A.C.

Bridges
Hi"X. :fotrnduction. Alternating current bridge methods are of outstanding importance for
16
i
'
measurement of electric~J quantities Measurements of inductance, capacitance, storage factor, Joss
factor etc. may be made conveniently and accurately by employing a.c. bridge networks.
Tlie a.c. bridge is a natural outgrowth of the Wheatstone bridge. An a.c. bridge; in its basic
form, consists of four arms, a source of excitation, and a balance detector. Io an a.c. oridge each of
foe four arms is an impedance, and the battery and the galvanometer of the Wheatstone bridge are
replaced respectively by an a c. source and a detector sensitive to small a_lternating potential
differences.
16'2. Sources and Detectors. For measurements at low frequencies, the power line may act
a:; tbc source of supply to the bridge circuits. For . higher frequencies electronic oscillators arc
universally used ns bndge source supplies. These oscillators have the advantage that the frequency is
constant, easily adjusta 1>le, and determinable with accuracy. The waveform is very close to a sine
wave, and their power output is sufficient for most bridge measurements. A typical osc!llator has a
frequency range of 40 Hz to 125 kHz with a power output of 7 W.
The detectors commonly used for a.c. bridges are (i) Head phones, (U) Vibration galvanometers,
and (iii) Tuneable amplifier detectors. Head phones are "".idely used as detectors at frequencies of
250 Hz and Ol'er upto 3 or 4 kHz. They are most sensitive de1ectors for this frequency range.
When workilig at a single frequency a tuned>t!etector normally gives the greatest sensitivitt
and discrimination against harmonics in the supply. Vibration galvanometers are extremely useful ay
power and low audio frequency ranges. Vibration galvanometers are 1minufactured to work at various
fr<qtwncies ranging from 5 Hz to !000 Hz but are most commonly used helow 200 Hz as below this
frequency they are more sensitive than the head pliones.
Tnneable amplifier detectors are'the most ':!!)rsatile of the .detectors. The transistor ampuner
can be tuned electrically and thus can be ma'!!e to respond to a narrow bandwidth at the bridge
frequency. The output of Jhe amplifier is, fed to a pointer_type ct instrument. This detector can be
med, over a frequency range of JO Hz tcy 100 kHz~'· -
For ordinary a.c. -bridge measurements of inductance and
oscillator of 1000 Hz and output of about l W is adequate. For more
sp1;cialised work continuously variable oscillators are preferable with
ontphts upto 5 W. The high power may be necessary on some
occasions, but in practice it is better to limit the power supplied to
the bridge. Another practice which is usually followed is to use an
untmwd amplifier detector. The balance detection is sensed both orally
.oy h~ad phone;;, and visually by a pointer galvanometer having a
ltJfjarithniic deflection (to avoid damage to the galvanometer which
ml\)! be caused by unbalance). 0 Detec•or
(
/
Fig. 16'1 shows
Ul'3. G@ltleral Eqm1tkm for Bridge Bahmce. 0
..a:;k: a.c. bridge. The four arms of the bridge are impedances Zt,
r.r r}r r--:r
tt,_.z, .•Ll3 ant.;,J e.,-4,

. . The conditions for balance of bridge require that there i ·

sl:iould be no current through the detector. This requires that the
potential difference between points b and d should be zero. This will
lie tho caee when the voltage drop from a to b equals to voltage drop N ,_E_ ___,
from a to d, both in magnitude and phase. In complex notation wr; Sourc P
\llllll, *us, write : · Fi$. 16"1. Basic a.c, bridge network •
. 496
 A'c. BRIDGE 497
Ei=E2 .. (t6'1)
or I1Z1=I2Z2 ... (!6'2)

E ".(16'3)
Also at balance, I1 =I3 Zi+Z
2
• •
•2= A4 =
K ,, ... (16'4)'
and ------>--
~+Z4
Substitution of Eqns. 16'3 and 16'4 into Eqn. 16'2 gives ;
Z1Z4=Z2Za ...(l<f5)
or when using admittances instead of impedanct:'s
Y1Y4=Y2Ya ... (16'6}

Eqns. 16'5 and 16'6 represent the basic equatio~s for balance of an a.c. bridge. ·nqit. 16'_~ is
convenient to use when dealing with series elements of a bridge while Eqn. 16'6 is useful when dt!almg
with parallel elements. .
Equ. 16'5 states that the product of impedances of one pair 01 opposite arms must e~ual the
product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms expressed in complex notation. Thrn ,means
that both magnitudes and the phase angles of the impedances must be taken into account.
Considering the polar form, the impedance cai(be \vritieu as Z=Z/0, where Z represents the
m1'.griitu.de and 0 represents the phase angle of the complex impedance. Now Eqn. 16'5 can be re-
written Ill the form
(Z1/01)!Z4/84) =(Z2/02)(Zs/6s) • .(16'7)
Thus for balance, we must have :

-- -
Z1Z4/01 +61=Z2Z3/02+0a
i
,(16'8)

Eqn. 16'8 shows that two conditions must be satisfied simultaneously whei:i balan~lng an a.c.
bridge. The first condition is that the magnitude of impedances satisfy the rek 'miship :
Z1Z1=Z2Zs ... (16'9)
The scc<md condition is that the phase angles of impedauces mttisfy the rdationshi)) :
L01+L01=L02+L03 ... (!fl' 0)
The. phase angles are positive for an inductive impedance and negative for cap&v. we ·
impedance. . ·
lf we work in terms of rectangular co-ordinates, we have
Z1=R1+jX1; Z2=R2+jX2;
Zs=Ra+jXa and Z4=Rd·jX1.
Thus from Eq. 16'5, for balance
Z1Z4=Z2Zs
or +
(R1 jX1)(R4+jX4) =(R2+ jX2)(Rs+JXs)

.· .
or RiR4-X1X4+/X1R4+X1R1)-R2Ra-X2Xa+j(XsRs+X:i..1!1\t) ... (16"1 l)
Eqn. 16'11 is a complex equation and a complex equation i»s.3~ed,ocly ifre11l arnlimaginary
Parts of each side of the ~nation are separately equal. Thus, for ~~cc; :

I and
RiR~-X1X4=Rs.Ra-XtXa
X1R4+X,R1 =X2R3+XaR2
...(16'!29
... (JG'!J)
Thus th~ are two ind~dent ~fliotls for balam;e aud hf;>tb of thpm must be satisfied.

,J
·,:1
-·';.
' }
il98 BLllCTRICAL MEASURBMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Example 16'1. The four impedances of an a.c. bridge sh.own in Fig. 16'1 are:
Z1 =400 n /50'; Z2=200 n /40'; Za= 800 1-so·; Z 4 =400n120~
Find out whether the bridge is balanceed under these conditionsor not.
Sol!Jihm. Applying the first condition of balance for magnitudes :
Z1Z4=Z2Za
Now Z1Z4 =400 X400=160,000 and Z2Za=200 x 800=!60,000.
Z1Ze Z2Z3. Thus the first condition is satisfied,
Applying the second condition for balance required for phase: /61+/64 =/02 t/0 3
Now /61 t/04=50°t20'=70' ·and /tt2t/0a=40°-50'=~-10°:- - -
This indlCates-that the condition for phase relationship is not· satisfied and thereforn the
bridge is unbalanced even though the condition for equality of magnitudes is satisfied.
Example 16'2. An a.c. bridge circuit working at 1000 Hz is sbown in Fig. 16'1. Arm ab
is a 0·2 µF pure capacitance ; arm be is a 500 n pure resistance ; arm cd contains .an unknown
impedance and arm da has a 300 n reoistance in parallel with a 0·1 µF capacitor. Find the Rand c
or L constants of arm cd considering it as a series circuit.
Solution. Impedance of arm ab is :
l •
Zi= 2nfC - 211x1ono;o:--2-x·1-0;6- = 800 0
1
and Z1=800/-90' Q,sin.e it is a pure capacitance.
Impedance of arm be is,Z2=500 n
or Z3 = 500/0' sinclt it is a pure resistance.
/\rm da containi'a 300 0 resistance in parallel with a o· 1 µF capacitance.

