Character Algae Fungi

Kingdom Algae belong to the kingdom Fungi belong to the kingdom

Protista. Fungi.

Habitat They are mostly aquatic and They are terrestrial and mostly
found in both fresh and marine found on the dead matter with
water. proper warmth and moisture.

Prokaryotic/ Eukaryotic Only Cyanobacteria are All fungi are eukaryotes.

prokaryotic algae. Other algae
are eukaryotes.

Photosynthetic Pigments It possesses chlorophyll for It does not possess any

photosynthesis. photosynthetic pigment.

Nutrition Being an autotroph, algae Fungi are heterotrophs, they

possess chlorophyll and other digest external food by
photosynthetic pigments. secreting enzymes.

Darkness They cannot live in the dark. They can live in the dark.

Cell Wall The cell wall is composed of The cell wall is composed of
cellulose. chitin.

Food Storage It stores food in the form of It stores food in the form of
starch. glycogen and oil globules.

Body Algal body is filamentous or The fungal body is filamentous

parenchyatous. or pasedo parenchymatous.

Nucleated It consists of uninucleated cells. It consists of multinucleated

cells.
CHAPTER 5:

3.
CHAPTER 6:

Critical Thinking

1. Assume that you are taking an organic chemistry class. Your teacher has given you four organic
compounds to analyze She tells you that one is a carbohydrate, one is a hydrocarbon, one is a nucleic
acid, and one is a protein.

a. Compound A contains only carbon and hydrogen. Of the four types of compounds which were
given to you to analyze, which one best describes Compound A?
Compound A is a HYDROCARBON.

b. You discover that Compound B contains only carbon hydrogen, and oxygen Of the four types of
compounds which were given to you to analyze, which one best describes Compound B?
Compound B is a CARBOHYDRATES.

c. You discover that Compound C contains only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen Of the four
types of compounds which were given to you to analyze, which one best describes Compound
C?

Compound C is a PROTEIN.

d. You discover that Compound D contains only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. nitrogen, and
phosphorous Of the four types of compounds which were given to you to analyze which one
best describes Compound D?
Compound D is a NUCEIC ACID.

2 Be prepared to explain the ways in which an adenine DNA nucleotide differs from an adenine RNA
nucleotide.

Both thymine and uracil pair with adenine. So DNA and RNA nucleotides differ according to which five-
carbon sugar is present, and whether the nitrogenous base thymine or uracil is present. DNA contains
the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA contains the sugar ribose.

 DNA nucleotides, or deoxyribonucleotides, have a deoxyribose sugar that lacks an oxygen

molecule at the 2' carbon of the sugar molecule.
 Ribonucleotides, or RNA nucleotides, have a ribose sugar with an oxygen linked to the 2' carbon
of the sugar molecule.
 Ribonucleotides may contain the nitrogenous base uracil, but not thymine.
 DNA nucleotides contain thymine, but not uracil.
3. Be prepared to explain the ways in which DNA molecules differ from RNA molecules.
Full Name DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Function DNA replicates and stores
genetic information. It is a
blueprint for all genetic
information contained within an
organism.
Structure DNA consists of two strands,
arranged in a double helix.
These strands are made up of
subunits called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains a
phosphate, a 5 carbon sugar
molecule and a nitrogenous
base.
Length DNA is a much longer polymer
than RNA. A chromosome, for
example, is a single, long DNA
molecule, which would be
several centimeters in length
when unravelled.
Sugar The sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose, which contains
one less hydroxyl group than
RNA's ribose.
BASES The bases in DNA are Adenine A
('A'), Thymine (T'), G Guanine
('G') and a Cytosine (C).
Base Pairs Adenine and Thymine pair
(A&T)
Cytosine and Guanine pair (C G)
Location DNA is found in the nucleus,
with a small amount of DNA
also present in mitochondria.
Reactivity Due to its deoxyribose sugar,
which contains one less oxygen
containing hydroxyl group, DNA
RNA- Ribonucleic Acid
RNA converts the genetic
information is contained all
within DNA to a format used in
to build proteins, and then
moves it to ribosomal protein
factories.
RNA only has one strand, but
like DNA, is made up of
nucleotides. RNA strands are
shorter than DNA strands. RNA
sometimes forms a secondary
double helix structure, but only
intermittently.
RNA molecules are variable in
length, but much shorter than
long DNA for polymers. A large
RNA molecule might only be a
few thousand base pairs long.
RNA contains ribose sugar
molecules, without the hydroxyl
modifications of deoxyribose.
RNA shares Adenine ('A'), T'),
Guanine ('G') and Cytosine ('C')
with DNA, but contains Uracil
(U) rather than Thymine.
Adenine and Uracil pair (A-U)
Cytosine and Guanine pair (C-G)
RNA forms in the nucleolus, and
then moves to specialized
regions of the cytoplasm
depending on the type of RNA
formed.
RNA, containing a ribose sugar,
is more reactive than DNA and
is not stable in alkaline

