MODULE 2 – tukli

Biodiversity provides us with:

 Natural Resources (food, water, wood, energy, and medicines)
 Natural (Ecosystem) Services including: air and water purification, soil fertility, waste disposal, pest control)
 Aesthetic pleasure

 Definition
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth..
Biodiversity refers to variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of various life forms

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 Biodiversity in India
•India is rich in biodiversity because of varied eco-climatic condition, unique geographical features.
•With only 2.4% of world’s land area, India accounts for 7-8% of the species of the world.
•In terms of species richness India ranks 7th in mammal, 9th in birds, 5th in reptiles.

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 Genetic Biodiversity
 Genetic Biodiversity means the variation within the same species.
 This refers to a variation in genes within a particular species .
 Difference in body shape, size, height and colour of skin is because of Genetic variations in Human beings.
 Large variety of wheat, rice, pulses, cow, horse.
 Hybrid varieties of crops and animals are formed by incorporating several useful genes from several species. These hybrid
species have more production, longer life and better resistance to disease.
 Lack of biodiversity at this level means lack of ability of species to survive in adverse condition.

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 Species Biodiversity
•Species Biodiversity means the number of different kinds organisms found at a particular location.
• It varies place to place and even seasonally at the same place.
•This refers to a variation at species level
•Species Biodiversity means the number of species in an ecosystem.
For e.g.- Number of various kinds of plants, trees, birds, insects, animals, fishes etc. in a particular location / in an ecosystem.
number of species in a given area.
•An island with 2 bird species and 1 lizard species Vs. an island with 3 bird species.
•An island with 2 bird species and 1 lizard species Vs. an island with 3 bird species and 1 lizard species.

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 Ecosystem Biodiversity
•Different Ecosystem (aquatic & terrestrial) are formed due to different geological and environmental conditions prevailing on earth.
•These ecosystems are habitat to different types of plants & animals.
•Ecosystem Biodiversity is the distinctive group of species that live together in the same area and interact with the physical
environment in unique ways.
•Ecosystem Biodiversity means number of different ecosystems in a region. If the region has only one kind of ecosystem then it
reflects lack of biodiversity.
 Variety of ecosystems within an area.
•Wisconsin has about 9 different ecosystems, other states only have about 3, some >14, etc.
•Very hard to measure due to overlapping boundary areas also called ecotones.

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 Importance of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is of both aesthetic as well as of practical importance.
 Rich biodiversity is an indicator of the health of a particular habitat and its potential to sustain life.
 Food: 80,000 edible plant species
 Maintains soil quality: healthy bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms help cycle nutrients.
 Maintains air quality: plants purify the air and filter harmful particles out of the air
 Maintains water quality: variety of vegetation reduces erosion and purifies water by removing (using or absorbing)
nutrients and pollution
 Pest control: most crop pests can be controlled by other organisms for a longer period of time – helpful because many
pests become resistant to synthetic pesticides
 Pollination and crop production: More than 1/3 of world’s crops rely on healthy pollinators
 (Potential) Medicines: many current and possible future medications found in areas with high biodiversity
 75% of world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines.
 Penicillin, from a fungus called penicillium. Tetracyclin from a bacterium.
 Quinine is obtained from bark cinchona tree. Neem, Tulsi, Aloe Vera
 Genetic resource: Most of the hybrid varieties of crops and animals have been developed by using genes from different
species. For e.g.- Pony, Sheep Dolly
 Diverse species of plant, animals & micro-organisms provide invaluable and indispensable ecological services. For e.g.-
Maintaining the chemical composition of atmosphere, maintaining nutrient in soil and water, recycling of solid waste etc.
 Fuel: Forests used for Fuel Wood. Fossil fuels Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity.
 Industries: Paper and Pulp, Plywood, Textile , Leather and Pearl Industry
 Holy worship: Plants like Tulsi, Peepal, Mango, Lotus etc are considered holy and their leaves, fruits and flowers are used in
worship.
 Prevention: of Soil Erosion, floods, soil infertility, Pollutant and reduction of the threat of Global Warming.
 Ethical issues like “ all life must be preserved ”.
 Based on the concept of “ Live and Let Live ”.