Z2 = -1 +1~ C2Ri~ I +j(211 x IO(;Q ~~~l x io-6x300) = 294 ' 8-j5S' 4 "" 3co/- I0'6°'
2

for balance Z1Z4~Z2Z3

.-. [mpedance of cd required for balance
z 4 =_'/,i'/,&_ = 360x SOO /-I0'6't0'+90'=187'5/18'4'
· Zt 800 --
The positive angle for impedance indicates that the branch consists of a series R· L circuit.
Resistance R4= 187'5 cos 78'4'=37'7 n
Inductive reactm1ce X4= 187 5 sin 78"4' = 83'6 n.
I X3'6 .
Inductance L4= -2;, x 1 00 H=29 2 mH.
15.4. General form of an A.C. Bridge. As an example let us ·
consder the bridge circuit of Fig. 16 2. Ra and R4 are non-inductive
resistances L1 and L2 arc inductances of the negligible resistance and Rt
and R2 are non-inductive resistors.
· Therefore at balance,
Z1Z4 =Z 2Z3 or (R4+}fllL11R4 - (Ra+jwL2)R3.
Equating the real and imaginary.' parts separately, we have : 0
Ra ·
or Rt= R • Rz ... (16'14) lz
4

.r . L2Ra
"m :\ }'""' ,.J. R<1 = }"' or Li-- R
Rs L2 ... (16'15)
4
T1rno if L1 and Rt are unknown, the above bridge may be used
,, mc;isuc these quanti''"~ in terms of R2, R~, R, and L2. We may
de •Jucc se'·:;rai importa:1t conclusions from the above simple example.
....•···~
i· 11cv Dl\': ~ -

1. Tvrn balanc-0 eq\lations are always obtained for an a.c. Fig. l6'2. Inductance
l age cirq1L This follows fro111 the fact that for balance in an ~omparison llriilge.
 A.C. BRIDGES 49!!
a.c. bridge, both magnitude and phase relationships must be satisfied. This requires that real and
inaginary terms must be separated, which gives two equations to be satisfied for balance.
2. The two balance equations enable us to know two unknown quantities. The two
quantities are usually a resistance and an inductance or a capacitance.
I 3. In order to satisfy both conditions for balance and for convenience of manipulation,
i the bridge must contain two variable elements in its configuration. For greatest convenience, each
of the balance equations mast contain one variable element, and one only. The equations are then
said to be independent. In the bridge of Fig. 16'2, R2 and L2 are obvious choice as variable
elements since L2 does not appear in the expression for R1 and R2 does not figure in the expression
for L1 and hence the !wo balance equations are independent. The technique of balancing is
to adjust L2 till a minimum indication is obtained on the detector, then to adjust R2 until a new
smaller minimum indication is obtained. Then L2 and R2 are alternately adjusted until the
detctor shows no indication. ·
The process of alternate manipulation of two variable elements is rather typical
of the general balancing procedures adopted in most a c. bridges. When two variables are
chosen such that the two balance equations are no longei· independent, the bridge has a
very poor convergence of balance and /,\ives the effect of sliding balance. The term Sliding
Balance describes a condition of interaction betwtcon the two controls. Thus when we balance with
R2, then go to Ra and back to R2 for adjustment, we find a new apparent balance point. Thus the
balance point appears to move, or, ~Ihle and settles only gradually to its final point after many
adjustments. It may be emphasised here that in case the two balance conditions are independent,
not more then two or three adjustments of the variable elcmenh: would be necessary to obtain balance.
In case we choose the two variable components such that the two equations are not indepen-
C:ent the balance procedure becomes laborious and tim(·. consuming. For example, if we choose R2
and Ra as variable elements, the two equations are no longer independent since Ra appears in both the
equations. Thus Ra is adjusted to satisfy Eqn. 16' 15, its valuJ may be becoming farther removed from
that which satisfies Eqn 16.14. There are two adjustments, one resistive and the other reactive that
must be made to secure balance. For the usual magnitude responsive detector, these adjustments
must be made alternately until they converge on the balance point. The convei ]ence to balauce point
is best when both the variable elements are in the same arm. · ·
4. In this bridge circuit balance equations are independent of frequency. This is often
a considerable advantage in an a.c. bridge, for the exact value of the source frequency need not then
be known. Also, if a bridge is balanced for a fundamental freqorncy it should also be balanced for
any harmonic and the wave· form of the source need not be perfectly sinusoidal. On the other hand,
it must be realized tl:at the effective inductance and resistance for example, of a coil, vary with frequ·
ency (see pages 105, 106, 114 & 115), so that a bridge balanced at a fund3mental frequency is never,
in practice, truly balanc•d for the harmonics. To minimize difficulties due to till~ the source wave·form
should be good, and it is vften an advantage to use a detector tuned to the fundamental frequency.
Further while the disappearance of the frequency factor is of advantage in many bridges, some bridges
derive their usefulness from the presence of a frequency factor·;such bridges must then be supplied
from a source with very good wave-form and high frequency stability. Altemative1y, they may be
used to determine frequency.
MEASUREMENT OF SELF INDUCTANCE
16'5. Maxwell's J111luctimce BridJLe. This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison
with a variable standard self-inductance. The connections and the phasor diagrams for balanr-e
conditions are shown in Fig. 16.'3.
Le~ Li =unknown inductance·ctf resistance Ri,
L2=variable inductanee of fixell resistance r 2,
r' Ra=variable resistance connected·in series with ;rd1wtor L 2,
and Ra, R~=kttown uon-iuductive resistances.

-, ...
500 ELECllUCAL MEASORBMENTS A,ND MEASURING !NSTRUMBNIS

r- E1---i:-- E~

' b

$.1 I 'it\
a 0 I
·~

(a)
Fig. 16'3, Maxweli's inductance Bridge,
(b)
1"
The theory of this bridge has been dealt with in Art. 16 ·4, At balance,

Li=-;: ~L2 ... (16'16)

nild Ri = :nRa4 (R2+ r2

) ... (16'17)

Resistors Ra and R4 normally a selection of values from 10, 100, !000 and 10,000 Q, r2 is a decade
resistance box. In some cases, an additional known resistance may have to be inserted in series with
unknown coil in order to obtain batance. · ·
't
16'6. Maxwell's Inductance- Ca11sciiance Bridge. In this bridge, an inductance is measured . l
by comparison with a standrard variable capacitance. The connections and the phasor diagram at
the balance conditions are given in Fig. 16'4.

;I
l
f
~I ~· E,,.- 1

--~~@E---·j

L~t f1 =unknown inductan~r, R1 =effr,ctive resistauce of inductor Lh

R~, Ra, R4'=known non-inductive resistances, and C~ = vari<1bfo standard capacitor.
 A.C. BRIDGES 501
Writing the equation for balance

(R1+jwL1)( i+fw~4 R 4 )=R2Ra or R1R4+jwL1R4c~R2Ra+fwR2RsC4R4.

5eparating the real and imaginary terms, we have : R1 = JizR 3 ... (16' !Jl)
R4
and ... ( 16' 19)
1
Thus we have two variables R1 and C4 which appe:ir in one of the tw 0 balance equations and
hence the two equations are independent.

