Andrei Miguel Roque
BSE FILIPINO
Erik Erikson's Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist
who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development.
While his theory was impacted by
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work,
Erikson's theory centered on
psychosocial development rather
than psychosexual development.
The stages that make up his theory are
as follows:1
 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs.
Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
Overview
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development entail? Much
like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed
that personality developed in a series of
stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual
stages, however, Erikson's theory
described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.
Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a
role in the development and growth of
human beings.
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Conflict During Each Stage
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on
the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In
each stage, Erikson believed people
experience a conflict that serves as a
turning point in development.2
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are
centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality. During these
times, the potential for personal
growth is high but so is the potential
for failure.
If people successfully deal with the
conflict, they emerge from the stage
with psychological strengths that will
serve them well for the rest of their
lives.3 If they fail to deal effectively
with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for
a strong sense of self.
Mastery Leads to Ego Strength Psychosocial Stages: A Summary
Chart
Erikson also believed that a sense of
competence motivates behaviors and Importan Outco
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory Age Conflict t Events me
is concerned with becoming competent 19 to 40 Isolation
in an area of life.
years)
If the stage is handled well, the person Middle Generati Work and Care
will feel a sense of mastery, which is Adulthood ( vity vs. Parentho
sometimes referred to as ego strength 40 to 65 Stagnati od
or ego quality. If the stage is managed years) on
poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of Maturity (65 Ego Reflection Wisdom
development. to death) Integrity on Life
vs.
Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Despair
Chart
A brief summary of the eight stages
Importan Outco
Age Conflict t Events me
Infancy (birt Trust vs.  Feeding Hope
h to 18 Mistrust
months)
Early Autono Toilet Will
Childhood ( my vs. Training Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
2 to 3 years) Shame
and The first stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development occurs
Doubt
between birth and 1 year of age and is
Preschool ( Initiative Exploratio Purpose the most fundamental stage in life.
3 to 5 years) vs. Guilt n Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the
School Industry School Confide dependability and quality of the child's
Age (6 to 11 vs. nce caregivers.
years) Inferiorit
y At this point in development, the child is
utterly dependent upon adult caregivers
Adolescenc Identity Social Fidelity for everything they need to survive
e (12 to 18 vs. Role Relations including food, love, warmth, safety, and
years) Confusio hips nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
n adequate care and love, the child will
come to feel that they cannot trust or
Young Intimacy Relations Love depend upon the adults in their life.
Adulthood ( vs. hips
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the
child will feel safe and secure in the
world.2 Caregivers who are inconsistent,
emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children under their care. Failure to
develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial
development, children develop a sense
of trust when caregivers provide
reliability, care, and affection. A lack of
this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of
100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development
was all about striking a balance between
the two opposing sides. When this
happens, children acquire hope, which
Erikson described as an openness to
experience tempered by some wariness
that danger may be present.
Subsequent work by researchers
including John Bowlby and Mary
Ainsworth demonstrated the importance
of trust in forming healthy
attachments during childhood and
adulthood.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on
children developing a greater sense of
personal control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children
are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what
they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and
caregivers can help children develop a
sense of autonomy.2
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that
children need to develop a sense of
personal control over physical skills and
a sense of independence. Potty training
plays an important role in helping
children develop this sense of
autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet
training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite
different than that of Freud's. Erikson
believed that learning to control one's
bodily functions leads to a feeling of
control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining
more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are
shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control.
Success during this stage of
psychosocial development leads to
feelings of autonomy; failure results in
feelings of shame and doubt.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this
stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson
believed that achieving a balance
between autonomy and shame and
doubt would lead to will, which is the
belief that children can act with intention,
within reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial
development takes place during the
preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children
begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play
and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this
stage feel capable and able to lead
others. Those who fail to acquire these
skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-
doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of
psychosocial development is that
children need to begin asserting control
and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense
of purpose. Children who try to exert too
much power experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual
initiative and a willingness to work with
others is achieved, the ego quality
known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes
place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social
and academic demands. Success leads
to a sense of competence, while failure
results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive
little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this
stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known
as competence, in which children
develop a belief in their abilities to
handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place
during the often turbulent teenage years.