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 Hotspots of Biodiversity
•A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction.
•These are the areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity, have high level of endemism and are constant threat of species
extinction and habitat destruction.
•To qualify as a biodiversity hotspots on Norman Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot map, a region must meet two criteria-
1)Must contain more than 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics.
2)It has lost at least 70% of its original vegetation.
•Around the world 34 areas qualify under this definition.
•Hotspots of India: Eastern Himalayas and Western ghats

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 Bio geographical classification of India

1.The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.
2.The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam and other North Eastern States.
3.The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains.
4.The Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains.
5.The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6.The semi arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
7.The Northeast States of India,
8.The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
9.The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
10.The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves.

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 India - A Country of Mega Biodiversity

 India is one of the “Hotspots countries”. Two hotspots that extend to India are: The Western Ghats/Sri Lanka and the Indo-
Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas), which have been included amongst the top eight most important hotspots.
 India has immense biological diversity which can be attributed to the variety of physiographic & climatic situations,
resulting in a diversity of ecological habitats like forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal, marine and desert ecological
systems. These ecological systems harbour a wide variety of plants and animals.
 The ministry of environment and forests, govt of india records ~45000 species of plants and ~90000 species of animals i.e.
7% and 6.5% of the global flora and fauna.
 About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to india.
 Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism.
 India has 2.4% of world’s total land area, 1% of forest area covering 7.31% of earth’s biodiversity.
 India has 16.1% of world human population and 15.1% of cattle population.
 About 18% of the country’s recorded plants and animals are endemic to the country.
 India has recognized endemic centres that are home to nearly one-third of all the identified flowering plants.

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 Extinct Species
A type of animal which no longer exist on earth is called an extinct animal. It means that this animal has no living member on the
earth. Extinction is the termination of an organism. It is estimated that over 99% of all species that ever lived are extinct.
Some factors responsible for extinction are as follows:
▪Genetic and Habitat degradation
▪Predation, competition, disease and climate change
▪Human activities
Some examples of Extinct species are as follows:
1.Indiancheetah: mostly found in western India, got extinct due to excessive hunting and sports
.2.Pink headed duck: one of the most beautiful bird found in India, got extinct due to human hunting.
3.Dinosaurs:which lived on earth in ancient times and got extinct long time ago.
4.Some other examples are Dodo, Caspian tiger, Irish deer, etc.

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 Endemic Species
The plants and animals that exist only in one geographical region are known as endemic species. Endemism is the ecological state
of a species being unique to a defined geographical location. Species can be endemic to a particular continent, some part of
the continent or to an island. Endemic species are more vulnerable to extinct because they depend on certain type of habitat or
food source and cannot adapt if alternation occurs due to natural or human activities.
Factors affecting endemic species:
1.Habitat loss and fragmentation
2.Pollution
Some examples of Endemic Species are as follows:
Asiatic Lion, Snow leopard, Black buck, Golden Langur, Flying squirrel
  Endangered Species
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced toa critical level or whose habitats have been drastically
reduced. If such species are not protected and conserved, they are in immediate danger of extinction
Factors affecting endangered species:
1.Loss of habitat
2.Loss of genetic variation
Some examples of endangered species are as follows:
Giant Panda, Tiger, Blue Whale, Asian Elephant, Snow leopard, Royal Bengal Tiger, One-horned Rhinoceros

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 Rare Species
A group of organisms that are uncommon and the species with small population and ae generally considered as threatened species
are known as rare species. Rare species are different from endangered species. Designation of rare species are made by official
bodies like government, state or province.
Factors affecting Rare Species:
1.Loss of habitat
2.Pollution
3.Human activities
Some examples of rare species are as follows:
Black Rhino, Gorilla, Amur Leopard, Sumantran elephant, Chimpanzee

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 Predation
•Predation is any interaction between two organisms in which one organism (the predator) consumes all or part of another
organism (the prey).
•Predation can involve one animal eating another animal.
•An herbivore grazing on a plant is another example of predation. Usually, only part of the prey is eaten by the predator.
•Herbivore-Plant Interaction: Manatee Grazing on Aquatic Plants

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 Camouflage
•Camouflage is protective coloration in which an animal resembles its background.
•In addition to matching the background, the animal often uses body position to enhance the illusion.