The expression for Q factor Q=w~~- =wC4R4 .. .(16'20)

Advantages. The advantages of this bridge are :

l. The two balance equations are independent.if we choose R4 and C4 as variable clements.
2. The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations.
3. This bridge yields simple expression for i1uknowns L1 aud Ri in terms of known bridge
elements. Physically R2 and Ra are each, say, 10, 100; 1000 or l'0,000 ~!and their value is selected to
give suitable value of product Ril~a which appears in both the balance equatious ; C4 is decade
capacitor and R4 a decade resistor.
The simplicity of the bridge cyif ~e appreciated by tL rolJowing example. Suppose the
productR2 Ra is !06. The inductance "
L1=C4XI06 (See Eqn.16'19)
Thus when balance is achieved the value of C4 in IJ.F directly gives the value of inductance
in H.
4. The Maxwell's inductance-capacitance bridg<; is very useful for measurement of a wide
range of inductance at power and audio frequencies.
Disadvanteges. The main disadvantages of this bridge are :
I. This bridge rcqliires a variable standard capacitor which may be very. e.~pensive if cali-
brated to a high degr.ee of accuracy ,'.fherefore sometimes a fixed standard capacitor is used, either
because a variable .;apacitor is not available .or because fixed capacitors have a· higher degree of
accuracy and are less expensive than the variable ones. The balance adjustments are then done by :
• (a) either varying R2 and R4 and since R2 appears ii! both the balance equations, the balam:e
adjustments become difficult ; or
(b) putting an additional resistance in serfos with the inductance under measurement and then
varying this resistance and ({4.
2. The bridge is limited to measurement of low Q coils, (1 < Q <HO)i It is clear from
Eqn. 16'20 that the measurement of high Q coils demands a large value for resistance R4, perhaps 105
or 10s Q. The resistance boxes of such high values are very expensive. Thus for values of Q> 10, the
Maxwell's bridge is unsuitable. ·
The Maxwell's bridge is also unsuited for coils with a very low value of Q. (i.e. Q<il). Q values
of this magniiude occur in inductive resistors, or in an R.F. coil if measured at low frequencies. The
<liiliculty in measurement occurs on account of labour involved in --obtaining balance since normaliy a
!
'/
'
fixed capacitor is used and balance is obtained by manipulating resistances ·R2 and R1 alternately. This
I
difficulty is explained as below :
~
From Eqns. 16'18 and 16'19, it is ckar that Rz enters into both the expressions. A prelimi-
nary inductive balance is made with R2, and then R4 is varied to give a resistive balanei which is
dependent on the R2 setting. Accordingly when R2 is changed for a second inductive balance, the resistive
balance is disturbed, and moves to·· a new value giving slow "coovergo!t~" to, 00\lau<». · This is
502 llLEC'fRICAL MBA.~UREMENTS ANO MllASURING 1NSTRUMl!NTS

particularly true of a low Q coil, for which resistance is prominent (as Q=oiL/R). Thus a sliding
balance condition prevails and it hikes many manipulations to achieve balance for low Q coils with a
Maxwell's bridge.
From the above discussions we conclude that a Maxwell's bridge is suited fer measurements of
only medium Q coils. •
16'7 Hay's Bridge. The Hay's bridge is a modification of Maxwell's bridge. The connec-
lion diagram and the phasor diagram for this bridge are shown in Fig 16'5. 1 his bridge uses a resis-
tallce in series with the statclard capacitor (unlike the Maxwell's bridge which uses a resistance in
parallel with the capacitor).

I
d:4
(a} (b)
fig, 16'5, Hay's Bridge.
Let L1 =unknown inductance liaving a resistance Ri,
R2 , Ra.R4=known non-inductive resistances,
and C4=standard capacitor.
At .balance,

(R1+jwL1)(R4-j/wC4)=R2Ra or R1R.1+Lc1 +j6>L1R4- JRCi =R2Rs.

4 w 4

Separating @he real and imaginary terms, we obtain :

L1 Rt
RiR~+c =R2Ra
4 and Li=w2R4c 4

Solving the above two equations, we have : ... (16'21)

... (16'22)

I
... (16'23),

The i;ixpressious for the unknown inductance 2,ad resistance contain the frequency term. There
 . .l;.,C. llRID&ES 503
fore it appears that the frequency of the source of supply to the bridge must be accurately known.
This is not true for tbe'inductance when a high Q coil is being measured, as is explained below :
R2R3C4
Now Li= I+w2c42R42
R2R3C4
but Q= ~1-·- and therefore Li,,;, •.. (16'24)
wC4R4 ' I +(I/ QJ2
For a value of Q greater than IO, the.term (l/Q) 2 will be smaller than 1/ 100 and can be
neglected.
Therefore Eqn. 16 25 reduces to L1=R2RsC4 ... (16'25)
which is the same as for a Maxwell's bridge.
Advantages :
l. This bridge gives very simple expression for unknown inductance for high Q coils and is
suitable for coils having Q> 10. .
2. This bridge also gives a simple expres·iion for Q factor.
3. If we examine the expression for Q factor : Q=- Cl R ,
w 4 4
we find that the resistance R4 appears in the denominator and hence for high Q coils, its value should
be small. Thus this bridge requires only a low value resistor for R4, whereas the Maxwell's bridge
requires a parallel resistor, R4, of a very high value.
Disadvantages : .
, l. The Hay's bridge is suited for the measurement of high Q inductors, especially those
inductors having a Q greater than 10. Por inductors having Q Vdlu~s smaller than 10, the term (l/QJ2
in the expression for inductance Li (Eqn. 16' 24) b~comes rather important and thus cannot be
neglected. Hence this bridge is not suited for measurement of coils having Q less than 10 and for
these applications a Maxwell's bridge is more suited,
16'8. Anderson's Bridge. This bridge, in fact, is a modification of the Maxwell's inductance·
capacitance bridge. In this method, the self inductapce is measured in terms of a standard capacitor.
This method is applicable for precise measurement of self-inductance over a very wide range of values.
Fig. 16'6 shows the connections. and the phasor diagram of the bridge for balanced conditions.

i
~

le
lcr
~ E:4
E
rv
·'
(a) (b)
Fig. 16'6, Anderson's Bridge.
504 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INST!H:IMBNTS

Let L1 =sclf·ind1;ctim~ to be measured, Rl =resistance of self-inductor,

r1 ,=resistance co.llllected in series with self-inductor,
r, R2, R3, R1 =known non-inductive resist~nces, and C=fixed standard capacitor.
At ballluoo, ll1 =Ia and I2 -H.+ l4.
1
Now ll1:1la "'I, x -:--C Ic=hjroCR3.
JW
Wdting I.he other balance equations

Substituting the value of I, in the above equations, we have :

h(n+Crrjo>L-1)=hR2+ ll.iwC R<ir or I1(r1+ Ri + jwL1-jwCR2r) -=I2R2 ... (i)

I
From Eqns. (i) and (ii), we obtain
4
• C" ) w (R2Ra jwCR2Rsr+.
'(
-•l 1.n , • -
r1-,n_n-;wL1·-;w l\3r =•1 -&+--_R "3 R)
-- -- JW C'» 2 •
4

R2Rs
Ii
Equating the real m1d the imaginary parts : Rt= ---r1 ... 16'26)
R4
... \16'27)

An examination of balance equations reveals that to obtain easy convergence of balance,

ai~enm!c adjustments of r1 aud r should be done as they appear ·iu only one of the two balance
cquntious. '
Advmimges
l. fo ClSC adjustments are carried out by manipulating> control over r1 and r, they beco~e
independent of each other. This is a marked superiority over ~liding balance conditions met with
low Q coils when measuring with Maxwell's bridge. A study of convergence conditions would reveal
that it is much easier to obtain balance in the case of Anderson 1s btcidge thau in Maxwell's bridge
for low Q-coils. .
2. A fixed capacitor can be used instead of a variable citpitcitdr:as in the case of Maxwell's
bridge.
3. This bridge may be used for a'.ccurate determination ~t capacitance in terms of inductance.
Disadvimtaa~s
l. The Anderson's bridge is more complex than its proto~ype Maxwell's bridge. The
Anderson's bridge has mow parts and.is more complicated to set up an'(! manipulate. The balance
equations are not simple and in fact are much tedions.
2. An additional junction point increases the difficulty '0f snicldiag the bridge.
Considering the above complications of the Arderwrr's b1idg'ej in all the cliSes where a
variable capacitor is permissible the more simpfo Maxwell's bridge is used iostead of Anderson's
.bridge.
!6'9, Oweo's Bridge: This bridge may be used for measuremen~ c;f au ind~ctanoo in terms of
A.C. BR!l!GLS 505
carmcitance. F,ig. 16'7 shows the connections and phasor diagrams, for, this bridge, under balance
conditions :

Iz

(a) (b)
Fig. 16'7. Owen's Bridge.

