INTERACTIVE

MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: Jeomar N. Rabadon
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Politics, Governance and Other Key
Concepts
Module Content: Basic Concepts of Politics and
Governance
MODULE 1

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Define politics, governance, and other key concepts of political science

 Articulate definitions of politics.
 Differentiate the various views on politics.
 Explain the connection between the phenomenon (politics) and the method
of inquiry(political science)
  Recognize the value of politics.
 Differentiate governance from government.

Politics, Governance & Other Key Concepts

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:
1. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
2. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
3. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
4. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
5. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
6. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help by reaching her in her cellular phone
number 09774885239.

Lesson Proper:
Political Science deals with the study of power in society, politics, and government. The
dynamic character of human society and the differences in contexts of different states have
resulted in different views, theories, and definitions on the concepts of politics and governance.

Having a basic knowledge on political science can be empowering for every citizen,
especially in a democratic country like the Philippines. There are various theories in political
science, but we only have to study the concepts of the Philippine context.

The Greeks formulated the word politics during the 4th and 5th century. Politics was
inseparable from the life in the polis or a palace or state shared by a certain group of people. This
concept of politics may be as old as the first organization created by man. According to Aristotle
and Plato, humans are not self-sufficing so they find the need to come together as a community.
From this union comes the need for politics and governance to maintain order within a society.

Social contract theorist like Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke
during the 17th and 18th century Europe stressed the hypothetical state of nature that was devoid
of any kind of government. This state of nature is often violent and chaotic; therefore, people
enter themselves into a social contract or a written or unwritten binding agreement among the
people that bids for the creation of a government and the consequent use of politics for the
achievement of peace and order (Baradat 1997).

Political science is the academic discipline that deals with key issues and concepts in
politics. Niccolò Machiavelli is widely accepted as the father of modern political science because
of his discussion on maintaining power in his books The Prince and Discourses. But even before
Machiavelli, both Plato and Aristotle had already provided broad discussion on the central
concepts in politics such as the concept of justice (what and who is morally and politically right),
power (source of authority), the right types of constitution and governments (different ideologies
in a state), and right and virtuous leadership (who should lead in a certain political system)
(Curtis 1981). Key fields in politics include power relations in society, forms of government,
political behavior, and with the cultural turn of the 20 th century, the inclusion of political culture
and the civil society’s role in government.

While politics deal with power in society in general, governance specifically deals with
power in government and how this institution exerts power for the benefit of the society. Today,
the discussion of politics and governance in political science has been divided in different fields
of interests, namely, political theory, political methodology, comparative politics, international
relations, and law (Roskin et al. 2007).
 Political theory deals with the different perspectives and ideas regarding politics and
governance of different political philosophers from the ancient times like Aristotle to Niccolò
Machiavelli, to the time of Industrial Revolution through Karl Marx, and contemporary political
philosophers like Hannah Arendt. Political methodology is more concerned upon the application
of political concepts into research and policy making almost to the applied similar to the applied
nature of public administration (Roskin et al. 2007).

Comparative politics is about comparing various political system and different

constitutions among different countries through time. this type of study is not new for it was
made by Aristotle and Plato during the golden age of ancient Greece in their influential works,
Aristotle’s Politics and Plato”s The Republic, when they compared various forms of
governments (Roskin et al. 2007).

International relations bear resemblance to comparative politics, but instead of

comparing, it concentrates on establishing and maintaining relations among countries through
time. And by relations, those who are studying this field attempt on maintaining peaceful and
diplomatic relations among countries (Roskin et al. 2007).

Law is another central concepts in politics and governance. Law is basically any written
statement that limits or guides behavior of a certain group. Politics, as the art and science of
government, highlights the role of law in organizing and stabilizing individual interests to
prevent the overlapping individual needs and promote collective gains in society. Roskin et al.
2007)

The knowledge of politics and governance therefore is a critical attribute of a citizen

belonging to a certain state. In ancient Greece, anyone who was ignorant of laws and the political
processes of the polis was considered an idiot (Curtis 1981) primarily because of the democratic
structure of the polis where every male was expected to participate in decision making and
politics. Today, the knowledge of politics and governance not only helps in participation of an
individual in the state but it also helps in safeguarding an individual against bad government
practices and abuse.
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: Jeomar N. Rabadon
Subject : PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic : Classical to Modern Ideologies
Module Content: Basic Concepts of Politics and
Governance
Module 2

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:

 Articulate definitions of politics.

 Differentiate the various views on politics.
  Explore the connection between the phenomenon and the method of inquiry.
 Recognize the value of politics.
 Differentiate governance from government.

Classical to Modern Political Ideologies

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:
7. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
8. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
9. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
10. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
11. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
12. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper

To study various issues in politics and governance, it is important to know the

different theories, frameworks, and ideologies involved.
Each theory in the study of politics has underlying historical factor that affected
its development. We have to study these factors to understand how each theory,
framework, or ideology is applied in modern context. In analyzing a political issue, we
need to use several of the theories, frameworks, and ideologies to achieve a more
accurate analysis and explanation of the issue.
The goal of every government is to mobilize its citizens to achieve a common
end, that is, the welfare of the state as a whole. As a guide, governments used ideologies
to help them consolidate the support of their constituents. It is also through ideology that
civil societies go against oppressive governments.
Ideology is basically defined as political statements that aim to call upon massive
mass or government action to achieve a relatively better political and economic condition
( Baradat 1997). This definition is the product of numerous views from different political
scientists and philosophers through time from the classical to the modern period. Some of
the philosophers were social contract theorist: John Locke, Jean – Jacques Rousseau and
Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Frederick Watkins, David Ingersoll,
L.T. Sargent and Terence Ball. On the other hand, the first formal used of ideology as a
political science jargon was made by Claude Destutt De Tracy when he was studying the
enlightenment of Europe.
Ideologies are goal-oriented, meaning they are for or against a certain
configuration of a political community. Their applications, however are dependent upon
the different political attitudes of people and institutions. Frederick Watkins suggested
that ideologies come from different political extremes such as the conservatives or the
pro status qou on one side, and the radicals or the anti-status qou on the extreme side.
Modern-day political scientist have expended the spectrum to include different
levels of political attitudes and the different ways in which each level wants to preserve
or change the status quo. At the extreme right of the spectrum are the liberals and the
radicals who are by nature anti status quo. Though the radicals push for more extreme
changes in the political system, both the radicals and liberals aim for progressive change
in the state.

