Sampling theory

In the world of Statistics, the very first thing to be done before any estimation is to create a Sample
set from the entire Population Set. The Population set can be seen as the entire tree from where
data is collected whereas the Sample Set can be seen as the branch in which the actual study of
observations and estimation is done. Population tree is a very large set and making the study of
observations on it can be very exhausting, both time and money-wise alike. Thus to cut down on
the amount of time and as well as resources, a Sample Set is created from the Population set.

1. Identifying the Population set.

2. Determination of the size of our sample set.
3. Providing a medium for the basis of selection of samples from the Population medium.
4. Picking out samples from the medium using one of many Sampling techniques like Simple
Random, Systematic or Stratified Sampling.
5. Checking whether the formed sample set, contains elements actually matches the different
attributes of population set, without large variations in between.
6. Checking for errors or inaccurate estimations in the formed sample set, that may or may not
have occurred
7. The set which we get after performing the above steps actually contributes to the Sample Set.

Bayes theorem
Bayes’ Theorem describes the probability of an event, based on precedent knowledge of conditions
which might be related to the event. In other words, Bayes’ Theorem is the add-on of Conditional
Probability.
With the help of Conditional Probability, one can find out the probability of X given H, and it is
denoted by P(X | H). Now Bayes’ Theorem states that if we know Conditional Probability (P(X |
H)) then we can find out P(H | X), given the condition that P(X) and P(H) are already known to us.
Theorem has two types of probabilities
1. Prior Probability [P(H)]
2. Posterior Probability [P(H/X)]
Where,
 X – X is a data tuple.
 H – H is some Hypothesis.

1. Prior Probability

Prior Probability is the probability of occurring an event before the collection of new data. It is the
best logical evaluation of the probability of an outcome which is based on the present knowledge of
the event before the inspection is performed.
2. Posterior Probability

When new data or information is collected then the Prior Probability of an event will be revised to
produce a more accurate measure of a possible outcome. This revised probability becomes the
Posterior Probability and is calculated using Bayes’ theorem. So, the Posterior Probability is the
probability of an event X occurring given that event H has occurred.

Difference between Arduino and Raspberry Pi

S
No. Arduino Raspberry Pi

Control unit of Arduino is from While control unit of Raspberry Pi is from

1. Atmega family. ARM family.

Arduino is based on a While Raspberry Pi is based on a

2. microcontroller. microprocessor.

It is designed to control the While Raspberry Pi computes data and

electrical components produces valuable outputs, and controls
connected to the circuit board components in a system based on the
3. in a system. outcome of its computation.

Arduino boards have a simple

hardware and software While Raspberry Pi boards have a complex
4. structure. architecture of hardware and software.

5. CPU architecture: 8 bit. CPU architecture: 64 bit.

While Raspberry Pi requires more RAM, 1

6. It uses very less RAM, 2 kB. GB.

It clocks a processing speed of While Raspberry Pi clocks a processing

7. 16 MHz. speed of 1.4 GHz.

8. It is cheaper in cost. While Raspberry Pi is expensive.

It has a higher I/O current drive While Raspberry Pi has a lower I/O current
9. strength. drive strength.

It consumes about 200 MW of

10. power. While it consumes about 700 MW of power.

Actuator in iot
An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism or the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a
given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make
the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy
and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a
mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given
below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by
a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators
because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert
into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human
fingers by using compressed air.

SDN in iot
Software defined networking (SDN) is an approach via which we take the control plane away from
the switch and assign it to a centralised unit called the SDN controller. Hence, a network
administrator can shape traffic via a centralised console without having to touch the individual
switches. The data plane still resides in the switch and when a packet enters a switch, its
forwarding activity is decided based on the entries of flow tables, which are pre-assigned by the
controller. A flow table consists of match fields (like input port number and packet header) and
instructions. The packet is first matched against the match fields of the flow table entries.
Then the instructions of the corresponding flow entry are executed. The instructions can be
forwarding the packet via one or multiple ports, dropping the packet or adding headers to the
packet. If a packet doesn’t find a corresponding match in the flow table, the switch queries the
controller which sends a new flow entry to the switch. The switch forwards or drops the packet
based on this flow entry.
A typical SDN architecture consists of three layers.
 Application layer:
It contains the typical network applications like intrusion detection, firewall, and load balancing
 Control layer:
It consists of the SDN controller which acts as the brain of the network. It also allows hardware
abstraction to the applications written on top of it.
 Infrastructure layer:
This consists of physical switches which forms the data plane and carries out actual movement
of data packets.
The layers communicate via a set of interfaces called the northbound APIs(between application and
control layer) and southbound APIs(between control and infrastructure layer).
M2M in iot
In this the interaction or communication takes place between machines by automating
data/programs. In this machine level instructions are required for communication. Here
communication takes place without human interaction. The machines may be either connected
through wires or by wireless connection. An M2M connection is a point-to-point connection between
two network devices that helps in transmitting information using public networking technologies like
Ethernet and cellular networks. IoT uses the basic concepts of M2M and expands by creating
large “cloud” networks of devices that communicate with one another through cloud networking
platforms.