Let L1 =unknown self-inductance oi: rdistance Ri,

R2 =variable non-inductive reoistance, R3 =fixed non-inductive resistance,
. C2 =variable standard capacitor, and C4 =fixed standard capacitor.

At balance, (R1 +jwL1)Cw~

4 )=( R2+ ]~c2 ) Ra.
Separating the real and imaginary terms, we obtain: L1 =R2RaC4. ... (16'28)
C4
and R1=Ra c ·• • •• (lfi'29)
2
Advantages
1. Examining the equations for balance, we find that we obtain two independent equations
in case C2 and R2 are made variable. Since Rz and C2, the variable elements, are in the same arm,
convergence to balance conditions is much easier.
2. The balance equations are quite simple and do nvt contain any frequency component.
3. Ibe'brii:lge can be used over a wide range of mea~urement of iuductances.
Disadvantages
1. This bridge requires a variable capacitor which is an ex~nsive item and also its accuracy
is about I percent.
2. The value of capacitance C2 tends to become rather large when measuring high Q coils.
16'10; Measurements ofJ!lcremental Inductance. The magnetic f!ux linking au iron-cored·
coil is not in direc~ proportion to the cJrrent flowing in t.he coil, hut varies in a manner usually in·
dicated by a magnetization curve. The flux usually increases fairly rapidly when the current build-
up· process first begins. However, the flux increment corresponding to a particular size of carreut
increment becomes smaller with contineal increase of current as the core approaches the condition of
magnetic "saturation". An induced voltage in a coil depends on a change of Hux and hence hecorues
smaller for a given current change at higher value of current. ,
The basic expression for induced voltage in terms of a changing fiux is usually replaood, for
506 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

purposes of circuit study, by the "coefficient of self-inductance," multiplied by the rate of change of
current. The new concept must be examined with care when applied to the case of an iron-cored
coil. In terms of flux a change, the induced voltage is e= - N;:
In terms of inductance, e= -L d.P where L=·COefficient of self-inductance.
dt '
Comparison of the two expressions gives L=N ;;

which helps to explain the nature of thi; quantity. Inductance may be represented by the slope of the
<f>-i curve, or magnetiz.ation curve, of a reactor. For an air-cored coil there is a linear rclatiJnship
between flux and current and, accordingly, L is a constant. An ircn-cored coil does not have a linear
flux-current relationship, and L bas different values, depending on the portion of the magnetization
curve being used and on tbe manner of defining L. ·1 bat is, for some purpose we may be
interested in tbc average inductance, represented by the slope oi a line from the origin to a particular
point on the .P·i curve. For other purpJses we are concerned with small variations in the neighbour-
hood of a point on the curve (for very small variations, L equals N times the slope of the curve at
the point in questiou). It is thus evident that the coefficient of self-inductance is ambiguous for iron-
cored c.oils .unless the conditions are carefully defined.
Many iron-cored coils are used as filter reactors in rectifier circuits and in other applications
in which a combination of a d.c .. component and a superposed a.c. are encountered. The inductance
of the reactor to the a c. in such a case may vary over a wide range, depending on the magnitude
of the d c. term. An air gap in the magnetic core trnds to straighten the <f>-i curve, and make L more
neariy constant. An iron-cored coil without an air gap gives an extreme varia•ion of L if the d.c.
component becomes high enough to produce a considerable degree of saturation.
The d.c. component of the current fixes the operating point around which changes occur on
account of the alternating current. The incremental inductance at this pomt may be defined as turns
time the slope of .P·i cmve,
.. d</> 6.<fi
Incremental mductan~r L== Ndi '"N L.i ·
Similarly incremental permeability may be defhed as the slope of the B-H curve at the
operating point.
.. dB /.':,B
I ncrementaI permea b11ty
1 11.= dH = t:,li ·
The magnitude of the a.c. component also has an effect on the apparent inductance of th1
reactor, though usually not to so great au extent as the d.c. component in the common type of
reactor application. To make inductance measurements on an iron-cored coil definite, the dnta
should include the _amount of d.c. present, and the frequency and magnitude of the a.c.
The nonlinear character of the ·flux-current curve enters in the measurement problem in
another way, by producing distortion of the current and voltage waveforms. That is, a sinusoidal
voltage docs not produce a sinusoidal current, or vice-versa, in an iron-cored coil. Even though the
applied bridge voltage is sinusoidal, the detector vvltage is distorted and hence may be analyzed by
Fourier method into the fundamental frequency component plus harmonics. The harmonics cause
difficulties in the balancing process if the detector consists of an amplifie1, a tuned circuit can be
incorporated in it to pass the fundamental frequency and suppress the harmonics. The situation is
a little more difficult when a telephone head set is used, but a person can train himself to listen for
the null point of the fundamental frequency and disregard the harmonics. Due to the difficulties of
defining inductance in the first place, and of determining balance in the second place, we cannot
expect to measnre parameters an iron-cored coil with the same precision as those of an air-cored
coil. Fortunately, in most uses of the iron-cored coils, as in filter chokes, a low degree of accuracy
is sufficient. ·
506 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

purposes of circuit study, by the "coefficient of self-inductance," multiplied by the rate of change of
current. The new concept must be examined with care when applied to the case of an iron-cored
coil. In terms of flux a change, the induced voltage is e= - N;:
In terms of inductance, e= -L d.P where L=·COefficient of self-inductance.
dt '
Comparison of the two expressions gives L=N ;;

