Republic of the Philippines

AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO STRESS

STRESS is defined in physical sciences and engineering, as force per unit area within materials
that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an
accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behavior. Stress is expressed as a quotient
of a force divided by an area. Stress is the result of internal forces or forces that result when internal
particles react to each other. Force is the measure of the amount of energy that's applied to an object.
These internal forces are caused when a load is applied to an object. The most common loading types
include longitudinally loaded objects, axially loaded objects, and torsional-loaded, or twisted, objects.

The six major types of stress are:

1. COMPRESSION - is the result of axially loaded forces pointing towards the center of an object.
There are two major issues with compression stress: Compression forces can cause an object to
shorten, or they can cause an object to buckling. When an object buckles, it bends in such a way
that it can no longer hold the load, even though structurally speaking, the object can hold more
stress than is applied to it.
2. TENSION - is caused when axially loaded forces are pulling away from an object's center, and
perpendicular to the object's surface. Tension stress can cause the lengthening of an object. There
are several materials, concrete for example, where the object can only withstand a fraction of the
stress when the object is in compression.
3. SHEAR - is caused when the forces applied to an object are parallel to the object's cross-section.
This stress can cause the object to deform and, in some cases, pull apart. As the object deforms, it
changes. The shape of the object can change which can affect how the object withstands other
forces.
4. TORSION - Torsional shear stress or Torsional stress is the shear stress produced in the shaft due
to the twisting. This twisting in the shaft is caused by the couple acting on it.
5. BENDING - is seen in longitudinally loaded objects. The forces cause the object to bend, usually
in a downward direction. The farther away from the object's fixed supports, the greater the bending
stress.
6. FATIGUE - Failure of a structure or component due to repetition and load cycle. Failure due to
fatigue stress can occur due to the frequency of the loads even if the applied stresses are below the
allowable stress of the component.

UNDERSTANDING STRESS
To understand the concept of stress we may begin by considering the sectioned area to be
subdivided into a small area such as ΔA shown in figure (a) below. As we reduce ΔA to a smaller and
smaller size, we must make two assumptions regarding the properties of the materials. First, we will
consider the material to be continuous, that is, to consist of a continuum or uniform distribution of matter
having no voids. Second, the material must be cohesive, meaning that all portions of it are connected,
without having breaks, cracks, or separation. ΔF a typical finite yet small force is acting on ΔA is shown
in figure (b) below. This force will have a unique direction but to simplify we will replace it with three
components namely, ΔFx, ΔFy, and ΔFz which are taken tangent, tangent, and normal to the area
respectively. As ΔA approaches zero, so do ΔF and its components. However, the quotient of the force
and area will, in general, approach a finite limit. This quotient is called stress, and as noted, it describes
the intensity of the internal force acting on a specific plane (area) passing through a point.
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Since stress represents a force per unit area, in the International Standard or SI system,
the magnitudes of both normal and shear stress are specified in the basic units of newtons per square meter
(N/m2 ). This unit, called a pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2) is rather small, and in engineering work prefixes such
as kilo- (103), symbolized by k, mega- (106 ), symbolized by M, or giga- (109 ), symbolized by G, are used
to represent larger, more realistic values of stress. Likewise, in the Foot-Pound-Second system of units,
engineers usually express stress in pounds per square inch (psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi), where
1 kilopound (kip) = 1000 lb.

AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS IN AN AXIALLY LOADED BAR

One of the basic engineering problems is the selection of proper materials to ensure
that the structure will function effectively and efficiently. To enable this purpose, it is essential to
determine the average distribution acting on the cross-sectional area of an axially loaded bar as shown in
figure (a) below. This bar is prismatic since all cross-sections are the same throughout its length. When
the load P is applied to the bar through the centroid of its cross-sectional area, then the bar will deform
uniformly throughout the central region of its length, as shown in figure (b), provided the material of the
bar is both homogeneous and isotropic.
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Homogeneous material has the same physical and mechanical properties throughout
its volume, and isotropic material has these same properties in all directions. Many engineering materials
may be approximated as being both homogeneous and isotropic as assumed here. Steel, for example,
contains thousands of randomly oriented crystals in each cubic millimeter of its volume, and since most
problems involving this material have a physical size that is very much larger than a single crystal, the
above assumption regarding its material composition is quite realistic.

AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION

If we pass a section through the bar and separate it into two parts, then equilibrium
requires the resultant normal force at the section to be P, as shown in figure (c). Due to the uniform
deformation of the material, it is necessary that the cross-section be subjected to constant normal stress
distribution as shown in figure (d).