Here are some political ideologies and their impact on political communities:
1. Conservatism- as the name implies, one focused on conserving something. It is
characterized by a resistant to change, adherent to limited human freedom as it
 chooses to maintain traditional values and some extra versions, distrust to human
reasoning and nature of anti-egalitarianism.
2. Liberalism-is the opposite of conservatism for it favors change, prefers more
freedom and has more optimistic approach to human reasoning and nature.
3. Marxism- one should be careful in branding communism, socialism, or any other
similar ideologies as Marxists because they may not necessary reflect the ideals of
Karl Marx although theses ideologies might find their roots in the tenets proposed by
Marx. Some of the ideological and conceptual bases of Marxism are the following:

a. Alienation- this is the relationship between two or more people or parts of oneself in
which one is cut off from a stranger or alien or the others.

b. Class Struggle- Karl Marx also noted the struggle between the bourgeoisi (the
capitalist or middle class) and the proletariat (workers).

c. Materialism- Marxism and the offshoots of this ideology offer a complex perspective
and usage of materialism.

d. Revolution- almost all theories and ideologies related to Marxism consider

proclaiming revolution as the way to change the system.

4. Anarchism- while most people are familiar with how anarchy is popularly used to
mean chaos due to the non-existence of control mechanisms the idea behind it is actually
more on peaceful coexistence and equality.

5. Libertarianism- this is another version of anarchism but involves the government in a

minimal role such as ensuring the safety of everyone and fairness in whatever contracts
or dealings.

Learning about political ideologies is advantageous in understanding certain

political contexts. In the Philippines, different political ideologies like Marxism and
communism have affected different political- historical events such as the first quarter
storm during the Marcos dictatorship and the formation of the different insurgents in the
country.

There are other ideologies, depending on the issue ar aspect of human life one is
studying. There are also new ideologies that may crop up. Remember that because of the
multitude and complexity of some issues on politics and governance, we cannot be all too
liberal or too conservative.

Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawilen, internet resource
materials
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: Jeomar N. Rabadon
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic : Nature, Forms and Consequences of Power
Module Content: Basic Concepts of Politics and
Governance
Module 3

Learning Competencies:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

 Define power
  Identify the nature, types and consequences of power
 Explain the nature, dimensions, types, and consequences of power
 Explain how power is exercised in different situations

Nature, Forms and Consequences of Power

Lesson Proper:

One of the central concepts and issues of political science is power. Who wields it? How
it is shared, checked, or monopolized? How can power and its consequences be controlled to
gain benefits?

You may not know it but we may be affected by a play or power, in its political sense, in
our everyday life. In the same way, each of us wields power on other people, things, or
situations.

This lesson presents the different definitions and aspects of power in political science.
Not only will the students be able to recognize power, but they will also be responsible in using
it to avoid abuse in its usage, as well as to give due respect to others who have power over them.

Power in the natural sciences can be easily established through a single equation, which
signifies the quantifiable nature of physical power. Power in society, and by extension, the social
sciences, on the other hand, is more complicated because it is continuously being molded by the
dynamic nature of society and the objective and subjective capacity of man.

Dhal (1950) defined power in society as the ability of person A or institution A to make
person B or institution B do something that person B or institution B, on his/her/its own, would
not do. From the said definition, power in society spans a broad spectrum of meaning that
includes force, authority, influence, and most of the time, coercion.

In addition, in society, there are different forms of power-from authoritative power to

economic power. There are also many ways in which power can be expressed by individuals or
institutions. Likewise, expressing power may range from the simplest of human interaction, such
as when parents tell their children what they should and should not do, to the grandest, such as
when the government imposes policies for the welfare of its constituents.

The extent of the consequences of power is dependent upon the different ways, degree,
and the aims by which power is expressed in society. For instance, political power in a state is
exercised by the government. Through this power, the government is able to create and enact
laws that promote peace and order in society and influence various processes such as those
affecting the economy for the benefit of its constituents as well.

In their attempt to classify and better understand power, Barnett and Duvall (Pallaver
2011) created the taxonomy of power with four major types:

1. Compulsory Power- the direct control of one actor of the conditions and actions of
another.
2. Institutional Power- the direct ways in which a n actor affects another. An examples is
the use of rules or the law to impose order.
3. Structural Power- basically looks at the position and the roles of various actors in
relation to each other. Examples are coach to player, boss to worker, or captain to crew
relationships wherein the position of each player toward another provides them roles and
responsibilities that they play even without one coercing the other.
 4. Productive power- similar to structural power that looks into the relative position of the
actor perceptions and actions. However, productive power focuses not on the direct
structures provide and accepted by each actor, but on the discourse between the actors in
which power is negotiated.