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 Competition
•Competition in an interaction between two organisms that are using the same limited resource.
•Competition can be within the same species (intraspecific) or between different species (interspecific).
•Most interspecific competition involves one species becoming more efficient than others in obtaining the resources it needs.

Example: Interspecific Competition

•Two species of barnacles on rocky coasts often compete for space.
•The smaller species (Chthamalus) is unable to compete as well as the larger species (Balanus).
•However, Chthamalus can survive drying better than Balanus, so it can live higher up on the rocks.

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  Symbiosis
•Symbiosis is an intimate relationship between different species in which at least one species depends upon the relationship to
survive.

Types of Symbiosis When one partner is really small and lives inside of the other partner, the other partner is called the host. The
really small partner can be called a mutualist, a commensalist, or a parasite (depending on the type of relationship). Sometimes, the
really small partner is called the symbiont. This is a general term and does not imply a type of relationship

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 Mutualism: Both partners benefit from the relationship (+, +)

Oxpeckers feed on parasitic ticks that infest animals such as this impala and warn of approaching predators.
 Commensalism: One partner benefits from the relationship; the other partner is not affected (+, 0)
Pitcher plant is attached to a branch of a tree without penetrating or harming the tree. This carnivorous plant feeds on insects that
become trapped inside it.
 Parasitism: One partner benefits from the relationship; the other partner is harmed (+, -)
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 Threats to Biodiversity
•Extinction, the elimination of species is a normal process in nature. Species die out and are replaced by other as part of
evolutionary process.
•The rate of extinction in a undisturbed ecosystem remain unchanged but due to human activities the rate of elimination of species
has increased.
•E. O. Wilson a noted ecologist says 10,000 species per year or 27 per day becomes extinct

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 Human Impact on Loss of Biodiversity

•The growth of human populations, consumption levels, and mobility is the root of most of the serious threats to biodiversity today.
•It is rare that humans intend to make a species go extinct or to threaten biodiversity in some other way. Usually, those impacts are
the unfortunate by-products of people trying to provide a decent living for themselves.
•In the last 30 years or so, efforts to protect and preserve biodiversity have expanded exponentially.
•Its simply foolish to conclude that humans are short-sighted or greedy, and instead consider the larger systems that lead toward
biodiversity loss.

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 Loss of Biodiversity
•Habitat Loss

This occurs when a particular area is converted from usable to unusable habitat.
•Industrial activities, agriculture, aquaculture, mining, deforestation, and water extraction are all central causes of habitat loss.
•Habitat fragmentation, the loss of large units of habitat, is also a serious threat to biodiversity.

•Invasive Species

When an animal, plant, or microbe moves into a new area, it can affect the resident species in several different ways.
•New species can parasitize or predate upon residents, hybridize with them, compete with them for food, bring unfamiliar diseases,
modify habitats, or disrupt important interactions.
Brown tree snake in Guam: Native to Australia, the snake was accidentally transported to Guam in ship cargo following World War II.
Because Guam had basically no predators to keep the snake population in check, it rapidly multiplied and caused the extinction of
most of the resident bird species.
•Poaching

Illegal hunting (killing) OR Illegally removing a species from its habitat

Poached Species
Big Cats – Fur
•Elephants – Ivory
•Rhinoceros – Horns
•Orangutans – Pets
•Macaws – Pets

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 Conservation of Biodiversity
 One of the biggest environmental issue is the conservation of biodiversity. Objectives of conservation of natural resources
are:
 Maintain essential ecological processes
 Preserve the diversity of species
 Ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on protecting
plant and animal life in protected habitats such as botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks etc.
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Wildlife life conservation in protected habitat can be done by following approaches:

 In-situ conservation
 Conservation of species in natural ecosystem or in man-made ecosystem (artificial ecosystem) Conserving a species in its
own environment by creating national parks or wildlife sanctuaries.
 In-situ or on-site conservation is the conservation of wild flora and fauna and not to domesticated animal and plants
because conservation is possible by protection of population in nature.
 Protection of population in nature is done by declaring the area as protected area.
 Three types of protected areas:
1. Wildlife sanctuaries
2. National park
3. Biosphere reserves
 In India: 421 wildlife sanctuaries, 75 National Park, 14 Biosphere reserved in India covering about 4% of total geographical
area.
 Some biosphere reserves are:
- Nilgiris – TN, Kerala, Karnataka
- Namdapha – Arunachal Pradesh
- Nanda devi – UT
- Andaman – A & N
- Sunderbans – WB
- Kanha - MP
- Manas - Assam

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Protected Areas
- •Gir Sanctuary: Asiatic Lion
- •Western Ghat: Diverse forest
- •Bhimasankar: Rich flora
- •Nilgiri Hills: Indian Elephant
- •Chilika Lake: Coastal Ecosystem
 - •Sunderban: Mangrove forest

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 Project Tiger:
 Project tiger was launched by the govt of India with the support of WWF-International in 1973 and was the first such
initiative aimed at protecting this key species and all its habitats.
 Project Tiger was initiated in 9 tiger reserves in different ecosystems of the country covering an area of 16339 sq km.
 By 2001, the number of Tiger Reserves increased to 27, covering an area of 37761 sq km. the tiger count climbed from 268
in 1972 in the nine Tiger Reserves, to around 1500 in 1997 in the 23 Tiger Reserves.
 The project tiger recognized the fact that tigers cannot be protected in isolation, and that to protect the tiger, its habitat
needed to be protected.

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 Crocodile Conservation:
 Crocodiles have been threatened as their skin is used for making leather articles. This led to the near extinction of
crocodiles in the wild in the 1960s in India.
 A crocodile breeding and conservation program was initiated in 1975 to protect the remaining population of crocodiles in
their natural habitat and by creating breeding centres. It perhaps one of the most successful ex-situ conservation projects in
the country.
 Crocodiles have been extensively bred in over 30 captive breeding centres, zoos and other sites where successful breeding
takes place. Thousands of crocodiles of all three species have been bred and restocked in 20 natural water bodies.

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 Other Projects
•Gir Lion Project: The Asiatic lion In 1972 the State government prepared a scheme for the management of the Gir Lion
Sanctuary with proper guidelines for conservation.

•Himalayan Musk Deer Project: due to its musk been used in the preparation of perfumes and medicine. Secondly the habitat
destruction brought about a sharp decline in their population. A conservation project was therefore launched at the Kedarnath
sanctuary in U.P.

•Project Elephant: Elephant habitat restoration work was done in Rajaji National Park.

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 Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity

•Ex-situ or off-site conservation means conservation of species particularly endangered species away from their natural habitat
under human supervision.
•Many rare species or species having small remaining population are protected by this strategy.
•For e.g.- Zoo, Aquarium, Botanical garden, Seed Bank, Gene Bank

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 What Actions Can be Taken?

1.Protected areas
2.Species protection and recovery measures
3.Ex situ and in situ conservation of genetic diversity
4.Restoration
5.Consider biodiversity in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries
6.Capture of benefits by local communities
7.Increased coordination
8.Public awareness and education
9.Increased integration of sectorial responses
10.Sustainable intensification of agriculture
11.Addressing unsustainable consumption patterns
12.Slowing global growth of nutrient loading
13.Correction of market failures
14.Integration of biodiversity conservation and development
15.Increased accountability of performance in decisions
16.Scientific data need to be made available to all sectors of society
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 Chipko Movement

This movement began in the Himalayan foot hills. The members have collected seeds of diverse crops in Garhwal. The movement
has successfully conserved hundreds of local rice varieties, rajma, pulses, millets, vegetables, spices and herbs. Many different
varieties are being grown as an outcome of this program in local farmers’ fields. This has also been supported by local women’s
groups who felt these varieties were better than those provided by the green revolution. In contrast, men who were interested in
cash returns in a short time found it difficult to appreciate the benefits of growing indigenous varieties.