Ultraviolet (UV) Sensitivity
is a more stable molecule than
RNA, which is useful for a
molecule which has the task of
keeping genetic information
safe.
DNA is vulnerable to damage by
ultraviolet light.
conditions. RNA's larger helical
grooves mean it is more easily
subject to attack by enzymes.
RNA is more resistant to
damage from UV light than
DNA.
CHAPTER 7:

Critical Thinking

1 What are some possible reasons why an obligate anaerobe is unable to live in the presence of oxygen?

- An obligate anaerobe, organisms that cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. The reason why
obligate anaerobes can't grow in the presence of oxygen, because they lack catalase and
superoxide dismutase and thus are killed by oxidative damage from oxygen radicals.
- Their metabolism frequently is a fermentative type in which they reduce available organic
compounds to various end products such as organic acids and alcohols. The facultative
organisms are the most versatile. They preferentially utilize oxygen as a terminal electron
acceptor, but also can metabolize in the absence of oxygen by reducing other compounds.
- The particular anaerobe may lack either superoxide dismutase or catalase. Without superoxide
dismutase, the organism would be unable to neutralize the harmful effects of superoxide
anions. Without catalase, the organism would be unable to neutralize the harmful effects of
hydrogen peroxide.

2 Assume that you are a microbiologist who has been doing research on a penicillin sensitive strain of
Staphylococcus aureus for many months. One day you discover that the organism is now resistant to
penicillin. You know that it has not come in contact with any other species of bacteria, nor has it come in
contact with the DNA from any other species of bacteria What are two possible explanations for its
sudden change from penicillin susceptibility to penicillin resistance?

 (1) One possibility is that a chromosomal mutation occurred that altered a penicillin binding site,
so that penicillin is no longer able to bind to it. (2) Another possibility is that a chromosomal
mutation occurred that altered the organism's membrane permeability, so that penicillin is no
longer able to enter the cell.

3 Several products were mentioned in this chapter that are being produced by genetically engineered
bacteria and yeasts. Using the Internet, can you find others?

- Cure genetic diseases through gene therapy

- Plants have been modified for insects protection, her beside resistance, virus resistance,
enhanced resolution, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible
vaccines.
- Medicine
- BT- toxins, it protects from extensive damage caused by larvae.
CHAPTER 8:

Critical Thinking

1. Assume that you must culture a particular bacterium in the laboratory for research purposes. To
get the organism to grow in the laboratory, what are some of the factors you must take into
consideration?
1. Treat all microorganisms as potential pathogens. While the majority of microorganisms are
not pathogenic to humans and have never been shown to cause illness, under unusual
circumstances a few microorganisms that are not normally pathogenic can act as pathogens.
Treat all microorganisms-especially unknown cultures-as if they were pathogenic. A student who
has a compromised immune system or has had a recent extended illness should talk with the
instructor before working in the microbiology laboratory.