According to Aristotle in his Politics, there are situations where power in government is
corrupted by the personal and selfish goals of individuals. Because achieve personal rather than
communal gains. This is true throughout the history of man wherein various individuals
identified by Thomas Carlyle (1841) as“ Great Men” of history, such as dedicators and despots
like Pol Pot and Adolf Hitler who used the power vested on them by their respective
governments to pursue personal ambitions over the welfare of their people.

In studying politics, we must be aware and accept the fact that power, as a central
concept, is dynamic and has different forms, depending on who is imposing power, and how that
power is expressed.

Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawilen, internet resource
materials
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: Jeomar N. Rabadon
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: State and Nation in the Age of Globalization
Module Content: Basic Concepts of Politics and
Governance
Module 4

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Define nation and state

 Differentiate nation from state
 Explain how nation-state is created
 Define globalization
 Explain how globalization influences nation-state.

State and Nation in the Age of Globalization

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

13. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
14. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
15. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
16. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
17. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
18. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:
“Globalization means we have to re-examine our ideas, and look at ideas from other cultures,
and open ourselves to them”
-Herbie Hancock-

Nation and state are two similar and sometimes interchangeable yet different concepts in
science.
This lesson clarifies the characteristics of the two concepts that make them similar, as well as
those that show their differences.

The concept of globalization is relatively new. Globalization is an event and issue that
affects all fields of study, from the social sciences, natural sciences, to humanities. This lesson
provides the definitions of globalization, as well as gives perspective how globalization affects
political processes in our country.

Nation and state are two different but interlinked concepts. Different in the sense that
nation is a more cultural and identity-based term, while state mainly refers to a political entity
bounded by a territory and headed by a government.

Both nation and state share the fact that they refer to a single group of people despite the
difference on how these groups are organized, with one stressing a more cultural organization
and the other a more political one. However, these concepts complement each other and their
combined assumptions of the cultural and political make up for stronger organization.

Thus is the creation of the concept nation-state, which generally refers to a political unit
with a defined territory, government, and constituents that more or less share the same culture
and identity. In a nation-state, the political organization and the government are supported by a
cultural base of imagined unity and identity as presented by Benedict Anderson in his most
influential work on nationalism.

During the late 19th century and 20th century, the creation of the nation-states was
experienced in Southeast Asia, following the decolonization process that started with the loss of
Spanish control over the Philippines in 1898. Decolonization was hastened by different political
and economic turmoil in both Europe and Asia in the 20 th century such as the First and Second
World Wars. These political upheavals ultimately led to the reconfiguration of the power from
the Europe and to the superpowers, the Union Soviet Socialists Republic (USSR) and the United
States of America (USA), and the consequent loss of more European colonies in Southeast Asia
such as Singapore from the British, and Vietnam from the French.

However, with the advent of globalization, the defined physical and cultural boundaries
of the nation-states are now being threatened by a new tpe of order that some scholars claim have
occupied its roots on various historical processes such as the colonization during the 16 th century.
GLOBALIZATION is a process of interaction and integration of every landscape in the
planet( Levin Institute 2015) To borrow Arjun Appadurai’s terms ( Appadurai 1996), these
landscapes include the technoscape ( technology), financescape ( economy), ethnoscape ( culture
and social life), and ideoscapes ( ideas).

GLOBALIZATION is a process that is slowly changing things into one complex scheme
that transcends cultural, political, and social boundaries- a system devoid of spatial restraints that
ultimately challenges the very existence of nation-states.

Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawilen, internet resource
materials
Name: __________________, _________________________ _______ Date: __________

SURNAME FIRST NAME MI

Grade & Block: ____________________________________________ Score: __________

Subject: Philippine Politics and Governance

INTERACTIVE MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE
Teacher: Jeomar N. Rabadon

Subject : PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Topic: Forms of Government

Module Content: Basic Concepts of Political and Governance

MODULE 5

Learning Competencies:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Differentiate the forms of government

 Explain the factors that create, maintain, and destroy each form of government
 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each form of government

Forms of Government

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

19. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
20. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
21. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
22. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
23. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
24. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:
 Some countries are ruled by one person, others by a group. There are leaders chosen by
the people, there are those who became leaders by birthright. There are persons or groups who
are given all the powers to manage the government and the country, while in other places, power
is divided among individuals.

This lesson discusses the different forms of government and their functions. By
evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each form of government, we can also explore the
possibilities of improving the current system of government in the country. The history of
mankind has shown that the government, as the physical manifestation of political power in
society, is also prone to the dynamic changes in society. This explains why governments take
different forms.

The form of government is essentially determined by the number of rulers, the way
power is exercised by theses rulers, and the ideologies that guide the government. It was in
ancient Greece that the forms of government that we know today were founded, such as
democracy (the rule of people or many), oligarchy (the rule of the privileged few), and tyranny
( the rule of one individual). At present, there are different terms being used to refer to different
types of regimes like constitutional monarchy, guided democracy, and communist rule but they
are basically under democracy, oligarchy and tyranny.

It is interesting to note that Aristotle considered the three forms of government as

examples of bad governments. In Politics, he included the good version of each form of bad
government.

Kingship or monarchy for Aristotle is good version of tyranny because the leader rules
the people with wisdom and virtue, unlike tyranny, where the leader is possessed with extreme
desire to improve and empower himself/herself rather than promote welfare to his/her
constituents. Aristocracy, as the rule of the privileged few, is seen by Aristotle as good version of
oligarchy because those who are in power belong to the upper class, thus the assumption of
virtue.

Polity is the good version of democracy. While polity is essentially the same as
democracy as the rule of the people in general, it stresses however the involvement of the middle
class in ruling, which is its crucial character. The middle class is important because, according to
Aristotle, they make up most of society, thus they represent the greater interest.