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Top 10 GM crops: Corn, soy, cotton, papaya, rice, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, dairy products, etc.

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 Why do we need GM crops?

 Disease resistance  Designer foods
 Improving the quantity of the protein  Fiber crops
 Increasing vitamin content  Timber
 Stress tolerance  Bio-energy
 Herbicide resistance  Bio-fertilizer
 Delayed ripening  Bio-pesticide
 Productivity enhancement  Safer food- from chemical to genetic
 Nutritional and processing quality  Edible vaccine

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 What are genetically modified foods?

•Also called genetically modified organisms (GMO).
•Involves the insertion of DNA from one organism into another OR modification of an organism’s DNA in order to achieve a desired
trait.
Arctic fish DNA + Strawberry = a strawberry resistant to frost

Examples of GMO’s
•Golden rice – rice that contains beta-carotene (Vitamin A), which is not found in regular rice.
•Bt corn – corn that contains a chemical normally found in a bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) that is toxic to insects but not to
humans.
•Herbicide resistant plants.

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 Modifying Genes
•Also called recombinant DNA technology, molecular cloning, and genetic engineering.
1.Restriction enzymes are used to “cut” DNA segments from one genome.
2.DNA ligases are used to “paste” them into another genome.
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 Types of Modification
•Transgenic : gene inserted into them that are derived from another species. plant to plant or Animal to plant
•Cisgenic: using genes found within the same species or closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Its useful
for the plants that are difficult to crossbreed.
•Subgenic: using gene knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic make up of a plant without incorporating gene from other
plants.

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 How common are GMO foods?

Labeling of GM foods is not mandatory unless if there is a health or safety concern (Health Canada/Canadian Food Inspection
Agency)

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 Application of GM Technology

•Improving yield
•Nutritional improvement
•Increasing shelf life of fruits and vegetables by delayed ripening
•Conferring resistance to insects, pests and viruses
•Tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, salt, water-logging)
•Herbicide tolerance
•Edible vaccines

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 Potential Benefits
Humanitarian:

Pest resistance cheaper food reducing

Herbicide improved world
resistance farming more food hunger and
cold tolerance improving
drought tolerance
increased nutrition world
edible vaccines health

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 Potential Human Health Risks

Allergens
•Genetic engineering could potential introduce or create allergens
•For example, inserting genes from a nut into another plant could be dangerous for people who are allergic to nuts

Unknown health risks

•Biological processes involve a lot of INTERACTIONS
•It is often difficult to identify every possible interaction.

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 Economic Hazards
•Elimination of competition
GM seeds are patented
•Suicide seeds
Plants with sterile seeds that are infertile are created
Farmers are forced to buy seeds every year
•However, some companies have reduced costs or donated GM seeds to impoverished nations.
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 Creating a balance
• Are GM foods a good or bad thing?
• It depends on each individual case.
• Consumers, the government and scientists should be responsible for weighing the benefits against the costs.
Improved Nutrition Environmental risks
Resistance to disease health risks
Reduced use of chemicals economic risks
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 Aquatic Biodiversity
 Aquatic biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and the ecosystems that make up the freshwater, tidal, and marine
regions of the world and their interactions.
 Aquatic biodiversity encompasses freshwater ecosystems, including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, marine, streams,
groundwater, and wetlands.
 It also consists of marine ecosystems, including oceans, estuaries (river mouth), salt marshes (swamplands), seagrass beds,
coral reefs and mangrove forests.
 Aquatic biodiversity includes all unique species, their habitats and interaction between them. It consists of phytoplankton,
zooplankton, aquatic plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals, and others.

