phase.
Types of Interference
Interference of light waves can be either constructive interference or
destructive interference.
 Constructive interference: Constructive interference takes place when
the crest of one wave falls on the crest of another wave such that the
amplitude is maximum. These waves will have the same displacement
and are in the same phase.
 Destructive interference: In destructive interference the crest of one
wave falls on the trough of another wave such that the amplitude is
minimum. The displacement and phase of these waves are not the
same.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

The great scientist Young’s performed an experiment to prove the wave nature
of light by explaining the phenomenon of interference of light. In the Young’s
double slit experiment, two coherent sources were generated using diffracted
light from a single slit. Note that the waves must have a constant phase
difference, so the two slits need not be placed symmetrically from the first slit
to observe an interference pattern. 
Lasers are commonly used as coherent sources and use a phenomenon called
Simulated Emission to generate highly coherent light. Small sources of light are
at least partially coherent. This is why we can observe interference patterns on
soap bubbles and appreciate the iridescence of butterfly wings. While sunlight
is incoherent overall, small portions on small areas are generally partially
coherent.
Conditions for Interference of Light Waves
For sustained interference of light to occur, the following conditions must be
met:
1. Coherent sources of light are needed.
2. Amplitudes and intensities must be nearly equal to produce sufficient
contrast between maxima and minima.
3. The source must be small enough that it can be considered a point
source of light.
4. The interfering sources must be near enough to produce wide fringes.
5. The source and screen must be far enough to produce wide fringes.
6. The sources must emit light in the same state of polarization.
7. The sources must be monochromatic.
 

POLARISATION OF LIGHT
Polarization, in Physics, is defined as a phenomenon caused due to the wave
nature of electromagnetic radiation. Sunlight travels through the vacuum to
reach the Earth, which is an example of an electromagnetic wave. These waves
are called electromagnetic waves because they form when an electric field that
interacts with a magnetic field. In this article, you will learn about two types of
waves, transverse waves, and longitudinal waves. You will also learn about
polarization and plane polarised light.
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are waves, i.e. movement of the particles in the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave.
Example 1: ripples in water, when you throw a stone.
Example 2: the motion of sound waves through the air.
Longitudinal waves are when the particles of the medium travel in the
direction of motion of the waves.
Light is the interaction of electric and magnetic fields travelling through space.
The electric and magnetic vibrations of a light wave occur perpendicularly to
each other. The electric field moves in one direction and magnetic in another
though always perpendicularly. So, we have one plane occupied by an electric
field, the magnetic field perpendicular to it, and the direction of travel which is
perpendicular to both. These electric and magnetic vibrations can occur in
numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is
known as unpolarized light. The light emitted by the sun, by a lamp or a tube
light are all unpolarised light sources. As you can see in the image below, the
direction of propagation is constant, but the planes on which the amplitude
occurs is changing.
The image here shows its various types:

The other kind of wave is a polarized wave. Polarized waves are light waves in
which the vibrations occur in a single plane. Plane polarized light consists of
waves in which the direction of vibration is the same for all waves. In the
image above, you can see that a Plane polarized light vibrates on only one
plane. The process of transforming unpolarized light into the polarized light is
known as polarization. The devices like the purple blocks you see are used for
Types of Polarization
Following are the three types of polarization depending on the transverse and
longitudinal wave motion:
 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization
Linear Polarization
In linear polarization, the electric field of light is limited to a single plane along
the direction of propagation.
Circular Polarization
There are two linear components in the electric field of light that are
perpendicular to each other such that their amplitudes are equal, but the
phase difference is π2. The propagation of the occurring electric field will be in
a circular motion.
Elliptical Polarization
The electric field of light follows an elliptical propagation. The amplitude and
phase difference between the two linear components are not equal.
Methods Used in the Polarization of Light
There are a few methods used in the polarization of light:
 Polarization by Transmission
 Polarization by Reflection
 Polarization by Scattering
 Polarization by Refraction
Polarization Applications
Following are the applications of polarization:
 Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
 Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress
analysis tests.
 Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown with the help of
polarization.
 Polarization is used for differentiating between transverse and
longitudinal waves.
 Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
 It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.
 In Chemistry, the chirality of organic compounds is tested using
polarization techniques.