which helps to explain the nature of thi; quantity. Inductance may be represented by the slope of the
<f>-i curve, or magnetiz.ation curve, of a reactor. For an air-cored coil there is a linear rclatiJnship
between flux and current and, accordingly, L is a constant. An ircn-cored coil does not have a linear
flux-current relationship, and L bas different values, depending on the portion of the magnetization
curve being used and on tbe manner of defining L. ·1 bat is, for some purpose we may be
interested in tbc average inductance, represented by the slope oi a line from the origin to a particular
point on the .P·i curve. For other purpJses we are concerned with small variations in the neighbour-
hood of a point on the curve (for very small variations, L equals N times the slope of the curve at
the point in questiou). It is thus evident that the coefficient of self-inductance is ambiguous for iron-
cored c.oils .unless the conditions are carefully defined.
Many iron-cored coils are used as filter reactors in rectifier circuits and in other applications
in which a combination of a d.c .. component and a superposed a.c. are encountered. The inductance
of the reactor to the a c. in such a case may vary over a wide range, depending on the magnitude
of the d c. term. An air gap in the magnetic core trnds to straighten the <f>-i curve, and make L more
neariy constant. An iron-cored coil without an air gap gives an extreme varia•ion of L if the d.c.
component becomes high enough to produce a considerable degree of saturation.
The d.c. component of the current fixes the operating point around which changes occur on
account of the alternating current. The incremental inductance at this pomt may be defined as turns
time the slope of .P·i cmve,
.. d</> 6.<fi
Incremental mductan~r L== Ndi '"N L.i ·
Similarly incremental permeability may be defhed as the slope of the B-H curve at the
operating point.
.. dB /.':,B
I ncrementaI permea b11ty
1 11.= dH = t:,li ·
The magnitude of the a.c. component also has an effect on the apparent inductance of th1
reactor, though usually not to so great au extent as the d.c. component in the common type of
reactor application. To make inductance measurements on an iron-cored coil definite, the dnta
should include the _amount of d.c. present, and the frequency and magnitude of the a.c.
The nonlinear character of the ·flux-current curve enters in the measurement problem in
another way, by producing distortion of the current and voltage waveforms. That is, a sinusoidal
voltage docs not produce a sinusoidal current, or vice-versa, in an iron-cored coil. Even though the
applied bridge voltage is sinusoidal, the detector vvltage is distorted and hence may be analyzed by
Fourier method into the fundamental frequency component plus harmonics. The harmonics cause
difficulties in the balancing process if the detector consists of an amplifie1, a tuned circuit can be
incorporated in it to pass the fundamental frequency and suppress the harmonics. The situation is
a little more difficult when a telephone head set is used, but a person can train himself to listen for
the null point of the fundamental frequency and disregard the harmonics. Due to the difficulties of
defining inductance in the first place, and of determining balance in the second place, we cannot
expect to measnre parameters an iron-cored coil with the same precision as those of an air-cored
coil. Fortunately, in most uses of the iron-cored coils, as in filter chokes, a low degree of accuracy
is sufficient. ·
A.C. BRIDGES 507
Many bridge circuits can be modified to permit the simultaneous application of d.c. and a.c.
to the re&ctor. One .thing that must be kept in mind in arranging the circuit is the fact that the
amount of d.c. specified for the test reactor must also pass through one of the bridge arms, and care
must be taken not to overheat the precision resistor. .
The incremental inductance can be measured with an
vwen's bridge. The original circuit, however, has to be modi·
fied in order that the coil under measurement is fed from both
d.c. and a.c. This circuit is shown in Fig. 16'8.
The coil is fed from a.c. and d.c. sources in parallel.
A blocking capacitor C, is used to block direct current from
entering the a.c. source. A high inductance L, is used to block
alternating current to enter d.c. source. Any direct current a D
must not affect the balance and this condition is automatically
satisfied in Owen's bridge because capacitors C2 and C4 block
any d.c. current flowing through the detector. · R1
il-s has been mentioned e<Jrlier, it is necessary to know C2
the magnetization conditions under wllich the coil is being I .
~~
worked. The d.c. component of current is measured by a
moving coil ammeter A cormected in the d.c. supply circuit. _r_--©-~~11
C l D.C ..
The a.c. component of current may be easily obtained from the
reading of a valve voltmeter (not sensitive to d.c.) connected L 8 Sourcej
across the known resistance Ra. The value of current calculated
from this reading is a.c. current through Rs, but this is also, at Fig. 16'8, Owen's bridge for measure·
ment of incremental inductance.
balance, the a.c. curr~nt through the coil.
At balance, incremental inductance L1 = R2RaC4 ... (16'30)
N2
Now, inductance Li=!Jii ·
.. Lil
Increment al pcrmeab11ty
1 µ= N2A ... (16'31)
where N=number of turns, A=area of Hux path,
/=length of flux path, andL1 =incremental inductance.
MEASUREMENT OF CAPAClfANCE .
16"11. De Saoty's Bridge, The bridge is the simplest of comparing two capacitances. The
·connections and the phasor diagram of this bridge are shown in Fig. 16'9.
Ei~-E3-

c,

E3"' E4" !11'1.J= 1 2 R~

.,,. 11 ,12

(a) (b)
Fig, 16'9, »e Sauty's Bridge.
 I
I
508 ELECTRICAL MBASUJ\EMBN'IS AND .MEASURING !NSl'j\UMBNTS

Let C1 =c11pacitor whose capacitance is to be measured,

C2=a standard capacitor,
and Ra, R.1 =non-inductive resistors.
At balance, (-Jc-) R•=( -~C )Ra
, }W l . /W 2
,.., R4
Oi' Cx=1,,2 'Rs ... (16'32)
The balauce can be obtained by varying either R~ or R4. The advantage of this bridge is
its simplicity. Bt1t this advantage is nullified by the fact that it is impossible to obtain balance if
botb the capacitors arc not free from dielectric loss. Thus with this method only air capacitors can
be compared.
In order to make measurements on imperfect capacitors (i.e., capacitors having · dielectric
loss), the bridge is modified as shown in Fig. I6' l 0. This modification is due to Grover.
· E, --"'j"'- E3 --'1
!'"" 11 I>
<v<.'
'( r1
R1 le,
a/\i
D c
'
R/1~0;
< ("
\ I
' ',\
'' ' .
<;. \,,y "'12
d
. --- _________" ---- ---·----------~

·:_~ ,, I
Ee, Ec 2 E1 • Ei

(a) (b)
Fig. 16'!0. Modified De Sauty's Bridge.
Resistors Ri and R2 are connected in series with C1 and C2 respectively. n and r2 are small
resistances rcpreseating the loss component of the two capacitors.

At~alance(u~+r1+~c1 ) R4=(R2+r2+~c
jW
,l6l
) Ra. 2

r
a•rom wh'1ch we Cf R2+ra
· have:-=----=- R4 (16'33)
C~ Ri+r1 Rs ...
The balance may be obtained by variation of resistanel:s R1, R1, Ra, R4.
Fig. 16'.IO (b) shows the phasor diagram of the bridge 1mder balance conditioas; The angles
a1 and S2 are the phase angles of capacitors Ci and C2 respectively.
Dissipation factor for the capacitors are :
Di =tan 81 =wC1r1 and D3=tan 82=wC2r:a
.., . C1 R9+r~
i-rom F.qn. 16 33, we have -C3 -- . R1+,,
or • C2r2-C1r1=C1Rr""'6~R~ or wCzra-wC1n=w(C1R1-C2R2)
A.C, BRIO.Gr S 509
D2 ··-D1 =w(C1R1-C2·R2)
Rnt C1 R4 .
c~ = }?3

Hence· · .. .(16'3 4)

Therefore, if the dissipation factor of one of the capacitors is known, the dissipation factor
for the other can be determined. ·
. .
This method does not give accurate results for dissipation factor since its value depeuds
diff~ren~e of quantities RiR4/R3 and R2. These quantities are . moderately large and their
difference is very small and since this difference cannot be known with a high degree accuracy the
dissipation factor cannot be determined accurately.
16· 12. Schering Bridge. The connectioni: and phasor diagram of the bridge under balance
c9nditions are shown in Pig. 16' l 1.

~Et E1- .

I.
I
I Ct

a c

'------'---N ~E'--_ __
E1::;t2=.!1. E
(.i)C1

. (a) (b)
Fig. 16'11. Low voltage Schering Br·i.dge.
Let. C1 =capa~itor whose .ca~citance is to be deterinine.d,
·,1 =a series resistance representing the loss in· the capacitor C1, .
C2 =a standard . capacitor. This capacitor is either an air or a gas capacitor and he.nee
·is loss free. However, if' necessary, a.corre9tion may be made for the Joss !Higle of
this capacitor.
R3=a non·inductive .resistance,
C4= a variable capacitor,
and R4=a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable capacitor C4.
. . . .( . . 1 )( R4 ) I
At balance,. ri +fwC1 .1+fwC4R4 . ]wC~- -. Ra
1 . . N
or ·..( ·.r1·.·+· i~CJ ). R4= :~ ·(1+1'c»<J4R-.c)
TW ~ "
 sro ELECTIUCAL MEASURBMENTS AND MEASURING iNST.RlJMBNTS .

or rrR 4--· j_R4_ ~ _ j · R3 + fi3R4C4

wC1 wC~ C2 ·

Equating the real and imaginary terms, we obtain r1 ~. R~

- .~
... (16'35)

R~
and C1=··· ·
· Ra
c,· ... (16'36)

Two independent balance equations are obtained if C4 and .84-ate-cnosen as the :variable
ekmi:nts. ·

..•. (16'37)