This stage plays an essential role in
developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behavior
and development for the rest of a
person's life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true
to yourself, while failure leads to role
confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore
their independence and develop a sense
of self.2 Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement
through personal exploration will emerge
from this stage with a strong sense of
self and feelings of independence and
control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity,
they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and
guide a person's behavior. Completing
this stage successfully leads to fidelity,
which Erikson described as an ability to
live by society's standards and
expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage
of psychosocial development was
important, he placed a particular
emphasis on the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction and
becomes a central focus during the
identity versus confusion stage of
psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity
constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire
in our daily interactions with others. As
we have new experiences, we also take
on challenges that can help or hinder
the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important
Our personal identity gives each of us
an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our
sense of personal identity is shaped by
our experiences and interactions with
others, and it is this identity that helps
guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors
as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate,
loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships,
while failure results in loneliness and
isolation. This stage covers the period of
early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people
develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are
successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and
secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on
skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal
identity was important for developing
intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor
sense of self tend to have less
committed relationships and are more
likely to struggler with emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage
results in the virtue known as love. It is
marked by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other
people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things
that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change
that benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build
our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during
this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active
in their home and community.2 Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this
stage is handled successfully. Being
proud of your accomplishments,
watching your children grow into adults,
and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs
during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.2 At this point in
development, people look back on the
events of their lives and determine if
they are happy with the life that they
lived or if they regret the things they did
or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many
others because it addressed
development throughout the entire
lifespan, including old age. Older adults
need to look back on life and feel a
sense of fulfillment. Success at this
stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while
failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the
events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel
was well-lived will feel satisfied and
ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace. Those who look back
and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they
should have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this
stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many
regrets. The person will be left with
feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their
accomplishments will feel a sense of
integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few
regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will
attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Erikson's Theory
Erikson's theory also has its limitations
and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds
of experiences are necessary to
successfully complete each stage? How
does a person move from one stage to
the next?
Criticism
One major weakness of psychosocial
theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one
stage to the next are not well described
or developed. The theory fails to detail
exactly what type of experiences are
necessary at each stage in order to
successfully resolve the conflicts and
move to the next stage.
Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial
theory is that it provides a broad
framework from which to view
development throughout the entire
lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize
the social nature of human beings and
the important influence that social
relationships have on development.
Researchers have found evidence
supporting Erikson's ideas about identity
and have further identified different sub-
stages of identity formation.4 Some
research also suggests that people who
form strong personal identities during
adolescence are better capable of
forming intimate relationships during
early adulthood. Other research
suggests, however, that identity
formation and development continues
well into adulthood.5
A Word From Verywell
It is important to remember that the
psychosocial stages are just one theory
of how personality develops. Some
research may support certain aspects of
this theoretical framework, but that does
not mean that every aspect of the theory
is supported by evidence. The theory
can, however, be a helpful way to think
about some of the different conflicts and
challenges that people may face as they
go through life.
The 4 Stages of Cognitive
Development
Background and Key Concepts of
Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development suggests that children
move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses
not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of
intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2
years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages
7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages
12 and up
Piaget believed that children take
an active role in the learning process,
acting much like little scientists as they
perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world.
As kids interact with the world around
them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held
ideas to accommodate new information.
Illustration by Joshua Seong, Verywell
How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the
late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific
paper when he was just 11 years old.
His early exposure to the intellectual
development of children came when he
worked as an assistant to Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon as they
worked to standardize their famous IQ
test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive
development of children was inspired by
his observations of his own nephew and
daughter. These observations reinforced
his budding hypothesis that children's
minds were not merely smaller versions
of adult minds.
Up until this point in history, children
were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the
first to identify that the way that children
think is different from the way adults
think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is
something that grows and develops
through a series of stages. Older
children do not just think more quickly
than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and
quantitative differences between the
thinking of young children versus older
children.
Based on his observations, he
concluded that children were not less
intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently. Albert Einstein called
Piaget's discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes
the cognitive development of
children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process
and abilities.2 In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves
processes based upon actions and later
progresses to changes in mental
operations.
The Stages
Through his observations of his
children, Piaget developed a stage
theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world
through their movements and
sensations
 Children learn about the world
through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue
to exist even though they cannot
be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from
the people and objects around
them
 They realize that their actions can
cause things to happen in the
world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive
development, infants and toddlers
acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A
child's entire experience at the earliest
period of this stage occurs through basic
reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that
children go through a period of dramatic
growth and learning. As kids interact
with their environment, they are
continually making new discoveries
about how the world works.