As a result each smaller area ΔA on the cross section is subjected to a force ΔF = σ ΔA and the
sum of these forces acting over the entire cross-sectional area must be equivalent to the internal resultant
force P at the section. If we let ΔA to be dA and therefore ΔF to be dF, then recognizing σ is constant we
have:

FRZ = Σ Fz
∫ dF = ∫A σ dA
P=σA
P
σ=
A
Where:
σ = average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area
P = internal resultant force, which acts through the centroid of the cross
A = cross-sectional area of the bar where σ is determined

Since the internal load P passes through the centroid of the cross-section, the uniform stress
distribution will produce zero moments about the x and y axes passing through this point as shown in
figure (d). To show this, we require the moment of P about each axis to be equal to the moment of the
stress distribution about the axes, namely,
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

(MR)x = Σ Mx
0 = ∫A y dF
0 = ∫A y σ dA
0 = σ ∫A y dA

(MR)y = Σ My
0 = ∫A x dF
0 = - ∫A x σ dA
0 = - σ ∫A x dA

It should be apparent that only normal stress exists on any small volume element of the material
located at each point on the cross-section of an axially loaded bar. If we consider the vertical equilibrium
of the element as shown in the figure below, then apply the equation of force equilibrium,

Σ Fz = 0
σ (ΔA ) - σ' (ΔA ) = 0
σ = σ'

In other words, the two normal stress components on the element must be equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. This is referred to as uniaxial stress. The previous analysis applies to members
subjected to either tension or compression, as shown in the figure below. As a graphical interpretation, the
magnitude of the internal resultant force P is equivalent to the volume under the stress diagram; that is,
P = σ A (volume = height x base). Furthermore, as a consequence of the balance of moments, this resultant
passes through the centroid of this volume. Although we have developed this analysis for prismatic bars,
this assumption can be relaxed somewhat to include bars that have a slight taper. For example, it can be
shown, using the more exact analysis of the theory of elasticity, that for a tapered bar of rectangular cross-
section, for which the angle between two adjacent sides is 15°, the average normal stress, as calculated by
σ = P/A, is only 2.2% less than its value found from the theory of elasticity.
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAXIMUM AVERAGE NORMAL STRESS

In our analysis both the internal force P and the cross-sectional area A were constant along the longitudinal
axis of the bar, and as a result the normal stress σ = P/A is also constant throughout the bar’s length. Occasionally,
however, the bar may be subjected to several external loads along its axis, or a change in its cross-sectional area
may occur. As a result, the normal stress within the bar could be different from one section to the next, and, if the
maximum average normal stress is to be determined, then it becomes important to find the location where the ratio
P/A is a maximum. To do this it is necessary to determine the internal force P at various sections along the bar. Here
it may be helpful to show this variation by drawing an axial or normal force diagram. Specifically, this diagram is
a plot of the normal force P versus its position x along the bar’s length. As a sign convention, P will be positive if
it causes tension in the member, and negative if it causes compression. Once the internal loading throughout the bar
is known, the maximum ratio of P/A can then be identified.

Procedure for Analysis

The equation σ = P/A gives the average normal stress on the cross-sectional area of a member when the
section is subjected to an internal resultant normal force P. For axially loaded members, the application of
this equation requires the following steps.

Internal Loading
• Section the member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at the point where the normal stress is to be
determined and use the necessary free-body diagram and force equation of equilibrium to obtain the
internal axial force P at the section.

Average Normal Stress

• Determine the member’s cross-sectional area at the section and calculate the average normal stress σ =
P/A.
• It is suggested that σ be is shown acting on a small volume element of the material located at a point on
the section where stress is calculated. To do this, the first draws on the face of the element coincident with
the sectioned area A. Here σ acts in the same direction as the internal force P since all the normal stresses
on the cross-section develop this resultant. The normal stress s on the other face of the element acts in the
opposite direction.

Sample Problems:
1. The bar shown in figure 1 has a constant width of 35mm thick and a thickness of 10mm. Determine
the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is subjected to the loading as shown.
2. The 80 kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in figure 2. If AB has a diameter
of 10mm and BC has a diameter of 8mm, determine the average normal stress in each rod.
3. The casting shown in figure 3 is made of steel having a specific weight of 490 lb/ft3. Determine
the average compressive stress acting at points A and B.

Figure 1

Figure 3
Figure 2
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SOLUTION TO SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1.
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.
 Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Zabali, Baler, Aurora

Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

3.