Therefore values of capacitance Cr, and its dissipation Tact or are obtained frofu. the values of
ori~ge clements at balance. · · _
Permanently- set up S~hering bridges are s.o~etimes arr~nged so t11at b~1ar,icmg is don~ by
adi\isrment of R~ and C4 with C2 and R4 remammg fixed. Smee Ra;appears m both the balance
equiltiqris•and therl(fore there is some difficulty in obtaining balance hut-ii has ~ertain' tdvafitages as
explaincil below : ·
·The equation 'fl)r capacitance is ._C1"" ~: ·C2 an<l since R4 ind C2 are fixed, the d1a1 of
tesistor R3 may be calibrated to read the capacitance directly. ·
Dissipation ractoi'D1 ~wC4R4 and in case the. frequency is fixed the dial of capacitor C& can
be cahbrated to read the dissipation factor directl_x. .
Let us say:that the working frequency is 56 Hzand the value of .ikis:-Keptfixed at 3,180 n.
c
:. Dissipation factor D1=2ITx50 x 3180 x 4 =C4 x10 6•
·Since C4 is a variable decade capacitance box, its setting in µF directly giv.es the value of the
dissipation factor. · ·
It should, however, be understood that the calibration for
dissipation factor holds good for one particular frequency, but may
be used at another frequenci• if -correctiOnis.-llla~ll--by multiplying bi
the ratio of frequencies:
Hi'B. High Volt~ge Scbering Bridge. Schering bridge is widely
used for capacitance and dissipation ·factor measurements;:-· In fact·
·scbering bridge is one of\lic mQst i!llpoftant of the a c. biidges. It is a
extensively , used_ in the meirnurement of capacitance. in general, and in
'.particular in the measut~it of the properties of ins11l!ltor8,,.c6ildenser
:hllshings. insulating oil and o1lier ~ulatilfg nfater1ars. -Tlils bridge .
is particularly suitable (01 small" capacitanees, and is !hell. usually
supplied from a -lrigli frequency or ~ high l'()ltage source. The
measurenit1•1s done on small capacitances sulfer· from- many
disadvaurnges ifCarried out at low voltages. High voltage.schering bridge
is' certainlv. preferable for such measurements.
. .,
. . _ Tiie . speciat features of a high voltage ~chering bridge shown
in~fig. J6~t2• are exp1amed below : . ·. . ·
. .. · ·1.1 The high V:91ta~e sup~ly !8 9otain~d fr_om .a transformer
;~~ll~lly at/ r? Hz, . T~.~.detector,. m this case, in vibration ga!va~<r: Pig, 16'1i: High voltege
··meter,-
, . - -
· S~beriJig l11id11e.
 .\ •· ,
__

A.c. BRIDGES 5JI

". 2. Ai'msab and ad each contain only a cap~citor an~th~se .capacitors. are· ?es,igned for
high voltage work.··· The impe?a~ce o~ these two a~m~ are -v~ry h1g~ m compansou wit~ the oth~!
arms, be and de. Thus th!: !llaJor portion of potential arop will ~em.the arms ah and ~.d an~ very
little voltage drop is there.c_ac.ross .·the arms be and de. The pomt c 1s .earthed. Suph ts th(( large
magnitude of impedances in arms.db and ad(t,~at even if a voltage as high as I00 kV is llpplied to
'the .bridge,_ the voltage across I arms be and de is a few volt above earth. This is certainly a great
advantage as the controls are >located in arms be and de and for tile safety of the operator, these .
c'Ontrols shollld-lJc'"l!ndare at low potential with respect to earth. For the same·-reasonthe detector is
a!S,() at a low potential: .
J.>-itis_~ecessaty to .:Prevent dangerous high voltages appearing across arrns be and ae m
tbe cas(of~breakdown of either of the high Noltage. cap~citors. This is done by connecting a spark gap,
(set to breakdown at abo11t· J00 V) aor_oss each of the arms be and de.
. 4.\ The impedances of arms.ob and~~ large and therefore the current dfftWn from the
source is 'small and hence the power loss 1s qJ.!ite small. But this small value of current also
necessitates 'the iilfe ·of a sensitive detector. · · . ·
. 5. 1'he-·fixed standard capacitor,. C2, has either air or compressed gas as-dielectri 0( The
i. dissipation factor of a drf and clean gas is sensibly zero, loss in the insulating supports c;lnnot be
~voided. .This loss, however, can· be prevented from influencing the mea;urements by the use'ofa
guard ring from which both electrodes of the capacitor are· supported. With tnis arraogemeut the
current through the high voltage supports pass.es ~i,tect to earth, ·an? as t~e potential difi;erence
between low voltag~. electrode and the guard nng JS. ve,ry smal!, the ms~lation of the l\)w voltage
electrode,has a neghg1ble effect. For some general apphcat10ns, mica capacitors are used and ih such
cases; the dissipation. factor of the capacitor must be accurately known. ·
. 6. Earthed s9reens are provided in order to avoid errors caused dtie to inter·capaciiance
between high and low arms of the bridge. Jnstead of earthing one point on the circuit as shown in
· Fig. 16']2, the earth capacitance effect on'.the galvanometer and leads is eliminated by means of a ·
."Wagner earth device'':Jdescribed later in this.chapter). . ·
. . .

16}4. · l\feasuremenCofRelatiye Permit!iv.itr with. Sche~ing Brid~e. Schering bridge is very

useful for the measurement of relative permlltlv1ty\ of d1electr1c .matenals. The/ determination .of
relative permittivjty..fnvolves the measurement of capacitance of a small capacitor with .the sp.ecin1el1
as dielectric, The capa.citor with·specimen (\S dielectric is forfi!i:d .by usin~ either a parallel plare or
_a concentric cylindercoilfiguration for the electrodes. Guard circmts arc .used in order to 1nake the
· plate area defillite. .
Many~diffe~ techniques are use'c!; both in the- type of specime~ ,!iapaCitov&;ed and 'in the
measuring cireuit e normal arra~gemen\fl)r soli<l,,materials is to use a~i~specimeu :with mei'al
el,ectrodes. The electrodes may consist of thm'.metal fo1,I attached to the sp_scunen by petrojeum jelly .
_or thin .lilm~ of silve: or alu.min}um applied by evap_oration (both,/hCse arra_ngements normally
have sol!d metal b~cklllg ele.ctrooes), or mercury. Mercury elect131des are ob!!lme~ · ~y lltjating (or
'S1lppor.ting) tlte'specnnen on the surface of a mercury pool, the upper electrodes cons1st10g of asmal·
lennerctirJ:.PQ.ol held in place- by a metal containing ring, .Liquid specimens fil!the space between
the concentric cYJllrdrical electrodes of a test cell. · . · ·
The relativ& permittivity is calculated from)lre measured value of capacitance and the dimen·
s1ons of.t}le electi:.odes.- For a parallei p!aW'arrangem~n.r, relative per.m.itnv1ty Er= ~; ~- ... (16• 38)

where Ci 1meiS'llred. valu~;ofeapacit@pe with specime~.as dielectric,

d=soacin~efwC'en-t;lcctrodes,
, ~ective-.arca of eleetrO:des,.
dl)d 1
~pepn~tiv~t~ of free space..
 512 EL~CIRICAL MBASUREMENfS AND MEASURING JNSTRUMBNrS

·~ ·A method which ayoids the nece~sity for close contact between

e!ectrodes and specimen uses a pa.ir of solid electrodes (one with a guard /Electrode .
nag) b~tween w.hich the specimen (thinner than the space between elect- __ ~Cx .J_
rode~) is sl!pped. The capacitance of the arrange.men! is measured, the i - - · _____ · 1
~pecu_nen 1s then removed, and the spacing between . the electrodes ·
JS adjusted, by means of micrometer adjustment>, until the capacitance d ~ f
IS the same as before. The relative permittivity of the specimen can be r~ .
cajyulated from the thickness of the specimen and the alteration 111 ·. Specimen· ·
electrode spacing. ·
Let C=capacitance with specimen between electrodes, Pig. 16' 13. Measurement of
A= area of electrodes, relative permittivity.