The cognitive development that
occurs during this period takes place
over a relatively short period of time and
involves a great deal of growth. Children
not only learn how to perform physical
actions such as crawling and walking;
they also learn a great deal about
language from the people with whom
they interact. Piaget also broke this
stage down into a number of different
substages. It is during the final part of
the sensorimotor stage that early
representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object
permanence or object constancy, the
understanding that objects continue to
exist even when they cannot be seen,
was an important element at this point of
development.
By learning that objects are separate
and distinct entities and that they have
an existence of their own outside of
individual perception, children are then
able to begin to attach names and words
to objects.
 The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive
Development
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think
symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be
egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of
others.
 While they are getting better with
language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
The foundations of language
development may have been laid during
the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of
the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development. 3
Children become much more skilled at
pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very
concretely about the world around
them.  thinking about how other people might
At this stage, kids learn through pretend
play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people.
They also often struggle with
understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a
lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the choice
between two pieces of clay to play with.
One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed
into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational
child will likely choose that piece even
though the two pieces are exactly the
same size.
 Preoperational Stage of Cognitive
Development in Young Children
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin
to thinking logically about
concrete events
 They begin to understand the
concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more
logical and organized, but still
very concrete
 Children begin using inductive
logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and
literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more
adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism
of the previous stage begins to
disappear as kids become better at
view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more
logical during the concrete operational
state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at
this point in development tend to
struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts.
During this stage, children also become
less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel.
Kids in the concrete operational stage
also begin to understand that their
thoughts are unique to them and that not
everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
 The Concrete Operational Stage in
Cognitive Development
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or
young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or
reasoning from a general
principle to specific information
The final stage of Piaget's theory
involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an
understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this
point, people become capable of seeing
multiple potential solutions to problems
and think more scientifically about the
world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract
ideas and situations is the key hallmark
of the formal operational stage of
cognitive development. The ability to
systematically plan for the future and
reason about hypothetical situations are
also critical abilities that emerge during
this stage. 
It is important to note that Piaget did not
view children's intellectual development
as a quantitative process; that is, kids do
not just add more information and
knowledge to their existing knowledge
as they get older. Instead, Piaget
suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children
think as they gradually process through
these four stages.4 A child at age 7
doesn't just have more information
about the world than he did at age 2;
there is a fundamental change in how he
thinks about the world.
 Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive
Development
Important Concepts
To better understand some of the things
that happen during cognitive
development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas
and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors
that influence how children learn and
grow:
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental
and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas
are categories of knowledge that help us
to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both
a category of knowledge and the
process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As
experiences happen, this new
information is used to modify, add to, or
change previously existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a
schema about a type of animal, such as
a dog. If the child's sole experience has
been with small dogs, a child might
believe that all dogs are small, furry, and
have four legs. Suppose then that the
child encounters an enormous dog. The
child will take in this new information,
modifying the previously existing
schema to include these new
observations.
 What Role Do Schemas Play in the
Learning Process?
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information
into our already existing schemas is
known as assimilation. The process is
somewhat subjective because we tend
to modify experiences and information
slightly to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs. In the example above, seeing a
dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of
assimilating the animal into the child's
dog schema.
 Assimilation and Jean Piaget's
Adaptation Process
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves
changing or altering our existing
schemas in light of new information, a
process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves modifying
existing schemas, or ideas, as a result
of new information or new experiences.5
New schemas may also be developed
during this process.
 The Role of Accommodation in How We
Learn New Information
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to
strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation, which is achieved
through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain
a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one
stage of thought to the next.3
A Word From Verywell
One of the most important elements to
remember of Piaget's theory is that it
takes the view that creating knowledge
and intelligence is an
inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of
knowledge as a passive copy of reality,"
Piaget explained. "I believe that knowing
an object means acting upon it,
constructing systems of transformations
that can be carried out on or with this
object. Knowing reality means
constructing systems of transformations
that correspond, more or less
adequately, to reality."
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
helped add to our understanding of
children's intellectual growth. It also
stressed that children were not merely
passive recipients of knowledge.
Instead, kids are constantly investigating
and experimenting as they build their
understanding of how the world works.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
is a theory that focuses on how children
develop morality and moral reasoning.
Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral
development occurs in a series of six
stages. The theory also suggests that
moral logic is primarily focused on
seeking and maintaining justice.
What Is Moral Development?