Other forms of government are as follows:

1. Monarchy vs. Republic- both forms have an individual holding the power as the head of
the state. While the monarchy ruled by king and is hereditary, a republic is usually ruled
by a president chosen by the people through election.
2. Autocracy vs. Democracy-in autocracy, power is held by a single, self-appointed ruler, its
absolute form being the dictatorship. In democracy, on the other hand, power resides with
the people as they have the ability to select their leader and directly or indirectly involve
themselves in politics and governance.
3. Unitary State vs. Federal State- a unitary state has a central government holding power
with the capability to delegate or take back authority and function to and from the lower
levels or offices. A federal state has a central government with the main function of
uniting several self-governing states or regions. The central government in a federal state
cannot duly interfere or immediately alter the laws of the member states.

Theocracy is also another form of government that is composed of the joint rule of the church
and state or the domination of the state by the church.

The Philippines is essentially a democratic country. Throughout our history, however, only a
few individuals or the elites have been instrumental to the forging of the country’s political
character. Involvement of the middle class is not clearly manifested in any significant political
agendas of the government.

INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Politics in the Pre-Spanish to Spanish Period
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 6
Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Describe Philippine politics and governance from the pre-colonial period to

Spanish
 Identify similarities and differences between today’s politics and the
experiences and processes of politics in the past
 Discuss the changes in the Philippine politics and governance
 Assess the effects of the colonial experience of the country in its present
politics and governance.
 Politics in the Pre-Spanish to Spanish Period

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

25. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
26. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
27. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
28. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
29. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
30. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:
“Leadership is not about titles, positions, or flowcharts. It is about one life influencing another”.
- John C. Maxwell-
There are two misconceptions about Philippine politics that must be corrected. First, that
there was no politics prior to the colonization period. By definition of politics, whenever a group
is formed and leaders are chosen, there is already a play of power even without the group being
aware of such concept. Additionally, there are accounts or records that prove the existence of
politics in the Philippines prior to the colonization period.
The second misconception is that every issue or problem we have in politics and
governance was caused by colonization. This is not true since a lot of political issues and
concerns we have to this day can be traced back even before colonization.
Politics during the pre-colonial Philippines was as diverse as the heterogeneous cultural
character of the country and by extension, the region of the Southeast Asia. Scott (1979) was
able to identify four types of Filipino unhispanized societies in the country that were able to
preserve to some extent their traditional political systems.
The first is the classless societies, or communities that are so small that they do not have
the need to elect a leader. The need for a leader only comes with the facilitation of hunting, but
after every expedition, the appointed leader loses his power. The second type is the warrior
societies who have a defined warrior class who are also appointed leaders for legislation, inter-
ethnic relations, and judicial matters. These communities are relatively larger than the first and
have more or less hostile relations with other groups, thus the need for the warrior class.
The third type is petty plutocracies where there is a clear division of economic class. In
most instances, the ruler of such communities comes from the privileged class, though being a
ruler also means having proven oneself to be of service to the community. The last type would be
the principalities where there is a clear class of leaders through the datus and sultans. Most often,
these communities follow the political organization entity in the Philippines pre-colonial history
(Scott 1979).
From Scott’s research, we are able to see that pre-colonial politics was molded by
community needs and the external influences of the Muslims and the Indian traders and settlers
in the country.
During the colonial period, the areas and the groups in the Philippines that the Spaniards
were able to occupy and influence have experienced a radical change in politics and governance.
Indigenous political systems is hispanized areas were removed and replaced by the colonial form
of government for easier management. Hispanized areas in the Philippines became tied to the
government in Spain with the king as head, followed by the viceroy in Latin America (Gripaldo
et. al.2005).
Communities were arranged according to the reduccion policy that centralized
settlements around colonial institutions, such as the church and municipal halls. The governor
general became the head of the colony, followed by the alcaldes and corrigemientos,
gobernadorcillos, and cabeza de barangays (Gripaldo et. al.2005).
Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawilen, internet resource
materials

INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE

Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON

Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Democracy in the Philippine
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 7
Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Define democracy
 Discuss the development of democracy in the Philippines
  Describe the effects of colonization process the way democracy is practiced
in the Philippines
 Enumerate the effects of Martial Law to the Philippine politics and
governance

