Chapter 34 • Reciprocating Compressors 281

Temperature rise across a compressor is a function of the compression ratio. Cylinder discharge
temperature is a measure of rod loading and the compressor inlet temperature.
To protect a compressor from excessive rod loading, the compressor may trip-off at high
outlet temperatures. This will cause a premature trip if:

1. Compression efficiency is less than design due to valve leakage, high spring tension, or valve
fouling.
2. Inlet temperature is above the design used to calculate the high temperature trip point.

Conclusion: Recips trip-off due to high ambient temperature. When this happens, reset the trip
higher. A high ambient temperature does not increase the rod loadings.
n n n

References
[1] N.P. Lieberman, Troubleshooting Natural Gas Processing, PennWell Publications, Tulsa, OK, 1988.
[2] The Oil & Gas Journal Technical Manual, “Foreman’s Page”, vol. 2, 43. 1976.
 35
Piping Vibrations

I have observed vibrations in a number of different sorts of piping systems including fired
heater tube passes. A year ago, I had a consultation assignment in a lube oil refinery in
Louisiana to resolve such a problem.
The problem was described by my client as a vibration in their fired heater radiant
tubes. But actually, the vibrations had little to do with the heater itself. However, it did pro-
vide me a fundamental lesson on what causes vibration in piping systems in general.
The fired heater was atypical. A small circular unit. The tubes were circular in shape, and
there was only a single pass. Meaning, all the tubes were in series. The single 10 in. inlet noz-
zle flowed through the single pass of 6 in. tubes into the 10 in. outlet nozzle. The inlet nozzle
elevation was about 50 ft above grade. The outlet was at eye level (Fig. 35.1).
The heater feed was a mixture of 500°F very heavy lube oil and hydrogen. Both streams
were comingled 40 ft from the heater inlet nozzle. The calculated inlet velocity of the lube
oil-hydrogen mixture was about 3 ft per second. This is much too low to disperse the lube
oil liquid, in the relatively large volume of hydrogen.
As the slugs of lube oil entered into the 6 in. heater tubes along with the hydrogen flow,
it accelerated to about 9 ft per second. Still, too slow to promote a mixed phase or emulsion
flow. Even after being heated from 500°F to 700°F and vaporizing by several percent, the
effluent from the heater was still in a slug flow regime, at less than 12 ft per second.
At the effluent of the heater, the 6 in. single outlet tube expanded into a 10 in., 90 degrees
elbow. As I stood with my pipe wrench pressed against the 90 degrees elbow, I felt a sharp
knock, as if someone was periodically hitting the elbow with a 20 pound sledge hammer
every 5 or 6 s. This then, was the origin of the vibrations—slug flow hitting the outlet elbow.
The periodic momentum of the slugs of lube oil liquid was dampened out into a con-
tinuous vibration as the blow to the 90 degrees outlet elbow progressed upstream through
the 6 in. heater pass.
You can observe this yourself on a long wire fence. Have a colleague periodically strike
a strand of the taut wire with a metal rod. Fifty feet from the point of disturbance, you will
feel a continuous vibration of the wire, but not the individual blows.

Steam Hammer
I am most familiar with this type of vibration as a consequence of steam or water hammer.
On a long run of steam piping, localized cooling causes an area of low pressure as a
consequence of the condensation of steam. An upstream slug of water in the steam piping
rushes toward the region of low pressure with great momentum or speed.

Understanding Process Equipment for Operators and Engineers. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816161-6.00035-7 283

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
284 UNDERSTANDING PROCESS EQUIPMENT FOR OPERATORS AND ENGINEERS

90 degrees elbow
Hydrogen Lube
oil

psig
FIG. 35.1 Vibration in lube oil fired heater.

When the slug of rushing water hits an elbow or Tee-junction, it creates the banging
sound, which causes the steam piping to vibrate. I’ve been frightened by steam or water
hammer many times, but never personally observed any piping failures as a result.

Avoiding Slug Flow

At the Louisiana lube oil facility, I concluded that the cause of the problem was that the
10 in. feed line was flowing at too low a velocity to induce mixed phase flow between
the lube oil and the hydrogen. Likely, if the hydrogen and lube oil were heated together
in the upstream lube oil feed preheat shell and tube exchanger, and then flowed to the
fired heater through a 40 ft 4 in. line (rather than the existing 10 in. line), the flowing veloc-
ity would have been approximately 20 ft per second.
When I worked for Amoco Oil in the 1970s, I was taught that:
• Flows above 25 ft per second would result in mixed phased flow and avoid slug flow.
• Flows below 15 ft per second promote phase separation and slug flow, especially in
piping risers.

Effect of Vaporization in Heater

When lighter, more volatile lube oils were processed in the Louisiana Lube Plant, the
vibrations were greatly reduced or even eliminated. This apparently was due to the larger
percentage of vaporization of the lube oil liquid, which promoted mixed phase flow, and
reduced the amount of liquid impacting the 10 in., 90 degrees outlet elbow.
As far as continuing to operate the heater on the heavier lube oil feed stock, several of
the tube support hangers were broken. I observed that the tubes were moving an inch or
2 every few seconds in a horizontal plane. A reduction of 20%–30% in the feed rate dimin-
ished the intensity of the vibration to a somewhat acceptable degree.
 Chapter 35 • Piping Vibrations 285

The only successful contribution I have made to date on this project is that the
outlet piping vibration is now monitored continuously from the operational control
center. There, a high vibration alarm hopefully will alert the operators of impending
failure.
Exactly why my client does not shutdown the unit to rectify the fundamental design
error of slug flow in the heater’s feed piping is difficult to explain to my readers outside
of the petroleum refining industry.
Should there be a catastrophic failure at the 90 degrees outlet elbow, the heavy lube
oil is well above its approximate 400°F auto-ignition temperature, and there is a reason-
able expectation of a hydrogen cloud detonation.
On the other hand, the heater has been vibrating on the heavy lube oil run for almost
2 years and nothing has happened—yet!
It’s a gamble.

Piping Supports
Often, vibration of process piping is due to improper supports. The above heater
example was obviously not related to a piping support issue, as it occurred only when
processing feeds that were heavier, with very small calculated percent vaporizations.
The vibrations disappeared on the lighter lube oil feeds that had a higher percent of
vaporization.
For piping support vibration problems, I refer my clients to “Stress Engineering”—
Metairie, Louisiana, a consultant company dealing mainly with process piping failures
in the hydrocarbon processing industry.

Control Valve Vibrations

On several occasions, I have felt and heard control valves making a buzzing sort of vibra-
tion. Upon investigation, it was found that the control valve seat (which is changeable)
had become loose. The control valve was bypassed and the problem was quickly and
easily rectified by the unit instrument technician. The loose control valve seat had,
in addition to generating the odd sound, had also caused the flow rate to become some-
what erratic.
You will need to get quite close to the faulty control valve to hear this buzz as it is not
particularly loud.

Natural Harmonic Frequency

Several years back, I was working for a small refinery in southern Indiana. They had
installed a vacuum seal ring pump that had excessive vibrations. The entire assembly
was returned to the manufacturer to be overhauled. But to no avail. Upon return to service,
the vibrations persisted.
286 UNDERSTANDING PROCESS EQUIPMENT FOR OPERATORS AND ENGINEERS

At this point, the 3600 rpm motor driver was changed to a variable speed (i.e., variable
frequency drive). A very slight decrease in motor speed entirely eliminated the vacuum
pump’s vibrations.
Analysis showed that the piping had been running at its “Natural Harmonic
Frequency” at 3600 rpm, which transmitted the harmonic vibrations to the vacuum seal
ring pump.