How do people develop morality? This
question has fascinated parents,
religious leaders, and philosophers for
ages, but moral development has also
become a hot-button issue in
psychology and education.1 Do parental
or societal influences play a greater role
in moral development? Do all kids
develop morality in similar ways?
American psychologist Lawrence
Kohlberg developed one of the best-
known theories exploring some of these
basic questions.2 His work modified and
expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous
work but was more centered on
explaining how children develop moral
reasoning.
How did the two theories differ? Piaget
described a two-stage process of moral
development.3 Kohlberg
extended Piaget's theory, proposing that
moral development is a continual
process that occurs throughout the
lifespan. His theory outlines six stages
of moral development within three
different levels.
In recent years, Kohlberg's theory has
been criticized as being Western-centric
with a bias toward men (he primarily
used male research subjects) and with
having a narrow worldview based on
upper-middle-class value systems and
perspectives.4
How Kohlberg Developed His Theory
Kohlberg based his theory on a series of
moral dilemmas presented to his study
subjects. Participants were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning
behind their judgments in each
scenario.5
One example was "Heinz Steals the
Drug." In this scenario, a woman has
cancer and her doctors believe only one
drug might save her. This drug had been
discovered by a local pharmacist and he
was able to make it for $200 per dose
and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The
woman's husband, Heinz, could only
raise $1,000 to buy the drug.
He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist
for a lower price or to be extended credit
to pay for it over time. But the
pharmacist refused to sell it for any less
or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed,
Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy
and stole the drug to save his wife.
Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband
have done that?"
Kohlberg was not interested so much in
the answer to whether Heinz was wrong
or right but in the reasoning for each
participant's decision. He then classified
their reasoning into the stages of his
theory of moral development.6
Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg's theory is broken down into
three primary levels. At each level of
moral development, there are two
stages. Similar to how Piaget believed
that not all people reach the highest
levels of cognitive development,
Kohlberg believed not everyone
progresses to the highest stages of
moral development.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the earliest
period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age,
children's decisions are primarily shaped
by the expectations of adults and the
consequences for breaking the rules.
There are two stages within this level:
 Stage 1 (Obedience and
Punishment): The earliest
stages of moral development,
obedience and punishment are
especially common in young
children, but adults are also
capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. According to
Kohlberg, people at this stage
see rules as fixed and
absolute.7 Obeying the rules is
important because it is a way to
avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 (Individualism and
Exchange): At the individualism
and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for
individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs. In the
Heinz dilemma, children argued
that the best course of action was
the choice that best served
Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves
one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
The next period of moral development is
marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding what is good and moral.
During this time, adolescents and adults
internalize the moral standards they
have learned from their role models and
from society.
This period also focuses on the
acceptance of authority and conforming
to the norms of the group. There are two
stages at this level of morality:
 Stage 3 (Developing Good
Interpersonal Relationships):
Often referred to as the "good
boy-good girl" orientation, this
stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral
development is focused on living
up to social expectations and
roles.7
 There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices
influence relationships.
 Stage 4 (Maintaining Social
Order): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to
consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is
on maintaining law and order by
 following the rules, doing one’s
duty, and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
At this level of moral development,
people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two
stages at this level are:
 Stage 5 (Social Contract and
Individual Rights): The ideas of
a social contract and individual
rights cause people in the next
stage to begin to account for the
differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people.7 Rules of
law are important for maintaining
a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these
standards.
 Stage 6 (Universal Principles):
Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal
ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people
follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.
Kohlberg believed that only a relatively
small percentage of people ever reach
the post-conventional stages (around 10
to 15%).7 One analysis found that while
stages one to four could be seen as
universal in populations throughout the
world, the fifth and sixth stages were
extremely rare in all populations.8
Criticisms
Kohlberg's theory played an important
role in the development of moral
psychology. While the theory has been
highly influential, aspects of the theory
have been critiqued for a number of
reasons:
 Moral reasoning does not
equal moral behavior:
Kohlberg's theory is concerned
with moral thinking, but there is a
big difference between knowing
what we ought to do versus our
actual actions. Moral reasoning,
therefore, may not lead to moral
behavior.
 Overemphasizes justice: Critics
have pointed out that Kohlberg's
theory of moral development
overemphasizes the concept of
justice when making moral
choices. Factors such as
compassion, caring, and other
interpersonal feelings may play
an important part in moral
reasoning.9
 Cultural bias: Individualist
cultures emphasize personal
rights, while collectivist
cultures stress the importance of
society and community. Eastern,
collectivist cultures may have
different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not take
into account.