d =thickness of specimen,
l=gap between specimen and electrode,
and x=reduction in separation between the two measurements.
These dimensions are shown in Fig. 16'13.
Let C, =capacitance of specimen,
C0-:--capacitance due to space between specimen and electrode,
and C=effective capacitance of c, and Co in series.
c.c, (ErEoA/d).(EoA/t) ErEoA
C=c.+c. =~-;E.A/d)1({;A/t) = "fr1-FJ
. When the specimen is removed and the spacing readjusted to give the same capacitance, the
expression for capacitance is
€,A . EoA ErEoA
C t+d-x Hence t+d-x=Ert+~d

Er"" - d , .. (16'39)
d-x
MEASUREMENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
16'15. Uses of Mutual Inductance iu Bridge Circuits. Mutual inductance has been used in a
g.reat. number of bridges for a variety of purposes. Known mutual inductances are n~ed in some
Cll'cu1ts for the measurement of unknown mutual inductance. Variable standard mutual mductances
11
.ave been used as components in bridges for the measurement of self-indctances, capacitance, and
1 req~ency. Many .such bridges are found in literature, but some of the circuits represent. minor
modifications of other bridges ; that is. changes to achieve greater accuracy or convenience for a parti·
cular type of measurement, or a special .range of unknown quantities.
. We shall study only a small number of these circnits. Applications to capacitance and self-_
mductance determinations are of secondary interest because methods using a capacitance standard
are generally more convenient and accurate for these measurements than a mutual inductor and they
Icapacitors) are also cheaper, compact, and more generally available. The mutual inductance circuits
.J '
may have particular merit in some cases, but this enters the field of special-research rather than of j
general measmements, so we shall not attempt to go into much detail. Much reference material is
available on the subject.
The derivation cif the balance equations requires a different method when we have· mutual a
coupling between the arms. It is necessary to .write equations for the voltages around the loops and
·,~n to make solution for the unkn.Jwa quantities. .
A.C. BRTDG~ S13
16'16. Mutual Inductance Measured as Self-Iodactance. If the terminals of the two coils
whose mutual inductance is to be measured ar~ available for series connection, measurement may be
made by one of the self inductance bridges considered earlier. If the connections are made so that
the magnetic fields of the two coils are addative [Fig. 16'14 (a)]. The effective inductance of the two
coils in series is ·
Le1=L1+L2+2M ...(16'40)
If the connections nf one coil are reversed [Fig. 16'14 (b)].
• Le2=L1+L2-2M ... (16'41)
Thus from Eqns. 16'40and16'41, we.get
Mutual inductance M = i(Le1-L•2) ... (16'42)
Hennce mutual inductance is obtained as one-fourth of dilfe•ence of self ioductance measured
with series addative and series subtractive connections. This method is of advantage only when fairly
high coupling between the two coils is obtained otherwise it results in poor accuracy due to nearly .
equal terms of Eqn. 16'42. · · ·
16'17. Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge. This Bridge (shown'in Fig. 16'15) measures mutual·
inductance in terms of a known self-inductance. The same bridge, slightly modified was used by
Campbell to measure a self.inductance. in terms of a known mutual inductance. '
II

c
12

l1WL1 I

~-<'~~~·~~,.,_~_..,~'--'~~~
l1R1 11R3 11
. "l2R2 :: lzR4
(a) (b)
Pig. 16'14. Positive and negative Fig. 16'15. f[eaviside mutual inductance Bridge.
couplnigs for mutual inductors.
Let M=unknown mutual inductance,
Li =self-inductance of secondary of mutual inductance,
L2"c-known self inductance,
and R1, R2,, Ra, R4 =non-inductive resistors.
At balance voltage drop between b and c must equal the voltage drop between d and c.
.Also the voltage drop across a-h-c must equal the voltage drop acros a·d·c Thus we have the follow-
ing equations at balance.
I1Ra=l2R4
and 11t t '2)(iwM)+I1(R1 + Ra+jwL1)=h(R2+ R4+jwL2).
12( ~:+! )jwM+l2 ~; (R1+Ra+jwL1) lz(R2+.R,+JwL2)
 I . - . .

514 . ' . . MBASURBMBNfS-AND .MB~S.tJRtNO !NSfRUMBNTS

BLBCfRlCAL

or jwM(J?R 4 +1 ·)+J?R4
a a
R1fR4+)~Lt
.
~ 4
a
'""R2fR4'+jwL2.
·-

-
...(16'43).
Thus RiR4"-' R~ '?a
~!Vt= Li-L1R4/Ra, ·r·(I6'44)
ano - R4/Ra+l
It is clear from Eqn. 16'44, that L1, \heseltcino.uctance of the secondaryofJhe mu~na1. inouc-
(or must be known in order thatM be me!\sured'QY tbts me~hod.
n•e get , .M.=--'.!-.-·
L2-Li ...(16'45) .
In caSe. ,Ra= R4, ..
· d
an R1= R2 !..(16'46j
'
. This method can be used fo~ measurement,. of self·inducf~nce. · Supposing LZ., 18\he self·
inctuctance to be determined.
b
From Eqns. 16'43 and 16'44, we get
- M(R~-J:.R4)+R4L1
L2-- . Ra
. ( .. R4 )· -R4-:y_
= M\ I+ Ra + Rs 1
... (16'47) D
\
c

and ... (16'48)

. In case ,R4 =Ra, we navi;

L2~2M+L1 .c
!lahin~rng~
and R2= Rt. coil .

16'18. Campbell's Modification of Heaviside lirldge. ...,,,,_ rv .

Fig. 16)6 shows a modified Heaviside bridge. This modi- ,._,.,
fication is due to Campbell .. This is used .to m¢ure a self· Fig. 16' Id~ Ca.milbell's modification of
ind·!~tance in ter1?s of~ mutu~l1_inductanpe.. Ill' th.is ca~e a~ _.. ,. I r:I~s1de bridge; •.
ad~ltlonal bal.ancmg. cot! L, R. ts mclu.ded .m. arm. fldJn series.w1tli 1nouctor 'iJnder te~~· ~~ add~tton~t ·
resistance r 1s put 1.n arm ab: . Balanc~_IJ obtamed_by varymg M_a~d r. P,.. short c11:e_u1tin~ sw1tc~ ts.
placed across the coil R2, L2 under measµrement · 'fwo sets. of readmgs ar~ _taken one with switch
being open aad the other with switch beiag closed. Let values of M arid .f, ~e Mt and r~lth switch ·
open, amt Ma, and r2 with switch closed. .· .. . · ·

• . From Eqn. 16'47, we have: L.i+L=··Mi(Ra+;:)~R4L1

·and . L~ M2(Rs+;4)+R4L1 :.· t;;,i~ !Mi-M2)R8f.R 4
a · -.Ra . ·
"' ){ I, .1 +~{
= (·M_. 1-m2 RI.') ... (16'49)
-
From Eqn. 16'48, we .can write: R2+ R. (Ri+ril-t

-.. R
R2 =(r1 .;.,.12) . R: ...~16'50)
This method isa good example oftbll met.hods adopted to eliminate 'the effects.ofleads etc.
 A.C. B~IDGBS
_ . When ~e have-eqtiarfatl~ arms Ra=R4 .·_ · _· -
and therefore from Bqns. 16.49 ancl.16. 50, we get : L2= 2(M1 -M2) ::(T6'51)
and R2=;r1-r2 ... (16.52)
· 16.19. :Heaviside Campbell Equal Ratio Brid~'l'~. balancing coil in t~e a~ove
met11od reducedhe sensitivity of the bri ~Fig.lb 17 shows Heav1s1de CampbeUequal rat10 bnd.ge.
This.is a !Jetter.arrangement ·c ·uqproves sensitivity and also dispenses with the use of a balancing
ooil. · · ·
In this method the sec9hdary of-the' J)llitual inductor is
made up of two equal coils' L, L and the primary of mutual
inductance reacts with botH of~th~m. Lj-;:cR2 is the coil whose.
self-inductance and resistance is to be determined. The resistances·
R3 and R4' are made equal. Balance is obtained by varying the
mutual inductance ____and resistance r.
,
- ·
D
At balance, I1JS=IZ~4 ·
but Ra-R4
and therefore _ h 12' I/2asJ.C::Ji +h. I
Writing the oth~~tionfor balance :• ·
11 (R1+ r)+ hjwL+ ljwM•= I2R2+ hfw(L2+ L)\ ljwMv
·or R1+r 2 +}W (~+"')
2
lYJ> .~ R2
2
+·. (
jW _ L2+L
2
. )--jW
. ·Mv.

