Assignment No. 01: Geology For Civil Engineers

Republic of the Philippines
AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Zabali, Baler, Aurora
Engineering Department
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT NO. 01
GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
March 4, 2022
Submitted by:
HONEYCHU BANANIA
BSCE 2C
Submitted to:
ENGR. GINALYN SUMAIT
Intructor
The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be categorized in
two manners: either by their chemical compositions or mechanical properties. Hence, compositional
layers and mechanical layers are the two types of layers
Characteristics of the Earth Structure: Mechanical Properties
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that consists of the entire crust and the top-most portion
of the mantle. Furthermore, they are divided into pieces called tectonic plates. The movements of these plates
are responsible for mountain-building, oceanic trench formation, earthquakes, and volcanic eruption.
The lithosphere is the strong layer of the Earth that allows the plates to move as coherent units. Its
mechanical properties govern the response of the crust to the underlying convective processes that drive plate
tectonics and may also dictate the style of deformation in the vicinity of plate boundaries. Normally
consisting of both crust and uppermost mantle layers, the mechanical properties of the lithosphere are
governed by temperature, composition, and state of stress.
It is made up of the brittle crust and the top part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is the coolest and most
rigid part of the Earth. The term Lithosphere is Greek for "rock layer." Comprised of the crust and uppermost
part of the mantle, the lithosphere consists of cool, rigid and brittle materials. Most earthquakes originate in the
lithosphere. The solid part of the earth. It consists of three main layers: crust, mantle and core. Temperature of
the lithosphere can range from a crustal temperature of zero degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) to an upper
mantle temperature of 500 degrees Celsius (932 degrees Fahrenheit).
Asthenosphere
The asthenosphere includes the soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere moves. Remember that
it is made of solid silicate materials, but the high temperature allows it to flow on very long timescales. It is the
mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, between
approximately 80 and 200 km below the surface, and extends as deep as 700 km.
The asthenosphere is underneath the lithosphere. It is about 100km thick, and is a region of the mantle that
flows relatively easily. Reminder: it is not liquid, made up of semi-plastic rock. Since the Lithosphere has a
lower density, it floats on top of the Asthenosphere. The lower mantle below the Asthenosphere is more rigid
and less plastic.
Mesospheric Mantle
The mesosphere is the layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core. It is essentially the lower
mantle. Historically also known as the mesosphere, represents approximately 56% of Earth’s total volume, and
is the region from 660 to 2900 km below Earth’s surface; between the transition zone and the outer core. This
reaction marks the boundary between the upper mantle and lower mantle. The mesosphere is beneath the
asthenosphere. It encompasses the lower mantle, where material still flows but at a much slower rate than the
asthenosphere. A layer of liquid iron and nickel (and other elements) beneath the mesosphere. Despite its high
temperature, the intense pressure in this region restricts the movements of the molecules of the silicate material
despite being under high temperature, thus making it extremely rigid.
Outer Core
Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,260 km (1,400 mi) thick and composed of
mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. Its outer boundary lies
2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located
approximately 5,150 km (3,200 mi) beneath Earth's surface. Unlike the inner (or solid) core, the outer core
is liquid.
The outer core extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds the inner
core. Composed of iron and nickel, the extreme temperature allows these metals to remain in their liquid phases.
It is the only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid. Furthermore, its movement is responsible for generating the
magnetic field.
Inner Core
Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of planet Earth. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius
of about 1,220 km, which is about 20% of Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's radius. There are no samples of
Earth's core accessible for direct measurement, as there are for Earth's mantle. Unlike the yolk of an egg,
however, the Earth's core is actually made up of two distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer core and a
1,250 km-thick solid inner core.
The inner core is also made of iron and some nickel. However, unlike the outer core, it is a solid ball.
The solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers. Hence, although it is as hot as the surface of
the Sun, there is speculation that the inner core is slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with
the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual interior cooling.
Characteristics of the Earth Structure: Chemical Properties
Crust
The most common chemical elements in the crust are oxygen (46.6%), silicon (27.7), aluminum (8.1),
iron (5.0), calcium (3.6), potassium (2.8), sodium (2.6), and magnesium (2.1).
Table 12.1.212.1.2 The Elements of Earth's Crust.
Most Abundant Elements of

Approximate % by weight
Earth's Crust
O 46.6
Si 27.7
Al 8.1
Fe 5.0
Ca 3.6
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 1.5
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is very thin,
Table 6.1.3The Physical and Chemical Properties of Oceanic and Continental Crust.
Crust Thickness Density Composition Rock types
Oceanic 5-12 km (3-8 mi) 3.0 g/cm3 Mafic Basalt and gabbro
Continental Avg. 35 km (22 mi) 2.7 g/cm3 Felsic All types
relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each with its own distinctive
physical and chemical properties, which are summarized in Table 6.1.3
Oceanic crust is composed of mafic magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or
cools deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro (Figure 6.1.2)
Figure 6.1.2 Gabbro
Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat the sea floor. Sediment is thickest
near the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents.
Continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
The average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic rocks of the oceanic crust
(Figure 6.1.36.1.3). Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher on the
mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When filled with water, these basins form
the planet’s oceans.
Figure 6.1.3 The granite from Missouri

is more than 1 billion years old.
Upper Mantle
Upper mantle material that has come up onto the surface comprises about 55% olivine and 35% pyroxene,
and 5 to 10% of calcium oxide and aluminum oxide. The upper mantle is dominantly peridotite, composed
primarily of variable proportions of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and an aluminous
phase.
Lower Mantle
The lower mantle accounts for nearly half of the mass of the Earth. It is generally accepted that its
mineralogy mostly consists of magnesium silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)O3, magnesiowustite (Mg,Fe)O,
and calcium silicate perovskite CaSiO3 (e.g. Irifune 1994; Kesson et. al. 1998).
Outer Core
The outer core, about 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles) thick, is mostly composed of liquid iron and nickel.
The NiFe alloy of the outer core is very hot, between 4,500° and 5,500° Celsius (8,132° and 9,932° Fahrenheit).
Inner Core
The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220 kilometers (758 miles).
Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit). The pressure is nearly 3.6 million
atmosphere (atm).

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Republic of the Philippines

AURORA STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Characteristics of the Earth Structure: Mechanical Properties

Characteristics of the Earth Structure: Chemical Properties

Table 12.1.212.1.2 The Elements of Earth's Crust.

Most Abundant Elements of

Figure 6.1.3 The granite from Missouri

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