 Age bias: Most of his subjects
were children under the age of 16
who obviously had no experience
with marriage. The Heinz
dilemma may have been too
abstract for these children to
understand, and a scenario more
applicable to their everyday
concerns might have led to
different results.
 Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics,
including Carol Gilligan, have
suggested that Kohlberg's theory
was gender-biased since all of
the subjects in his sample were
male.10 Kohlberg believed that
women tended to remain at the
third level of moral development
 because they place a stronger
emphasis on things such as
social relationships and the
welfare of others.
Gilligan instead suggested that
Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes
concepts such as justice and does not
adequately address moral reasoning
founded on the principles and ethics of
caring and concern for others.
A Word From Verywell
While Kohlberg's theory of moral
development has been criticized, the
theory played an important role in the
emergence of the field of moral
psychology. Researchers continue to
explore how moral reasoning develops
and changes through life as well as the
universality of these stages.
Understanding these stages offers
helpful insights into the ways that both
children and adults make moral choices
and how moral thinking may influence
decisions and behaviors.
A Biography of Lev Vygotsky, One of
the Most Influential Psychologists
Vygotsky died young, but had an
important influence on psychology
Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian
psychologist who is best known for
his sociocultural theory. He believed that
social interaction plays a critical role in
children's learning.
Through such social interactions,
children go through a continuous
process of learning. Vygotsky noted that
culture profoundly influences this
process. Imitation, guided learning, and
collaborative learning all play a critical
part in his theory.
Vygotsky's Early Life
Lev Vygotsky was born November
17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western
region of the Russian Empire.
He attended Moscow State University,
where he graduated with a degree in law
in 1917. Vygotsky studied a range of
topics while at university, including
sociology, linguistics, psychology, and
philosophy. However, his formal work in
psychology did not begin until 1924
when he attended the Institute of
Psychology in Moscow.
He completed a dissertation in 1925 on
the psychology of art but was awarded
his degree in absentia due to an acute
tuberculosis relapse that left him
incapacitated for a year.
Following his illness, Vygotsky began
researching topics such as language,
attention, and memory with the help of
students, including Alexei Leontiev and
Alexander Luria.
Vygotsky's Career and Theories
Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing
six books on psychology topics over a
ten-year period. His interests were
diverse but often centered on issues of
child development and education. He
also explored the psychology of art and
language development.
The Zone of Proximal Development
According to Vygotsky, the zone of
proximal development is "[The] distance
between the actual developmental level
as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential
development as determined through
problem-solving under adult guidance or
in collaboration with more capable
peers." (Lev Vygotsky, Mind in
Society, 1978).
The "zone" is the gap between what a
child knows and what they do not yet
know.
Acquiring the missing information
requires skills that a child does not yet
possess or cannot do independently, but
which they can do with the help of a
more knowledgeable other.
Parents and teachers can foster learning
by providing educational opportunities
that lie within a child's zone of proximal
development. Kids can also learn a
great deal from their peers. Teachers
can foster this process by pairing less
skilled children with more
knowledgeable classmates.
 How Vygotsky Defined the Zone of
Proximal Development
The More Knowledgeable Other
Vygotsky conceived the more
knowledgeable other as a person who
has greater knowledge and skills than
the learner. In many cases, this
individual is an adult such as a parent or
teacher.
Kids also learn a great deal from their
interactions with their peers. Children
often pay more attention to what friends
and classmates know and are doing
then they do to the adults in their life.
No matter who serves as the more
knowledgeable other, the key is that
they provide the needed social
instruction within the zone of proximal
development (when the learner is
sensitive to guidance).
Children can observe and imitate (or
even receive) guided instruction to
acquire new knowledge and skills.
Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky also suggested
that human development results from a
dynamic interaction between individuals
and society. Through this interaction,
children learn gradually and
continuously from parents and teachers.
However, this learning varies from one
culture to the next. It's important to note
that Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the
dynamic nature of this interaction.
Society does not just impact people;
people also affect their society.
Contributions to Psychology
Vygotsky's life was tragically cut short
on June 11, 1934, when he died of
tuberculosis at the age of 37. Still,
Vygotsky is considered a formative
thinker in psychology and much of his
work is still being discovered and
explored today.