Examples:
 Smart Washing machine sends alerts to the owners’ smart devices after completion of washing
or drying of clothes.
 Smart meters tracks amount of energy used in household or in companies and automatically
alert the owner.

Difference between WSN and IoT

For any Internet of things(IOT) system, internet has to be present. The sensors should send their information to
the internet. This data will be processed in real time and a command may be isssued via Internet to the sensor
based IoT system to perform a task. For example, an image processing sensor whenever sees a child at your door
on thanksgiving, transmits the data to your phone and you may push a button to dispense a chocolate. If treats
are over you may push a button that makes a speaker give a message. All this happens on Internet. WSNs on the
contrary may or may not require internet to achieve their tasks.

A WSN is basically a sensor interfaced with a microcontroller based platform mainly for data collection. The on
site memory on microcontroller board can be programmed to collect data in afternoon 1 - 2pm. They may route
that data to a central node. For Example : In a fireforest prediction system, several sensor based platforms are laid
throughout jungles in Sweden which collect data and route it to a central Node.
Different types of IOT Model

IOT applications and development scenario in

different domain
IoT applications promise to bring immense value into our lives. With newer wireless networks, superior
sensors and revolutionary computing capabilities, the Internet of Things could be the next frontier in
the race for its share of the wallet. IoT applications are expected to equip billions of everyday objects
with connectivity and intelligence. It is already being deployed extensively

1. IoT Applications – Wearables

Wearable technology is a hallmark of IoT applications and probably is one of the earliest industries to
have deployed the IoT at its service. We happen to see Fit Bits, heart rate monitors and smartwatches
everywhere these days.
 One of the lesser-known wearables includes the Guardian glucose monitoring device. The device is
developed to aid people suffering from diabetes. It detects glucose levels in the body, using a tiny
electrode called glucose sensor placed under the skin and relays the information via Radio Frequency to
a monitoring device.

2. IoT Applications – Smart Home Applications

When we talk about IoT Applications, Smart Homes are probably the first thing that we think of. The best
example I can think of here is Jarvis, the AI home automation employed by Mark Zuckerberg. There is
also Allen Pan’s Home Automation System where functions in the house are actuated by use of a string
of musical notes.

3. IoT Applications – Health Care

IoT applications can turn reactive medical-based systems into proactive wellness-based systems. The
resources that current medical research uses, lack critical real-world information. It mostly uses leftover
data, controlled environments, and volunteers for medical examination. IoT opens ways to a sea of
valuable data through analysis, real-time field data, and testing.

4. IoT Applications – Smart Cities

Let’s take an actual example of a Smart City- Palo Alto. Palo Alto, San Francisco, is the first city of its
kind, that took a whole new approach towards traffic. They realized, most cars on the streets go around
and round the same block, in search of parking spots. That’s the main reason for traffic congestion in
the city.Thus, sensors were installed at all the parking spots around the city. These sensors pass the
occupancy status of each spot to the cloud. Any number of applications can consume that data. It can
guide the drivers through the shortest route to an open spot.

5. IoT Applications – Agriculture

A greenhouse farming technique enhances the yield of crops by controlling environmental
parameters. However, manual handling results in production loss, energy loss, and labor cost, making
the process less effective.A greenhouse with embedded devices not only makes it easier to
be monitored but also, enables us to control the climate inside it. Sensors measure different parameters
according to the plant requirement and send it to the cloud. It, then, processes the data and applies a
control action.

6. IoT Applications – Industrial Automation

This is one of the fields where both faster developments, as well as the quality of products,
are the critical factors for a higher Return on Investment. With IoT Applications, one could
even re-engineer products and their packaging to deliver better performance in both cost and
customer experience. IoT here can prove to be game changing with solutions for all the
following domains in its arsenal.

 Factory Digitalization
 Product flow Monitoring
 Inventory Management
 Safety and Security
 Quality Control
 Packaging optimization
 Logistics and Supply Chain Optimization