Democracy in the Philippines

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

31. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
32. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
33. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
34. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
35. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
36. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:
The early part of the lesson focused on the concept of democracy-its definition, origins,
and its ideal application. This lesson, on the other hand, highlights the significant historical
events in the Philippines that affected the practice of democracy: the introduction of democracy
by the Americans, Martial Law period, and the EDSA Revolution.
As in the preceding lesson, this aims to show the students how to be objective in looking
at issues. Students should not be easily influenced by what they hear. They should look deeper
for facts and consider all possible scenarios and causes before they give their opinions or pass
judgments on issues. This lesson deals with the historical aspect and factors that affect politics
and governance such as the economy, culture, war, and international events.
Democracy has long been exercised in the ancient Greece and is now known as the rule
of people where the power in government does not emanate from the divine right or any god but
from the citizens of the state. The power of people in a democratic society is visible through the
observation of freedom of expression, right to equal representation, right to vote for their
representatives in government, and right to vote for and against a proposed legislation. Aristotle
considered democracy as the corrupt counterpart of the ideal regime of polity but is still a
popular model for government nonetheless.
Democracy was introduced in the Philippines during the late 19 th century following the
opening of the country’s economy to the in 1834 and the consequent inflow and outflow of ideas
and people along with trade goods. The success of the French Revolution that caused the
resurgence of democratic and liberal ideas in Europe reached our shores via trade with other
countries and also by the efforts of rich Filipino natives (ilustrados) who were able to study
abroad. The ilustrados, through the propaganda movement of Marcelo H. Del Pilar, translated
liberal ideas for the Philippines in their hope to achieve reform (Gripaldo et al.2005)
Democracy had great appeal to the Filipinos that it was even adopted by the Kataas-
taasan Kagalang-galangan Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK) of Andres Bonifacio.
The group encouraged popular democracy within the Katipunan’s ranks and it was through this
system that the Katipuneros voted for rebellion against Spanish authorities in 1896. (Gripaldo et
al.2005)
However, it was during the American period that democracy was used in full extent as a
political system. The defeated Spaniards during the Spanish- American War in 1898 sold the
Philippines to America but the Filipinos chose to be independent rather than be subjected to
another colonialist, thus the Philippine- American War. After three years of fighting, the Filipino
revolutionaries surrendered to the American forces.
 Even during the Philippine- American War, the issue of what to do with the Philippines
had been a debate in the United States. Some debated for its annexation as a colony ar as a state
while there were also some Americans who preferred the Philippines to be free.
To further investigate on the matter, as well as to manage the country under the American
rule and system, the United States sent Dr. Jacob Schurman to head the Schurman’s Commission
in 1899 with the basic objectives of establishing the civil government in pacified areas, as well as
training and assigning Filipinos in various government positions, among others. The Taft
Commission under Judge William Howard Taft in 1900 hastened the transition of the
government from a revolutionary to a civil and democratic one.
The Philippine Organic Act of 1902 created the Philippine Commission. The offices of
the Civil Governor and Vice Governor were created to exercise powers of the government but
would still be subject to the discretion of the President of the United States of America. Other
government offices were created to manage the country. Electoral representation in the
Philippines began with the creation of the Philippine Assembly. Philippine Assembly acted as
the lower house of the Philippine Commission and held its first election in 1907.
Democracy was further established through the 1935 Constitution. But in 1972, the
foundation of democracy in the country was sidelined upon the declaration of Martial Law by
President Ferdinand Marcos.
The Constitution was remodeled in 1973 and for a brief period of time, the country
experienced a strict disciplinarian state that controlled the economy, legislation, and the media.
Democracy was restrained by the 1987 Constitution following the success of the People
Power Revolution that toppled the Marcos dictatorship. The rights mandated in democratic
society such as the right to vote and freedom of expression were also restored.
Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawileninternet resource
materials.
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Functions of the Executive Branch
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 8

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Explain the roles and power of the Philippine president

 Discuss how the president exercise power

Functions of the Executive Branch

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:
37. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
38. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
39. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
40. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
41. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
42. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:

We have a presidential form of government in the Philippines. The president of the

Philippines is the center of power, the head of both government and state. This also means that
he/she is not constrained by both the judicial and legislative branch in the performance of his/her
duties as the country’s chief executive. The executive power upon the president and the
executive branch basically means “the power to enforce and administer the laws”. To qualify
as a candidate for presidency, a person must be:

1. A natural –born Filipino citizen,

2. A registered and write ,
3. Able to read and write,
4. At least forty ( 40 )years on the day of the election
5. A resident of the Philippines for at least 10 years immediately preceding such election.

The same qualifications apply to vice-president.

The president and the vice –president are elected through direct voting by the majority of the
voters and will begin their six-year term on the 30th day of June following the day of the election.
The president cannot run for re-election for the said office again unless that person who served as
president only held office, or resignation by the president, the following line of succession is
observed until the position of president is filled up: vice-president, Senate President, and the
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Aside from the executive power, there are other major powers held by the president. The first
major power is the power of appointment provided in Section 16, Article VII of the Constitution.
The president can appoint the heads of executive departments, ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls, officers of the armed forces from the rank of colonel or naval captain, and
other offices whose appointments are vested in him/her by the Constitution.

The second major power is administrative power, as stated in Section 17, Article VII. The
president shall have control of all executive departments, bureaus, and offices. He shall ensure
that the laws be faithfully executed.

The third major power is military power for being the commander-in-chief of all the armed
forces in the Philippines under Section 18, Article VII. Along with this power is the power to
suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus and to place the country or any part of the
Philippines under martial law in cases of invasion or rebellion or when public safety requires it.
The president is given 48 hours from the proclamation of martial law to submit a report
regarding such proclamation to the Congress which will then decide if the proclamation be
revoked or suspended.
The president has also the power to grant pardons and amnesty. Pardon is the power to release a
wrongdoer from punishment after conviction. Amnesty is a pardon extended to a group of
persons and abolished the offense before or after conviction.

Other powers of the president include: the power to contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf
of the Republic subject to prior concurrence of the Monetary Board and subject to limitations as
may be provided by law, the power to sign a treaty or international agreement provided that the
validity and effectiveness of such treaty will be ratified first by at least two-third of all members
of the Senate, and the power of the budget under Section 22, Article VII, where the president
submits to the Congress a budget of expenditures and sources of financing, including receipts
from existing and proposed revenue measure.

The president exercises a lot of powers, but he/ she should be reminded that the true power rests
in the people and that the Office of the President, as well as the other branches of the
government, exists to serve the populace.

Bibliography: Philippine Politics and governance by: Reidan M. Pawilen, internet resource
materials
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Functions of Legislative Branch
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 9

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Discuss the roles and responsibilities of the Philippine Senate and the House
of Representatives
 Assess the performance of the Philippine Congress
 Discuss the impact of Congress’s performance on Philippine development
 Articulate a position or advocacy to a Philippine legislator through a formal
correspondence.