While he was a contemporary
of Skinner, Pavlov, Freud, and Piaget,
Vygotsky's work never attained their
level of eminence during his lifetime.
Part of this was because the Communist
Party often criticized Vygotsky's work in
Russia, making his writings were largely
inaccessible to the Western world. His
premature death at age 37 also
contributed to his obscurity.
Despite this, Vygotsky's work has
continued to grow in influence since his
death— particularly in the fields of
developmental and educational
psychology.
It wasn't until the 1970s that Vygotsky's
theories became known in the West as
new concepts and ideas were
introduced in the fields of educational
and developmental psychology.
Since then, Vygotsky's works have been
translated and have become very
influential, particularly in the area of
education.
In a ranking of eminent psychologists,
Vygotsky was identified as the 83rd
most influential psychologist during the
20th century.1
Vygotsky vs. Piaget
Piaget and Vygotsky were
contemporaries, yet Vygotsky’s ideas
did not become well-known until long
after his death. While their ideas have
some similarities, there are also
significant differences, including:
 Vygotsky did not break down
development into a series of
predetermined stages as Piaget
did.
 Vygotsky stressed the important
role that culture plays, suggesting
cultural differences can have a
dramatic effect on development.
Piaget’s theory suggests that
development is largely universal.
 Piaget’s theory focuses a great
deal of attention on peer
interaction while Vygotsky’s
theory stresses the importance of
more knowledgeable adults and
peers.
 Vygotsky’s theory heavily
stressed the role that language
plays in development, something
that Piaget largely ignored.
In His Own Words
"Learning is more than the acquisition of
the ability to think; it is the acquisition of
many specialised abilities for thinking
about a variety of things."—Lev
Vygotsky, Mind in Society, 1978
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems
Theory
Background and History
American psychologist Urie
Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous
theories of child development. He
argued that studies of children in
unfamiliar laboratory environments with
one other person, usually a stranger,
were ecologically invalid (See Mary
Ainsworth’s 1970 experiment of the
‘Strange Situation’).
Bronfenbrenner (1974) claimed most
earlier studies were ‘unidirectional’,
meaning that the laboratory studies
observed the influence of A on B (e.g. a
stranger/mother with a child), rather than
looking at the possible influence of the The Microsystem
child on the stranger/mother, or any
other third party’s influence. The microsystem is the first level of

Bronfenbrenner maintained that

these laboratory features of
research are not characteristic of
environments that children actually live
and develop in.
Bronfenbrenner recognized there are
multiple aspects of a developing child’s
life that interacts with and affects the
child. His work looked beyond individual
development, taking into account wider
influencing factors and the context (or
ecology) of development. He proposed
the ‘Ecological Systems Theory’ based
on these dynamic interactions that the Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the
environments have on the developing things that have direct contact with the
child. child in their immediate environment,
Bronfenbrenner’s (1974) perspective such as parents, siblings, teachers and
has some resemblance to the works school peers.
of Albert Bandua’s social learning
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-
theory and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural
directional, meaning the child can be
theory in which the environment is
influenced by other people in their
explicitly or implicitly considered as a
environment and is also capable of
crucial mechanism in development.
changing the beliefs and actions of other
people too.
The Five Ecological Systems
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to
Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that individuals in their microsystem can
the environment of the child is a nested influence how they treat them in return.
arrangement of structures, each
contained within the next. He organized The interactions within microsystems
them in order of how much of an impact are often very personal and are crucial
they have on a child. for fostering and supporting the child’s
development.
He named these structures the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, If a child has a strong nurturing
macrosystem and the chronosystem. relationship with their parents, this is
said to have a positive effect on the
Because the five systems are child. Whereas, distant and
interrelated, the influence of one system unaffectionate parents will have a
on a child’s development depends on its negative effect on the child.
relationship with the others.
The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the
interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions
between the child’s parents and
teachers, or between school peers and
siblings.
The mesosystem is where a person's
individual microsystems do not function
independently, but are interconnected
and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child’s parents
communicate with the child’s teachers,
this interaction may influence the child’s
development. Essentially, a
mesosystem is a system of
microsystems.
According to the ecological systems
theory, if the child’s parents and
teachers get along and have a good
relationship, this should have positive
effects on the child’s development,
compared to negative effects on
development if the teachers and parents
do not get along.
The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the
ecological systems theory developed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It
incorporates other formal and informal
social structures, which do not
themselves contain the child, but
indirectly influence them as they affect
one of the microsystems.
