materials
Article
Effects of Low Temperatures on Flexural Strength of
Macro-Synthetic Fiber Reinforced Concrete: Experimental and
Numerical Investigation
Stanislav Aidarov 1, * , Alejandro Nogales 1 , Igor Reynvart 1 , Nikola Tošić 2






Citation: Aidarov, S.; Nogales, A.;
Reynvart, I.; Tošić, N.; de la Fuente, A.
Effects of Low Temperatures on
Flexural Strength of Macro-Synthetic
Fiber Reinforced Concrete:
Experimental and Numerical
Investigation. Materials 2022, 15, 1153.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031153
Academic Editor: Karim Benzarti
Received: 25 December 2021
Accepted: 30 January 2022
Published: 2 February 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 1153. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031153
and Albert de la Fuente 2
1 Smart Engineering Ltd., UPC Spin-Off, Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
alejandro.nogales@upc.edu (A.N.); igor.reynvart@estudiant.upc.edu (I.R.)
2 Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC),
Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; nikola.tosic@upc.edu (N.T.); albert.de.la.fuente@upc.edu (A.d.l.F.)
* Correspondence: stanislav.aidarov@upc.edu
Abstract: Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is an attractive alternative to traditional steel bar-reinforced
concrete structures, as evidenced by the constantly increasing market consumption of structural
fibers for this purpose. In spite of significant research dedicated to FRC, less attention has been
given to the effects of low temperatures on the mechanical properties of FRC, which can be critical
for a variety of structural typologies and regions. With this in mind, an experimental program was
carried out to assess the flexural behavior of macro-synthetic fiber-reinforced concrete (MSFRC) at
different temperatures (from 20 ◦ C to −30 ◦ C) by means of three-point bending notched beam tests.
The tested MSFRCs were produced by varying the content of polypropylene fibers (4 and 8 kg/m3 ).
The results proved that the flexural strength capacity of all MSFRCs improved with decreasing
temperature. Finite element analyses were then used to calibrate constitutive models following fib
Model Code 2010 guidelines and to formulate empirical adjustments for taking into account the
effects of low temperatures. The outcomes of this research are the basis for future experimental and
numerical efforts meant to improve the design of MSFRCs subjected to low temperatures during
service conditions.
Keywords: polymeric fiber reinforced concrete; experimental program; temperature variation;
residual tensile strength; one-way element; beam; non-linear analysis; modeling
1. Introduction
Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is one of several new types of innovative concretes
that can be used for structural purposes in accordance with a number of national and
international codes, guidelines, and design recommendations [1–6]. The incorporation of
fibers in cement-based composites allows the partial or even total substitution of traditional
reinforcement (reinforcing steel bars) with a positive effect on the fracture energy of the
matrix [7], cracking control [8–12], fire resistance [13–15], fatigue [16,17], redistribution
capacity [18–21], and impact resistance [22–25]. As a result, the application of FRC is already
observed in a multitude of structural elements, such as precast tunnel segments [26–28],
elevated flat slabs [29–31], reinforced earth-retaining walls [32], and ground-supported flat
slabs for industrial applications [33,34].
Moreover, numerous research programs are focused on the material characterization
of FRC [35–39] and the further elaboration of both analytical [40–46] and numerical [47–51]
design approaches to suitably evaluate the response of FRC elements under diverse
load/boundary conditions. However, the majority of research studies tend to evalu-
ate the mechanical performance of FRC subjected to normal temperature conditions or
high/extremely high (e.g., fire) temperatures. In contrast, the behavior of FRC at low
temperatures is scarcely analyzed, although there are a number of possible scenarios
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022,15,
Materials2022, 14,1153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of
of 14
14

in
is which
scarcelyit analyzed,
would bealthough
essential there
to adequately predict
are a number its structural
of possible response
scenarios under
in which rela-
it would
tively adverse conditions, e.g., (1) the storage (Figure 1), handling, and transportation
be essential to adequately predict its structural response under relatively adverse condi-
of precast
tions, e.g.,tunnel
(1) thesegments in cold1),regions
storage (Figure or (2)
handling, thetransportation
and service life ofofindustrial floors seg-
precast tunnel for
cold-storage warehouses.
ments in cold regions or (2) the service life of industrial floors for cold-storage warehouses.