Equating th_e real and imaginary terms '-'---~,rv>--~----"

R2=R1+r ... (16'53) Fig. 16·11. 11eaviside Campbell equal-·

and L2=2(M.+ Mv) =.iM .... (16'54) · ratio. brid~e- -
' .
Tqus the magnitude 0C:nduct11~c which can be measured with this method is twice the range
I
, of the rriutuaLiliductor. The· values alculated above ihclude the effects of leads etc. In order to
· elimina,e-t~~se)elfects, we_ .·ta~e two read~n,gs_s" with ~w'it~h o_ pen· circuit~d arid'ano.the_ i: w_ith switch
closed. \ let z.11, riMe the i:.eacl1ngs of 'M, r With open c1rcu1t apd M2, r2 with short c1rcu1t _
. . . /Rr~f'-r2 . . - ' .. ...(16'SS)
and , _ L1 ... 2(Mlf- M2) . _ •.. (l6·S6)
1
• 116'20. Carey Foster Bt;i6ge ; Heydw,eiller Bridge.. This bridge was used basically by Carey
Foste~ ~ut was ~ubsequently iµ6difieq by HeydweiUer for use on a.c. _Both names are- associated with
the bndge and 1s used for t IJ.6 opposite purposes : ' .
· · I, {i) It is used for.rileasuJ:Wient of capacitan~e in terms of a standard mutual inductance. The
bridge fo this case is kno,\v11 as Carey Foster's bridge.
1
i (ii) It can also be used for measuremetWohnutuaJ--inductance m terms of a standard capa•
· citance and is then known/as Heydweiller 'bridge. - ·- · · -, ·
. Fig. 16' 18 shows the connectiOn diagram for the bridge under balance conditions.
This .bridge h~s an unusual feature, Oi1el>f its arms, ad, is short circuited and therefore tile.
poteatial drop across this arm is zero. _In order to achieve ha.lance, the,potentiaLdrof}·across_a,rm ab
should also be equal
. I
I
to zero - and for this reason negative coupling is neededfpr the. mutual inductance._.
·- --

Kt balance, I1(R1+jwL1)-(I1f-l2ljwM=O
and -11(- Ra+~c-
._]IJJ '3
.)-_=Ii.R.i··
The somtion .of the
-~ .
above equafiifri
.
gives: M=R1R4Cs
·- .;((16'57}
516 . llLECTRiCAL MBASURB/dBNTS ANO MBASURINO INSTRUMENTS .

11+!2 '
''

~·~'--·___,
'

lz -.~--------- -----'
"~I.\ ~
'
.
(a) (b)
Fig. 16'18. Carey Foster (Heydweiller) Bridge,

and Li=M(Ra+R4) =RiCa(Ra+R4) ...(1.6'58) I.

R4 . .
If. the bridge is used for measurement of capacitance Eqns. 16'57 and 16' 58 may be
written as :
M
~ •. (16'.)~)
Ca=·RiR4

Ra= R4(Lk M) . . .. (16'60)

In the measurement of mutual inductance with this bridge, Ra is a separate resistance while in
the measurement of capacitance Ra is not a separate unit but represents the equivalent series resistance
of the capacitor and thus can ,be determined in terms of the elements of the ·bridge.
15'21. Campbell's Bridge. This bridge measures an unknown mutual inductance in terms
of a slanqard mutual inducta~ce. Fig. 16'19 shows the circuit diagram for the bridge. . · ·
fei
~: -

·Mi =unknown mutual inductance, .

'

Li =self-inductance \of secondary of mutual induc·

tance Mi. · \ · · .· ·
M2=variable standard mutual inductance, .
•.· ~,./r,
,,11:
L2=self-ioduotance of secondary of mutual Induc-
tance Mz; · · · ./ ·... ·. ·,'>~
. . b. . 0 e
. . . ·..d .
and .Rt. R2, Ra, R4=non·inductive resistances. . '-~

There are two steps required in the balancing process.

I. Detector is connected . between b and d. The circuit
now becomes a simple self-inductance comparison 'bridge. The ·
requirement for balance is : .
Li
-.---=-=-
Ri Ra
....(16'61)
L2 R2 R4
· The bridge may be balanced by adiu~trnent ufRa. (or ](4)
and R1 (or R2). · Fig, 16'19. Campbell's Bridg~.

,<
A.C. DRID<rns
517

2. Detector is connected between b' and d'. · Keeping adjustruel1ts HS' in sleP I above, the
. M1 = R3
variable mutual inductance M2 is varied to get balance. Then, -M . R
2 4
Fa ... (t6·6?)
or . M1=M2R 4

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
Some bridges have balance equations which involve frequency directly even if the pe_rform-
ancc. of individual bridge e.lements is independent of frequency. These bmlges may be u>ed for
determination of frequency in terms of values of various bridge elements. We shall descnbe here the
Wien's bridge, which is the most important one.
16'22, Wfon's Bridge. :fhe Wien's bridge is primarily known as a freq"uency determi111n,,
bridge and is described here not only for its use as an a.c. bridge to measure frequency but also for
its application in various other useful circuits. - A Wien's bridge, for .
example, may be employed in a harmoni~ distortion analyzer, wh7re c, /
. (:t\.
0 Me..nanico•
couplrng
it is used as notch filter, discriminating against one specific .» /
frequency. The Wien's bridge also finds applications in audio and \ R~_.,I" . ' tr, R3
HF oscillators as the frequency determining device. 1.\f>'\ ·
Fig. 16'20 shows a Wien's bridge under balance conditions. ,,~1, . (:/(t'
11
I I {))

Atb~lance ( l+j:~iRi) R4=( R2- w~2 ) Ra . 12 : r

or - = Ra
R4 C1 . (
+-+; wC1R2-
I )
·
.· R2 t·
\;,- 0'~ R,,
Ra Rt C2 . . wC2R1 c':''\{. '
Equating the real and imaginary parts 0

~=&+.~·
Ra Ri C2 .... (l 6' 63 ) , .,E
-· ------.::;r-·~- -~.--'

Fig. 16'20. \Vien's Ilrid[;C.

and 1:-equency ... (16'64)

·'I most Wien bridges, the components are so chosen that

&=&=R ~d ~=~=C
. R4
ThelEqn. 16'63 reduces to: - =2
· Ra
• 1
aud Eqn. 16 64.educes to f - .... (16'65)
2~Rc
3witches ": resistors R1 and R2 are mechanically linked so as to fulfil the condition k1 = R2
As long.as., aiid C2 are fixed capacitors equal in value and RJ=2R3, the Wien's bridge mdy
be ~ed as~ frequen, determining device, balanced by a single control. Tnis control may be directly
cahbrated Ill terms °''equency as is evident from Eqn. 16'65. · ,
This bridge is &~able for measurement offrequeni::ies from JOO Hz to 100 kHz ft is possible
to obtain an acc~racy. 0 ~· 1 to o· 5 per cent. . .
. Because of 1!s '~uency sensitivity, the Wien's bridge may be difficult to balance unless the
~aveform of.the apphed ~ge is sinusoidal. The bridge is not balanced for any harmonics present
in the applied voltage, th~t these harmonics will sometimes produce an omput voltage masking