Examples of exosystems include the
neighborhood, parent’s workplaces,
parent’s friends and the mass media.
These are environments in which the
child is not involved, and are external to
their experience, but nonetheless affects
them anyway.
An instance of exosystems affecting the
child’s development could be if one of
the parents had a dispute with their boss
at work.
The parent may come home and have a
short temper with the child as a result of
something which happened in the
workplace, resulting in a negative effect
on development.
The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is a component of
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
theory that focuses on how cultural
elements affect a child's development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.
Thus, culture that individuals are
immersed within may influence their
beliefs and perceptions about events
that transpire in life.
The macrosystem differs from the
previous ecosystems as is does not
refer to the specific environments of one
developing child, but the already
established society and culture which
the child is developing in.
This can also include the socioeconomic
status, ethnicity, geographic location
and ideologies of the culture.
For example, a child living in a third
world country would experience a
different development than a child living
in a wealthier country.
The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
theory is known as the chronosystem.
This system consists of all of the
environmental changes that occur over
the lifetime which influence
development, including major life
transitions, and historical events.
These can include normal life transitions
such as starting school but can also
include non-normative life transitions
such as parents getting a divorce or
having to move to a new house.
The Bioecological Model
It is important to note that
Bronfenbrenner (1994) later revised his
theory and instead named it the
‘Bioecological model’.
Bronfenbrenner became more
concerned with the proximal processes
of development, meaning the enduring
and persistent forms of interaction in the
immediate environment. His focus
shifted from focusing on environmental
influences to developmental processes
individuals experience over time.
‘…development takes place through the
process of progressively more complex
reciprocal interactions between an
active, evolving biopsychological human
organism and the persons, objects, and
symbols in its immediate external
environment.’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1995).
Bronfenbrenner also suggested that in
order to understand the effect of these
proximal processes on development, we
have to focus on the person, context
and developmental outcome as these
processes vary and affect people
differently (Bronfenbrenner & Evans,
2000).
Critical Evaluation
Bronfenbrenner’s model quickly became
very appealing and became accepted as
a useful framework for psychologists,
sociologists and teachers to study child
development.
The Ecological Systems Theory
provides a holistic approach which is
inclusive of all the systems children and
their family are involved in, accurately
reflecting the dynamic nature of actual
family relationships (Hayes & O’Toole,
2017).
Paat (2013) considers how
Bronfenbrenner’s theory is useful when
it comes to the development of
immigrant children. They suggest that
immigrant children’s experiences in the
various ecological systems are likely to
be shaped by their cultural differences.
An understanding of these children’s
ecology can aid in strengthening social
work service delivery for these children.
A limitation of the Ecological Systems
Theory is that there is limited research
examining the mesosystems; mainly the
interactions between neighborhoods and
the family of the child (Leventhal &
Brooks-Gunn, 2000). Therefore, it is
unclear the extent to which these
systems can shape child development.
Another limitation with Bronfenbrenner’s
theory is that it is difficult to empirically
test the theory. The studies investigating
the ecological systems may establish an
effect, but they cannot establish whether
the systems are the direct cause of such
effects.
Furthermore, this theory can lead to
assumptions that those who do not have
strong and positive ecological systems
lack in development. Whilst this may be
true in some cases, many people can
still develop into well-rounded
individuals without positive influences
from their ecological systems.
For instance, it is not true to say that all
people who grow up in poverty-striken
areas of the world will develop
negatively. Similarly, if a child’s teachers
and parents do not get along, some
children may not experience any kind of
negative effect from this if it does not
concern them.
As a result, people need to take care not
to make broad assumptions about
individuals using this theory.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory in the 21st
century
The world has changed a lot since this
theory was introduced in terms of
technological developments. However, it
could still be said that the exosystem of
a child could be expanded to include
social media, video gaming and other
modern-day interactions within the
ecological system.
This could suggest that the ecological
systems are still valid but will expand
over time to include new modern
developments.
Kelly and Coughlan (2019) used
constructivist grounded theory analysis
to develop a theoretical framework for
youth mental health recovery and found
that there were many links to
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory in their own more recent theory.
Their theory suggested that the
components of mental health recovery
are embedded in the ‘ecological context
of influential relationships’ which fits in
with Bronfenbrenner’s theory that the
ecological systems of the young person
such as peers, family and school all help
mental health development.