Figure1.1. Precast
Figure Precast concrete
concrete elements
elements subjected
subjected to
tolow
lowtemperatures
temperatures(reproduced
(reproducedwith
withpermission
permission
from [52]).
from [52]).

Drawingan
Drawing ananalogy
analogywith withplain
plainorortraditionally
traditionallyreinforced
reinforced concrete
concrete under
under these
these con-
condi-
ditions,
tions, an an increase
increase in compressive
in compressive andand tensile
tensile strength
strength can can be expected
be expected [53,54]
[53,54] alongalong
withwiththe
the embrittlement
embrittlement of a concrete
of a concrete matrixmatrix [55]. Taking
[55]. Taking into account
into account the increased
the increased tensile
tensile strength
strength
of of the material,
the material, sufficientsufficient
ductility ductility to the structural
to the structural elementelement
must bemust be provided
provided by the re-by
inforcement once cracking occurs. In the case of FRC, residual tensile strength is mainlyis
the reinforcement once cracking occurs. In the case of FRC, residual tensile strength
mainly responsible
responsible for the post-cracking
for the post-cracking behaviorbehavior of the material—this
of the material—this propertyproperty
should also shouldbe
also be improved
improved as the matrix–fiber
as the matrix–fiber interaction interaction
enhances with enhances with decreasing
decreasing temperatures temperatures
as long as
as long
the as the mechanical
mechanical properties of properties
the fibersof arethe
notfibers are notaffected
negatively negatively affectedconditions.
by external by external
conditions.
However, to the authors’ best knowledge, only a few experimental investigations were
dedicated to examining
However, the influence
to the authors’ best of low temperatures
knowledge, only a few on the post-cracking
experimental response of
investigations
FRC
werewith moderate
dedicated values of compressive
to examining the influence strength
of low(up to 60 MPa).on
temperatures Pigeon and Cantin [56]
the post-cracking re-
highlighted
sponse of FRC thewith
slight and significant
moderate values ofincrease in steel
compressive fiber reinforced
strength (up to 60 MPa).concrete (SFRC)
Pigeon and
toughness −10 ◦ C and
Cantin [56]athighlighted the 30 ◦ C,and
−slight respectively.
significantCaballero-Jorna
increase in steel et al. reinforced
fiber [57] emphasizedconcrete a
minor
(SFRC)enhancement
toughness atof−10 the°Cpost-cracking
and −30 °C,flexural strength
respectively. of SFRC and MSFRC
Caballero-Jorna at −
et al. [57] 15 ◦ C,
empha-
whereas Richardson
sized a minor enhancementand Ovington [58], on the contrary,
of the post-cracking stressed of
flexural strength a considerably
SFRC and MSFRC greater at
flexural strength of both SFRC and MSFRC at − 20 ◦ C. Despite the obtained results, there
−15 °C, whereas Richardson and Ovington [58], on the contrary, stressed a considerably
isgreater
still a flexural
lack of information
strength of both for modeling
SFRC and possible
MSFRC at “temperature–post-cracking
−20 °C. Despite the obtainedflexural results,
strength” relationships for different types of FRC and, more importantly, the adjusted
there is still a lack of information for modeling possible “temperature–post-cracking flex-
designed procedures
ural strength” to suitably
relationships predict the
for different structural
types of FRCresponse
and, more of importantly,
FRC at low temperatures
the adjusted
have still not
designed been analyzed.
procedures to suitably predict the structural response of FRC at low tempera-
tures have stillinnot
With this mind,
been the presented research study was conducted, this being comprised
analyzed.
of twoWithmain parts. Primarily,
this in mind, the presented an experimental program
research study waswas carried this
conducted, out in order
being to char-
comprised
acterize
of two main parts. Primarily, an experimental program was carried out in order to(from
pre- and post-cracking flexural behavior of FRC at different temperatures char-
20 ◦ C to −30 ◦ C): the standardized three-point bending test (3PBT) on a notched beam
acterize pre- and post-cracking flexural behavior of FRC at different temperatures
3 ) according to EN 14651 [59]. For the sake of more detailed analysis,
(from
(150
20 °C×to 150
−30×°C):
600 the
mmstandardized three-point bending test (3PBT) on a notched beam (150
two
× 150types
× 600of3mmFRC3) were
according characterized:
to EN 14651 MSFRC withthe
[59]. For fiber
sakecontents 4 kg/m3analysis,
of moreofdetailed (MSFRC-4) two
and
types8 kg/m
of FRC(MSFRC-8).
were characterized: MSFRC with fiber contents of 4 kg/m3 (MSFRC-4) and 8
Thereafter, multi-linear constitutive models were derived pursuant to the fib Model
kg/m3 (MSFRC-8).
Code 2010 [1] in order to simulate experimentally obtained “load–displacement” curves at
Thereafter, multi-linear constitutive models were derived pursuant to the fib Model
20 ◦ C, 0 ◦ C, −10 ◦ C, and −30 ◦ C. Moreover, correction factors to the elaborated constitutive
Code 2010 [1] in order to simulate experimentally obtained “load–displacement” curves
diagrams were identified with the aim of fitting the numerical prediction to the real behavior
at 20 °C, 0 °C, −10 °C, and −30 °C. Moreover, correction factors to the elaborated constitu-
of the tested beams.
tive diagrams were identified with the aim of fitting the numerical prediction to the real
As a result, the experimental outcome enlarged existing databases on FRC mechanical
behavior of the tested beams.
performance and allows practitioners to consider the mechanical properties of FRC when
Materials 2022, 15, 1153 3 of 14