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 Aquatic Systems
In most aquatic systems, the key factors determining the types and numbers of organisms found at various depths are:
 water temperature,
 dissolved oxygen content,
 availability of food,
 availability of light
 availability nutrients for photosynthesis

Marine ecosystems Freshwater ecosystems

Ecosystem services
 Oxygen supplied
through
photosynthesis
 Water purification
 Climate moderation
 CO2 absorption
Economic services Ecosystem services Economic services
 Food  Climate moderation  Food
 Energy from waves  Nutrient cycling  Drinking water
and tides  Waste treatment  Irrigation water
 Pharmaceuticals  Flood control  Hydroelectricity
 Harbors and  Groundwater  Transportation
transportation routes recharge corridors
  Nutrient cycling  Recreation and  Habitats for many  Recreation
 Reduced storm tourism species  Employment
damage (mangroves,  Employment  Genetic resources
barrier islands,  Minerals and biodiversity
coastal wetlands)  Scientific information
 Biodiversity: species
and habitats

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 Major human impacts:

 Half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and urban development --------------- ocean warming
 Over one-fifth of mangrove forests lost to agriculture, aquaculture and development ------------ rising ocean acidity
 Beaches eroding due to development and rising sea levels ----------------- rising sea levels
Soil erosion
Algae growth from fertilizer runoff
Ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging and trawler fishing ---------------- bleaching
At least 20% of coral reefs severely damaged and 25-33% more threatened -------------- increased UV exposure
Damage from anchors and
from fishing and diving

 Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity

Factors like overexploitation of species, the introduction of exotic species, urban, industrial, and agricultural pollution, habitat loss,
alteration through damming (blocking) and water diversion all contribute to the loss of aquatic biodiversity in both freshwater and
marine environments.
CO2, Water Pollution, etc
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 Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity

 An aquatic bio- reserve is a defined space within a water body in which fishing is banned or other restrictions are placed in
an effort to protect plants, animals, and habitats.
 Regulatory measures must be taken on wastewater discharge in the water body to conserve biological diversity.
 Increasing public awareness to conserve aquatic biodiversity through educational programs, incentive programs, and
volunteer monitoring programs.
 Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent soil erosion and subsequently reduce the problem of
slitation in water body resulting in better survival of aquatic organisms.
 Avoid the establishment of industries, chemical plants and thermal power plants near the water resources as their
discharge affect the ecology of water body resulted in loss of biodiversity

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 Terrestrial Biodiversity
 Terrestrial biodiversity means the variety of life forms on the land surface of the earth.
 Terrestrial biodiversity refers to animal, plants and micro-organisms that live on land and also on land habitat such as
forests, deserts and grassland, Island, taiga and tundra.
 High biodiversity is used as an indicator of ecosystem health and have direct impact on human health.
 Climate change will affect terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem through both gradual and sudden changes in response to
the average climate.
(For e.g. increased temperature, decreased rainfall, changes to seasonality) and extreme events (increased hot days, fire,
increased frequency and severity of cyclones, heat waves, intensified wet seasons).

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  Threats and conservation to Terrestrial Biodiversity
Main threats Some underlying causes
Degradation, destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats Spread of the urbanised areas, road network and industrial
areas and associated problems (noise, pollution); abandon of
former agricultural practices that were favourable to
biodiversity
Decrease in the capacity of the agricultural areas to host Intensification of agricultural practices (yielding pollution and
wildlife disturbance) and disappearance of landscape elements that
provide food and shelter that are exploitable by wildlife (such
as hedges, trees, ponds, etc.)
Pollution of soils, air and water Excess of heavy metals (industry, roads), manure and pesticides
(agriculture) and other pollutants
Invasions by alien species International trade and transport (roads, railways, rivers),
gardening practices, exotic trees in forestry, exotic pests
released in the wild, climate change, etc.
Epidemics affecting wildlife Arrivals of pathogens that are favoured by the introduction of
exotic species, pollution and the destruction of habitats
Climate change Carbon emissions, deforestation and other land use changes
due to human activities
Dessication of soils and wetlands Excess pumping of underground water tables
Recreation and leisure Overuse of green open spaces and wild areas, little respect for
Nature, mountain biking and motor sports in fragile areas, dogs
not on leash.