Functions of Legislative Branch

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

43. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
44. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
45. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
46. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
47. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
48. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:

The legislative is a power or the government is vested upon the Congress of the
Philippines in accordance with the 1987 Constitution. The Congress is divided into two
chambers; the House of Representative (lower house) and the Senate of the Philippines
(upper house).
The Senate of the Philippines is composed of 24 senators elected at large while
the House of Representatives is composed of not more than 250 members, 20% of which
is composed of party-list representatives. A qualified candidate for both the Senate and
the House of Representatives must be a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, able to
read and write, and a registered voter. The difference is that the Senate requires that the
person must be at least 35 years olds and a resident of the Philippines for not less than
two years before election days. On the other hand, a candidate for House needs to be at
least 25 years old and a resident of the Philippines for at least one year in the district
where he/she will be elected (except for party-list representatives).

The term of office for the elected senators and representatives starts at noon of
30 day of June following their election. The senators will serve for six years and shall
th

not serve for than two consecutive terms. The representatives, also known as
congressman/women, will serve for three years and shall not hold office for more than
three consecutive terms. In case of vacancy in the Congress, under Section 9 of Article
V1, a special election may be called to fill such vacancy in the manner prescribed by law,
but the senators or member of the House of Representatives thus elected shall serve only
for the unexpired terms.

The primary function of the legislative branch is the creation, enactment, and
amendments of laws. Proposed laws may come from the senators or representatives
themselves, the people they represent (district, province, or the party),or the other two
branches of the government. These proposals are drafted into bill.

A bill is a draft of law presented to legislation for enactment, by the approval by

congress and the president of the Republic.
 The basic process for the creation or amendment of a law begins with a bill
drafted by a senator or representative and filed for the first reading. The first reading is
where the senate President or the Speaker of the House reads out the title, bill number,
and author’s name, and then assigns the bill to the proper Senate or House Committee.

The author(s) or the concerned committee will send out an invitation to various
concerned parties, agencies, and stakeholders for a public hearing of the bill to review the
proposed bill and give their comments during the deliberations. The concerned committee
can hold a technical working group meeting for specific changes to the provisions such as
proper concepts, correction of grammar, and deletion or addition of certain phrases or
words.

After the approval of the bill by the committee members, a committee report is
then filed with its approved version of the bill to the committee on rules for the second
reading. In the second reading, the author of the bill or the chairperson of the committee
delivers a sponsorship speech. It is followed by a period of interpellation wherein other
senators or representatives may debate or ask further questions to the sponsor of the bill.
After the interpellation, the senators or representatives may make some amendment.

In reviewing a bill, there are some things to consider:

1. Does the bill conform to the provisions of the Constitution?

2. What is the main issue that the bill is trying to address?
3. What are the methods that the bill is trying to process in order to answer the issue?
4. Are there alternative means to address the issue?
5. Who will benefit from the bill if it enacted into law? How will the benefit be given?
Will this create further problems?
6. Is there sufficient fund for the law? Where will the government get the fund needed to
enforce the law?

The representatives or the senators again vote for the passage of the bill on second
reading. ”As a general rule, a bill must pass both the Senate and the House” (Defensor-
Santiago 2002). Note that two version of a bill are processed simultaneously in both
chambers. The final version of the approved bill by both chambers is then printed for
approval. Or if there are disagreements between the two chambers on the final version of
the bill, a Bicameral Conference Committee is created to make the necessary changes
before printing out the final and reconciled version of the bill. Another period of
interpellation follows after which the senators or the representatives vote for the third
reading of the bill. Upon the last reading of a bill, no amendment shall be allowed.

Upon approval of the final version of the bill by both chambers, the Senate President
and the Speaker of the House shall sign the final copy now known as the enrolled and
send it to the President for approval and signature. The bill becomes a law upon the
signing of the president. In case of objection from the President, the enrolled bill is
vetoed and returned to the House where the bill is originated. If the House of
Representatives or the Senate still reconsiders the bill, at least two-thirds of all the
members of the House shall vote for the bill to become a law. Failure by the president to
act an on the enrolled bill within 30 days upon his or her receipt, the bill becomes a law
as if the president has assigned.

Other than a bill, each House can make resolutions “conveys principles and
sentiments of the members of the senate for the House of Representative” There are three
different types of resolution.
 1. Joint Resolution- require the approval of both chambers of Congress snd the signature
of the president, and have the force and effect of a law if approved.
2. Concurrent resolutions- used for matters affecting the operations of both chambers of
Congress and must be approved in the same from by both houses, but are not
transmitted to the president for his/her signature and therefore have no force and
effect of a law.
3. Simple resolutions- deal with matters entirely within the prerogative of one chamber
of Congress; are not referred to the president for his/her signature, and therefore have
no force and effect of a law.

INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Functions of the Judicial Branch
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 10

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Identify the functions of the Philippine judiciary

 Discuss how the judiciary exercises political neutrality and fairness
 Discuss the performance of the Philippine judiciary as a dispenser of justice
and a protector of constitutional rights and freedom

Functions of the Judicial Branch

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

49. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
50. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
51. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
52. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
53. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
54. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.
Lesson Proper:
The judicial branch of the government is the primary agency that handles matters
concerning the settlement of issues regarding the rights and interpretation of law. The power of
the judiciary rests on the Supreme Court and the lower courts, which include the Court of
Appeals, Sandiganbayan, down to the Regional Trial Court, the Metropolitan Trial Court, and
Municipal Trial Court. The 1987 Constitution defines judicial power as follows:

Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual controversies
involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not
there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part
of any branch or instrumentality of the government.