designing for cold climates or conditions where low temperatures are expected. Addition-
ally, the numerical part of the study evidenced the necessity of the correction factors to
precisely predict the real behavior of FRC elements reinforced by a given amount/type
Materials 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
of fibers.

2. Experimental Program
As a result, the experimental outcome enlarged existing databases on FRC mechani-
2.1. Concrete Mix
cal performance and allows practitioners to consider the mechanical properties of FRC
The adoptedwhenmixdesigning
(Tablefor1)cold climates or conditions
corresponded to the where
normallowstrength
temperatures are expected.
concrete and S3Ad-con-
sistency class, ditionally,
i.e., the the numericalslump
measured part of the
wasstudy evidenced
between theand
100 necessity
150ofmm
the correction factors
[60]. A Portland
to precisely predict the real behavior of FRC elements reinforced by a given amount/type
cement type CEM II-A/L was used for producing the MSFRC mixes. The concrete matrix
of fibers.
consisted of three aggregate sizes: sand 0/4, gravel 4/10, and gravel 10/20 from crushed
calcareous stone. A lignosulphonate-based
2. Experimental Program plasticizer and a polycarboxylate-based super-
plasticizer were also added during the material elaboration in order to provide the required
2.1. Concrete Mix
workability of the Themix.adopted mix (Table 1) corresponded to the normal strength concrete and S3 con-
sistency class, i.e., the measured slump was between 100 and 150 mm [60]. A Portland
cement type CEM II-A/L was used for producing the MSFRC mixes. The concrete matrix
Table 1. Composition of studied MSFRC.
consisted of three aggregate sizes: sand 0/4, gravel 4/10, and gravel 10/20 from crushed
calcareous stone. A lignosulphonate-based plasticizer and a polycarboxylate-based super-
Materials MSFRC-4 MSFRC-8
plasticizer were also added during the material elaboration in order to provide the re-
quired
CEM II-A/L workability
42.5R 3
(kg/m )of the mix. 310 310
Coarse aggregate 10/20 (kg/m3 ) 690 680
Table 1. Composition of studied MSFRC.
Coarse aggregate 4/10 (kg/m3 ) 127 125
Fine aggregate 0/4 (kg/m 3)
Materials 1025MSFRC-4 1025
MSFRC-8
Water-cementCEMratio
II-A/L 42.5R (kg/m3) 0.58 310 0.58
310
Additives (% on cement
Coarse content)
aggregate 10/20 (kg/m3) 1.2 690 1.5
680
Coarse
Synthetic fibers (kg/m 3)
aggregate 4/10 (kg/m3) 4 127 125
8
Fine aggregate 0/4 (kg/m3) 1025 1025
Water-cement ratio 0.58 0.58
Based on the described
Additives concrete
(% on cement composition, 1.2
content) two types of FRC were 1.5 produced:
polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete
Synthetic fibers (kg/m3) with a fiber content
4 of (1) 4 kg/m3 (volume
8 fraction
0.425%) and (2) 8 kg/m3 (volume fraction 0.850%); Table 2 gathers the essential properties of
Based on the described concrete composition, two types of FRC were produced: pol-
the used polypropylene fiber (PPF). MSFRC-4 was oriented to industrial floors in which only
ypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete with a fiber content of (1) 4 kg/m3 (volume fraction
the minimum 0.425%)
reinforcement is required to control cracking due to thermal–hydrometric
and (2) 8 kg/m3 (volume fraction 0.850%); Table 2 gathers the essential properties
(temperature andof theshrinkage gradients)
used polypropylene phenomena.
fiber (PPF). MSFRC-4 was Inoriented
turn, MSFRC-8
to industrial was
floorsselected
in which to
only the minimum reinforcement is required to control cracking
reproduce medium-heavy duty pavements, which, apart from the previously mentioned due to thermal–hydro-
indirect loads, metric
could(temperature
be subjected andto
shrinkage
external gradients)
loads ofphenomena.
notable In turn, MSFRC-8 was selected
magnitude.
to reproduce medium-heavy duty pavements, which, apart from the previously men-
tioned indirect loads, could be subjected to external loads of notable magnitude.
Table 2. Properties of the implemented fiber.
Table 2. Properties of the implemented fiber.
Property PPF Representation
Property PPF Representation
Material Material Transparent polypropylene
Transparent polypropylene
Shape Shape Embossed monofilament
Embossed monofilament
Diameter (mm)Diameter (mm) 0.85 0.85
Length (mm) Length (mm) 48 48
Aspect ratio Aspect ratio 56.5 56.5
Number of fibers per kgof fibers per kg
Number 41,200 41,200
Tensile strengthTensile
(MPa)strength (MPa) >400 >400