2. Sterilize equipment and materials. All materials, media, tubes, plates, loops, needles, pipettes,
and other items used for culturing microorganisms should be sterilized by autoclaving.
Otherwise, use commercially sterilized products. Understand the operation and safe use of all
equipment and materials needed for the laboratory.

3. Disinfect work areas before and after use. Use a disinfectant, such as a 10% bleach or 70%
ethanol solution, to wipe down benches and work areas both before and after working with
cultures.
4. Wash your hands. Use a disinfectant soap to wash your hands before and after working with
microorganisms. No disinfectant soap will remove surface bacteria and can be used if
disinfectant soap is not available. Gloves may be worn as extra protection.

5. Never pipette by mouth. Use pipette bulbs or pipetting devices for the aspiration and
dispensing of liquid cultures.

6. Do not eat or drink in the lab, nor store food in areas where microorganisms are stored. Never
eat or drink in the laboratory while working with microorganisms. Keep your fingers out of your
mouth, and wash your hands before and after the laboratory activity. Cover any cuts on your
hands with a bandage. Gloves may be worn as extra protection.

7. Label everything clearly. All cultures, chemicals, disinfectant, and media should be clearly and
securely labeled with their names and dates. If they are hazardous, label them with proper
warning and hazardous information.
Autoclave or disinfect all waste material. All items to be discarded after a class, such as culture
tubes, culture plates, swabs, toothpicks, wipes, disposable transfer needles, and gloves, should
be placed in a biohazard autoclave bag and autoclaved 30 to 40 minutes at 121° C at 20 pounds
of pressure. If no autoclave is available and you are not working with pathogens, the materials
can be covered with a 10% bleach solution and allowed to soak for at least 1 to 2 hours.

9. Clean up spills with care. Cover any spills or broken culture tubes with a 70% ethanol or 10%
bleach solution; then cover with paper towels. After allowing the spill to sit with the disinfectant
 for a short time, carefully clean up and place the materials in a biohazard autoclave bag to be
autoclaved. Wash the area again with disinfectant. Never pick up glass fragments with your
fingers or stick your fingers into the culture itself; instead, use a brush and dustpan. If working
with animal or plant pathogens, keep the area clear and notify your instructor.

2. Draw a population growth curve, label the four phases, and be prepared to explain what is
happening to the bacteria in each phase.

3. You obtained 300 colonies after plating 0.1 mL of a 1:10,000 dilution of a bacterial cell
suspension. What was the bacterial concentration in the original undiluted suspension?
 1: 10,000
The answer is 30 million bacteria/mL (or 3 x 10 bacteria/mL), but how did you obtain that
answer?

CHAPTER 9:

Critical Thinking

1 Louis Pasteur once stated that chance favors the prepared mind " What did he mean by that? What
discovery, mentioned in this chapter, clearly illustrates Pasteur's statement?

- Louis Pasteur: Chance Favors the Prepared Mind- It is at the point when none of the
experiments prove accurate that the chance of making an accidental discovery is amplified.

2 It has been stated that when science builds a better mousetrap nature builds a better mouse," How
does that statement relate to drug-resistant bacteria?

- This saying relates to the process of evolution that is taking effect as a result of humanity's
influence on the environment. For example, even though vaccines are created to immunize
 people against certain viral diseases, and antibiotics are created to kill deadly bacteria, these
disease-causing microbes mutate to become resistant to our weapons. Fleas and lice gradually
become immune to the poisons that are used to kill them. Wild animals such as tigers are shot,
but the most intelligent and therefore hardest-to hunt specimens will be most likely to avoid
slaughter and pass these helpful traits to the next generation. Nature has changed over the eons
to survive the gradual changes that the earth has undergone; the advent of humanity was hardly
a gradual change, having been too abrupt for some species (namely those that are going
extinct), but the strongest, most adaptable, and most prolific life for take it in stride.

3 A friend of yours is planning a trip to a country where diarrhea is commonly experienced by visitors to
that country. She asked her physician to prescribe an antibiotic to prevent traveler's diarrhea, and the
physician complied. She has already started taking the drug, and plans to take it throughout her trip.
How would you explain to your friend that taking the drug in this manner (e. prophylactically) is not a
good idea?

