DESCRIPTIVE AND

CAUSAL
R E S E A RC H
 Descriptive
Research

Exploratory Develop
Research
Hypothesis

Causal
A Hypothesis is a statement
that specifies how two or Research
more measurable variables
are related.

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U S E S O F D E S C R I P T I V E R E S E A RC H
• Describe characteristics of certain groups, e.g., profile users of a
brand with respect to income, gender, age, education etc.
• Estimate the proportion of people who behave in a certain way, e.g.
the proportion of target customers who live or work within a
specified radius of a proposed shopping complex who would shop
there.
• Make specific predictions, e.g. purchase intention for a new or
established product.

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 Figure 1: True
Classification of Descriptive Studies Panel

Longitudinal

Descriptive Omnibus
Studies Panel

Cross-
Sectional
True panel measures the
same variables over time.
In an omnibus panel, Sample
information collected from Survey
members varies over time.

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Longitudinal Versus Cross-Sectional Data

Longitudinal Data Cross Sectional Data

Allows turnover analysis if panel is Tends to produce more representative

a true panel samples of the population of interest

Allows collection of a great deal Produces fewer errors due to

more classification information respondent’s behavior being affected
from respondents by the measurement task

Allows longer and more exacting Allows the investigation of a great

interviews many relationships

Produces fewer errors in reporting

past behavior because of natural
forgetting

Produces fewer interviewer--

interviewee interaction errors

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Number of Families in Panel Purchasing Each Brand

Brand During First Time Period, During Second Time Period,

Purchased t1 t2

A 200 250

B 300 270

C 350 330

D 150 150

Total 1000 1000

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Number of Families in Panel Purchasing Each Brand in Each Period

Brand-switching matrix/Turnover table

During Second Time Period t2

Bought A Bought B Bought C Bought D Total

Bought A 175 25 0 0 200

During
First Bought B 0 225 50 25 300
Time Bought C 0 0 280 70 350
Period, Bought D 75 20 0 55 150
t1
Total 250 270 330 150 1000

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Number of Families in Panel Purchasing Each Brand in Each Period

During Second Time Period t2

Bought A Bought B Bought C Bought D Total

Bought A .875 .125 .000 .000 1.000

During Bought B .000 .750 .167 .083 1.000
First Bought C .000 .000 .800 .200 1.000
Time
Period, t1 Bought D .500 .133 .000 .367 1.000

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Types of Evidence That Supports a Causal Inference

Concomitant variation--evidence of the extent

to which X and Y occur together or vary
together in the way predicted by the hypothesis

Time order of occurrence of variables--evidence

that shows X occurs before Y

Elimination of other possible causal

factors—evidence that allows the elimination
of factors other than X as the cause of Y

X -- the presumed cause

Y -- the presumed effect

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Types of Experiments
Experiment
Scientific investigation in which
an investigator manipulates and
controls one or more independent
variables and observes the
dependent variable for variation
concomitant to the manipulation
of the independent variables
Laboratory Experiment
Research investigation in which
investigator creates a situation with exact
conditions so as to control some, and
manipulate other, variables
Field Experiment
Research study in a realistic situation in
which one or more independent variables
are manipulated by the experimenter
under as carefully controlled conditions
as the situation will permit
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Types of Extraneous Factors That Can Contaminate Research Results

• History--Specific events external to an experiment, but

occurring at the same time, which may affect the criterion or
response variable

• Maturation--Processes operating within the test units in an

experiment as a function of the passage of time per se

• Testing--Contaminating effect in an experiment due to the fact

that the process of experimentation itself affected the observed
response
❖Main testing effect--the impact of a prior observation on a later
observation
❖Interactive testing effect--the condition when a prior measurement
affects the test unit’s response to the experimental variable

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Types of Extraneous Factors That Can Contaminate Research Results

•Instrument Variation--Any and all changes in the measuring device

used in an experiment that might account for differences in two or more
measurements

•Statistical Regression--Tendency of extreme cases of a phenomenon

to move toward a more central position during the course of an
experiment

•Selection Bias--Contaminating influence in an experiment occurring

when there is no way of certifying that groups of test units were equivalent
at some prior time

•Experimental Mortality--Experimental condition in which test units

are lost during the course of an experiment

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Figure 1a: Example of a Classic Scientific Experiment

Randomly sample 100 healthy

people during flu season.

Randomly Assign

50 get daily 50 get daily

vitamin C tablets placebo tablets

Days later: Count # colds in each group

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Figure 1b: Example of a Marketing Research Experiment

Randomly sample
100 consumers.

Randomly Assign

50 see package 50 see package

design “A” design “B”

Count # your brand purchased in ea group

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Some Popular Standard Test Markets

Rockford
IL

Wichita Indianapolis
KS IN

Springfield Charleston
Oklahoma IL WV
City, OK
Tulsa Bloomington
OK IN
Lexington/
Fayette
Midland
KY
TX

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 A Perspective on Various Types of Test Markets

Simulated promising
Controlled promising
Standard promising
National
Test Market Test Market Test Market Rollout

not promising
not promising

not promising
stop stop stop

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