This means that the judicial branch of the government not only rules on legal issues but
also on the other two branches “whenever the court finds that the other department has
committed grave abuse of discretion” (Defensor-Santiago 2002)

Some of the functions of the Supreme Court under the 1987 Constitution are as follows:
1. The Supreme Court primarily handles the cases ambassadors, other public ministers, and
consuls.
2. Review, affair, reverse, or amend the decision of lower courts o certain cases that may
concern the constitutionally or validity of international agreement and presidential
decrees, questionable decisions or processes of the lower courts, cases which are
punishable by lifetime imprisonment, error or question of law, among others.
3. Appointments of judges, officials, and employees of the Judiciary.
4. Create and disseminate rules and procedures concerning the process in legal courts as
well as the membership to the Bar.

The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices appointed
by the president from a list of qualifiers from the screening process done by the Judicial and Bar
Council.

The Court of Appeals, the second highest tribunal or legal court in the country, is composed
of a Presiding Justice and six-nine Associate Justice who are appointed by the president. Aside
from having power in the issuance of certain legal documents and orders, the Court of Appeals
mainly receives, reviews, and resolves appeals on decisions of Regional Trial Courts, as well as
that of the Office of the Ombudsman in cases wherein one of the parties is not satisfied with the
decisions
 Court of Tax Appeals, on the other hand, focuses on reviewing and resolving appeals of
decisions from the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Commissioner of Customs, Department
of Finance, Department of Trade and Industry, and other legal courts concerning cases related to
tax, tariffs, and other monetary obligations to the government. The Court of Tax Appeals is
composed of one Presiding Justice and five Associate Justices.

The Sandiganbayan has the following mandate:

SEC. 5 The Batasang Pambansa shall create a special court, to be known as Sndiganbayan,
which shall have jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases involving graft and corrupt practices
and such other offenses committed by public officers and employees, including those in
government-owned or controlled corporations, in relation to their office as may be determined by
law. (Art.X111, 1973 Constitution)

SEC. 4 The present anti-graft court known as the Sandiganbayan shall continue to function
and exercise its jurisdiction as now or hereafter may be provided by law. (Art.X1, 1987)

Low courts such as city and municipal courts have original jurisdiction over cases such
as, but not limited to, violations of municipal ordinances, gambling, and assault, estafa to a
certain amount, malicious mischief, trespassing, and illegal possession of firearms (Ramirez
1969)

In order to further maintain objectivity in the system, the judicial branch sometimes
transfers one judge or even cases from one city to another (Defensor-Santiago 2002). Section 15,
Article V111 of the 1987 Constitution provided a timetable for the resolution of the cases
brought to the judiciary =: two years for the Supreme Court, one year for issue the lower
collegiate courts, and three months for all other lower courts. In case the issue is not resolved
within those periods, a certification signed by the Chief Justice or presiding judge stating why
the case has not been resolved shall be issued and served to both parties. Section 15 [4] further
goes on to say that;

Despite the expiration of the applicable mandatory period, the court, without prejudice to
such responsibility as may have been incurred in consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the
case or matter submitted thereto for determination, without further delay.
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: Decentralization and the Local Government
Module Content: Philippine Politics and Governance
MODULE 11
Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Identify the different levels of the local government

 Explain the functions of the local government units
 Discuss how decentralization affects governance
 Discuss the performance of a local government unit

Decentralization and the Local Government

Lesson Proper:

The three branches of the government are not able to oversee the whole system nor
swiftly deliver its programs and benefits of the citizens to the different areas of the country when
they do it alone. They need to have partners in the different communities with almost the same
capabilities so that the services will be similarly and simultaneously provided to all citizens.

This lesson introduces the local government units and their functions. Each lesson does
not only evaluate the performance of the units but also provide suggestion on how to make the
performance of their duties better.

Decentralization of the government occurs when there is a transfer of authority,

responsibility, and resources from the central government to lower government units. This is
important especially when the geographical area of a country and its population are too large for
the central government to handle.

The local government “is the lowest level of elected territorial organization within a
state” that has a dual function of providing local public services and implementing national
welfare policies, (Atienza 2006). In the Philippines, drawing from its indigenous and colonial
heritage, the lowest political unit of the state is the barangay headed by the selected barangay
chairman and the elected members of the barangay council.

In the heterogeneous, geographic, and cultural context of the Philippines, a decentralized

model of the government anchored on the establishment of strong local governments is an
essential aspect of the governance. Throughout the history, various attempts of devolving power
from Manila, which was established as the economic and political center of the Philippines
during Spanish colonial period for easier governance, has been done prior to the institution of the
Local Government Code of 1991.

During the time of Emilio Aguinaldo and the Malolos Constitution in 1898, there was a
proposal to establish provincial council but this was not thoroughly implemented because of the
precarious situation of the young republic amidst tensions between Filipinos and Americans.
Local government units were established during the American period and carried on by the
Philippine government as mandated by its constitution.

It was in 1991 through the Local Government Code that the local government units were
given the clear mandated to govern and promote Welfare of their constituents. Each local
government unis has the power and responsibility to promote agricultural support services,
engage in research and development protection, ensure social welfare, and sponsor public works
and establishment of facilities.

Local government units include provinces, cities, municipalities, barangays, and other
political created by law. Each unit is created based on income, population, and land area, and
may be abolished based on the same criteria. Hierarchical relations put the province over the
municipalities and component cities within the provincial boundaries. At the base of this
hierarchy are the barangays.

Elected local government officials have three-year terms. Local officials are entitled to
three consecutive terms.
 INTERACTIVE
MODULE
IN
PHILIPPINE
POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Teacher: JEOMAR N. RABADON
Subject: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND
GOVERNANCE
Topic: The Right of Suffrage
Module Content: State and Society
MODULE 12

Learning Competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Describe the nature of elections in the Philippines.