- Antibiotics can save lives, but any time antibiotics are used, they can cause side effects and
contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance. Each year, approximately 28% of
antibiotics are prescribed unnecessarily in doctors' offices and emergency rooms (ERs), which
makes improving antibiotic prescribing and use a national priority.

4 A good friend of yours is a dairy farmer. He routinely uses antibiotic-containing cattle feed to keep his
cows from getting sick How would you tactfully explain to him how this practice is contributing to the
problem of multidrug-resistant bacteria?

- Extensive use of low-level antibiotics in feeds has brought about concern for potential harmful
effects due to development of resistant strains of organisms in host animals that might
compromise animal as well as human health. Drug resistance in bacteria was observed soon
after the introduction of antibiotics.
CHAPTER 10:

Critical Thinking

1. A friend of yours has been taking an antibacterial agent to cure an ear infection. Suddenly, she
develops yeast vaginitis. Explain to her why this has occurred. Use the library or Internet to research
additional factors that can alter vaginal pH or the microbial composition of vaginal flora, leading to
conditions such as bacterial vaginosis (BV) and yeast vaginitis. Be prepared to discuss your findings.

 Under the influence of estrogen, stratified squamous epithelium develops in the vagina.
Lactobacilli become the dominant organism. The source of the vaginal lactobacilli in an
individual woman has not been determined. Lactic acid is produced by both bacterial
metabolism and that of the epithelium, and the vaginal pH falls to a level usually between 4.0
and 4.5. Physiological discharge consists of mucus, desquamated epithelial cells, and lactobacilli.
The pH may rise above 4.5 at the time of menstruation, when the concentration of lactobacilli is
reduced. Cervical mucus and semen have pH between 7 and 8. In mice, exogenous treatment
with progesterone alters the flora to one that resembles BV. Nonspecific vaginitis was defined as
a clinical entity recognizable from the symptoms of a fishy-smelling vaginal discharge confirmed
by detecting thin homogenous vaginal fluid adherent to the walls of the vagina and confirmed
by finding clue cells on microscopy. Initially, it was thought to be a straightforward infection by
one organism, now called Gardnerella vaginalis. Subsequently, other bacteria were identified as
part of the BV flora. In 1983, the term BV was coined, with the recognition that there are many
bacterial spp. contributing to the condition and that inflammation is usually absent.

2.You've probably heard that farmers rotate their crops." One year they will plant a "cash crop" (e.g.,
corn), and the next year they will plant alfalfa or clover in that field. Why do they do that? Include the
role of microorganisms in your answer.

 Fixes nitrogen, A good white clover stand produces 80-130 pounds per acre. This is less than the
average legume.
 Resilient, White clover is the most resilient of the clover genus. For this reason, white clover
serves as an excellent ground cover crop. It withstands mowing very well and high traffic areas.
 Soil compaction, White clover has a very thick and interconnected root system. This root system
breaks up and prevents soil compaction.
 Gazing, White clover withstands grazing very well, it is also palatable. It has a protein content of
roughly 28 percent. Watch for bloat in your cattle when allowing them to graze on white clover.
 Erosion prevention, The extensive root system and ground cover capabilities of white clover
keep soil from running off, keeping key nutrients in place, White clover is also used to help
increase soil health because of its erosion protection and nitrogen fixation.
 Weed suppressant, Once established, white clover serves as an excellent weed cover. The large
root system and biomass production, plus the fact that white clover competes well in adverse
conditions, will hardly inhibit weed growth.
Mowing, tilling or chemical suppression of the white clover are all good suppression techniques. This
suppression should allow your cash crop to gain the upper-hand with nutrient management. Once
the crop is well established, usual mowing to keep the clover down and manageable will produce
nice, green walkways in between your cash crops. This prevents soil erosion, compaction and
nutrient loss. The cover will also allow greater water penetration into the soil and overall soil
development.