Classroom Application
The Ecological Systems Theory has
been used to link psychological and
educational theory to early educational
curriculums and practice. At the center
of the theory is the developing child, and
all that occurs within and between the
five ecological systems are done so to
benefit the child in the classroom.
 To strengthen the development
between the ecological systems
in educational practice according
to the theory, teachers and
parents should keep good
communication with each other
and work together to benefit the
child.
 Teachers should also be
understanding of the situations
their student’s families may be
experiencing, including social and
economic factors that are part of
the various systems.
 According to the theory, if parents
and teachers have a good
relationship, this should shape
the child’s development in a
positive way.
 Likewise, the child must also be
active in their learning, engaged
both academically and socially.
They must work as a team with
their peers and get involved in
meaningful learning experiences
to enable positive development
(Evans, 2012).
Empirical Evidence
There are lots of studies that have
investigated the effects of the school
environment on students.
Lippard, LA Paro, Rouse and Crosby
(2017) conducted a study to test
Bronfenbrenner’s theory. They
investigated the teacher-child
relationships through teacher reports
and classroom observations.
They found that these relationships
significantly related to children’s
academic achievement and classroom
behavior, suggesting that these
relationships are important for children’s
development and supports the
Ecological Systems Theory.
Wilson et al., (2002) found that creating
a positive school environment, through a
school ethos valuing diversity has a
positive effect on student’s relationships
within school. Incorporating this kind of
school ethos influences those within the
developing child’s ecological systems.
Langford et al., (2014) found that whole-
school approaches to the health
curriculum can positively improve
educational achievement and student
well-being, thus the development of the
students are being affected by the
microsystems.
URIE BRONFENBRENNER AND
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
One final developmental theory needs to
be addressed, even though it's not a
stage theory. Urie
Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
developed the ecological systems theory
to explain how everything in a child and
the child's environment affects how a
child grows and develops. He labeled
different aspects or levels of the
environment that influence children's
development, including the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, and the macrosystem. The
microsystem is the small, immediate
environment the child lives in. Children's
microsystems will include any immediate
relationships or organizations they
interacts with, such as their immediate
family or caregivers and their school or
daycare. How these groups or
organizations interact with the child will
have an effect on how the child grows;
the more encouraging and nurturing
these relationships and places are, the
better the child will be able to grow.
Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts
to these people in the microsystem will
affect how they treat her in return. Each
child's special genetic and biologically
influenced personality traits, what is
known as temperament, end up
affecting how others treat them. This
idea will be discussed further in a later
document about child temperament.
Bronfenbrenner's next level, the
mesosystem, describes how the
different parts of a child's microsystem
work together for the sake of the child.
For example, if a child's caregivers take
an active role in a child's school, such
as going to parent-teacher conferences
and watching their child's soccer games,
this will help ensure the child's overall
growth. In contrast, if the child's two sets
of caretakers, mom with step-dad and
dad with step-mom, disagree how to
best raise the child and give the child
conflicting lessons when they see him,
this will hinder the child's growth in
different channels.
The exosystem level includes the other
people and places that the child herself
may not interact with often herself but
that still have a large effect on her, such
as parents' workplaces, extended family
members, the neighborhood, etc. For
example, if a child's parent gets laid off
from work, that may have negative
affects on the child if her parents are
unable to pay rent or to buy groceries;
however, if her parent receives a
promotion and a raise at work, this may
have a positive affect on the child
because her parents will be better able
to give her her physical needs.

Bronfenbrenner's final level is the

macrosystem, which is the largest and
most remote set of people and things to
a child but which still has a great
influence over the child. The
macrosystem includes things such as
the relative freedoms permitted by the
national government, cultural values, the
economy, wars, etc. These things can
also affect a child either positively or
negatively.
REFERENCES:

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-
stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-
stages-of-cognitive-development-
2795457#:~:text=Jean%20Piaget's%20theory
%20of%20cognitive,stage%3A%20birth
%20to%202%20years

https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-
theory-of-moral-development-
2795071#:~:text=Kohlberg's%20theory%20of
%20moral%20development%20is%20a
%20theory%20that%20focuses,on%20seeking
%20and%20maintaining%20justice.

https://www.verywellmind.com/lev-vygotsky-
biography-2795533#:~:text=Lev
%20Vygotsky%20was%20a%20seminal,a
%20continuous%20process%20of
%20learning.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/
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https://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?
type=doc&id=7930