 Identify the types of electoral systems.
 Discuss the implications of the electoral systems on politics and governance.
 The Right of Suffrage

Instructions on the Proper use of this module:

55. Follow closely the instruction in every activity.
56. Be honest in answering and checking your exercises.
57. Answer the pre-test before going over the materials. This is to find out what you already
know.
58. Answer the exercises encountered at the end of every lesson.
59. Review the lesson that you think you failed to understand.
60. Seek assistance from your teacher if you need help.

Lesson Proper:

If there is a common event in which the masses have a direct influence on politics and
governance, it is the election. The right to vote, also known as the right of suffrage, is very
important to various minority groups in different countries throughout history because of the
direct and immediate impact of each vote on the whole political system. The vote represents the
vote of the people, so the people must really guard the election process and protect their right to
vote.

People should be aware of the important of that right and the power that comes with it.
They should not aware it or sell it, as in most cases during elections. They should be educated
and be well informed their choices.

Finally, the voters must look beyond the slogans, hand signs, posters, TV ads, and
anything that any candidate promotes. Rather, they weigh in the wisdom and values that the
candidates possess.

One of the greatest powers of the people is the ability to choose who will lead them, who
will represent them, and who will run the government. Such power is manifested by the people
exercising their right to vote during elections. This right is not actually passing the responsibility
of governance to the politicians and then solely blaming them if go wrong with the country.
Having the right to choose their leaders only shows that the people shares the responsibility in
establishing good government and progress for the country. The elected officials, on the other
hand, must serve as“(Defensor-Santiago 2002).

The right to vote, also known as the right of suffrage, is stated in Section 1, Article V of
the 1987 Constitution:

Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified
by law, who are at least eighteen years of age, and who shall have resided in the Philippines for
at least one year, and in the place wherein they propose to vote, for at least six months
immediately preceding the election. No literacy, property, or other substantive requirement shall
be imposed on the exercise of suffrage.

Suffrage encompasses not only the process of selecting public officers but also the
“expression of the choice of people on a proposed law or enactment submitted them for
decision” (Ramirez 1969).

The right of suffrage is not a natural right but a privilege given to the citizens. As a mere
privilege, it can be withheld in cases the privilege becomes detrimental to other and the system
as a whole.
 Under section 2 of Article V, the congress shall be the one to formulate the processes to
help maintain the secretary of the ballots as well as the procedure for the disabled and the
illiterates to vote without the assistance of the other persons.

The commission on election (COMELEC) is the agency that enforces and administers all
laws and regulation relative to the conduct of elections in the country. The functions of the
COMELEC based on section 2, Article IX-C of the 1987 constitution are the follows:

1. Enforce and administers all laws and regulations to the conduct of and election,
plebiscite, initiative, referendum, and recall.
2. Exercise exclusive original jurisdiction over all contest relating to the election, returns,
and qualifications of all elective regional, provincial, and city officials, and appellate
jurisdiction over all contests involving elective municipal officials decided by trial courts
of general jurisdiction, or involving elective barangay officials decided by trial courts of
limited jurisdiction.
3. Decide, except those involving the right to vote, all questions affecting elections,
including determination of the number and location of polling places, appointment of
election officials and inspectors, and registration of voters.
4. Deputize, with the concurrence of the president, law enforcement agencies and
instrumentalities of the Government, including the Armed forces of the Philippines, for
the exclusive purpose of ensuring free, orderly, honest, peaceful credible elections.
5. Register, after sufficient publication, political parties, organization, of coalitions which,
in addition to other requirement, must present their platform or program of government;
and accredit citizens’ arms of the commission on elections.
6. File, upon a verified complaint, or on its own initiative, petitions in court for inclusion or
exclusive of voters; investigate and, where appropriate, prosecute cases of violations of
elections laws, including acts or omissions constituting election frauds, and malpractices.
7. Recommended to the congress effective measures to minimize election spending,
including limitation of places where propaganda materials shall be posted, and to prevent
and penalize all forms of election frauds, offenses, malpractices, and nuisance candidates.
8. Recommended to the president the removal of any officer or employee it has deputized,
or the imposition of any other disciplinary action, for violation or disregard of, or
disobedience to its directive, order, or decision.
9. Submit to the President and the Congress a comprehensive report on the conduct of each
election, plebiscite, initiative, referendum, or recall.

The candidates who gets the highest vote is declared the winner. In our elections, we follow
the plurality electoral system (first-past-the-post or winner-takes-all election). Here, the winner is
the one with the most votes whether they had the majority or not (King 2000). To clarify things,
majority means 50% of all votes plus at least 1 more vote (50%+1). Say in class of 100 students
voting for a class president, majority would be at least 51 of the votes. In a plurality electoral
system, even if the winner gets only 5 votes out of 100, as long as he/she had the most votes,
he/she wins.

Other electoral system are the majority electoral system and the proportional representation.
In majority electoral system (second ballot system), the winner must get at least 50% + 1 vote. In
case no one is able to reach the cut-off, another round of election will be done with either all the
original candidate or only a selected few based on a criteria ( like top five, averaging, etc.) (King
2000). In case all or not just one candidate garners 50% + 1 vote, the highest will be declared the
winner although ruling may vary from one place to another.

In proportional representation, the people vote for the parties and each party will be given the
same or almost the same percentage of positions in the government as the percentage of votes
they garnered during the elections (King 2000). For example, the Right Party won 70% of the
votes while the Left Party only on 30% of the total votes in an election. In a government of 100
positions, the Right Party will be given 70 of those positions while the Left Party will be given
30. Of course, there are further formulas in determining the percentage and the positions that will
be given to the winners since it is more complex in real-life application.