2.2. Test Setup and Testing Procedure

2.2. Test Setup and Testing Procedure
The structural response of the elaborated MSFRC mixes in terms of flexural pre- and
The structural response
post-cracking of thewas
strengths elaborated
analyzed atMSFRC mixestemperature),
20 °C (reference in terms of 0flexural pre-
°C, −10 °C, andand
−30 °C. This mechanical property of ◦
the studied MSFRC was assessed
post-cracking strengths was analyzed at 20 C (reference temperature), 0 C, −10 C, and in ◦
compliance ◦with
EN 14651 [59] (Figure 2a) by testing six notched prismatic beams (150 × 150 × 600 mm) for
−30 ◦ C. This mechanical property of the studied MSFRC was assessed in compliance with
EN 14651 [59] (Figure 2a) by testing six notched prismatic beams (150 × 150 × 600 mm) for
each temperature magnitude, resulting in 48 tested samples. The casting and demolding
(in 24 h) of the prismatic beams in question were followed by the curing of these specimens
in a temperature (20 ◦ C) and humidity (95%) controlled chamber for 28 days.
 ture was reached, the specimens were placed in an INSTRON 8505 testing machine (Fig-
ure 2c) equipped with a load cell of 100 kN in order to estimate the flexural behavior. The
parameters of major concern within the testing procedure were the limits of proportion-
ality (fLOP), fR1, and fR3; fLOP represented the pre-cracking flexural behavior, whereas the re-
Materials 2022, 15, 1153
sidual tensile strengths fR1 and fR3 were used to derive the constitutive models of the 4 of 14
MSFRC for design purposes, being related with serviceability and ultimate limit states,
respectively.

Figure 2. (a) 3PBT setup; (b) freezing procedure and temperature monitoring; (c) 3PBT at −30 °C.
Figure 2. (a) 3PBT setup; (b) freezing procedure and temperature monitoring; (c) 3PBT at −30 ◦ C.

3. Experimental Results and Discussions

Thereafter, three-quarters of all beams were placed in a laboratory freezer, and each
quarterFigure 3 gathers
was cooled 0 ◦ C, −10obtained
to responses ◦ C, and − by30 ◦ C, respectively.
means of the 3PBT in terms of pre-the
Importantly, and post-
prismatic
cracking strength and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD);
samples were equipped with a thermocouple in order to guarantee the target test tempera- average values are
highlighted by red lines (based on six tested specimens for each case),
ture and, additionally, to monitor its evolution (Figure 2b). Once the required temperature whereas result scat-
waster reached,
(envelope) theisspecimens
represented by aplaced
were shadedinarea. Primarily, 8505
an INSTRON pre-cracking behavior(Figure
testing machine was as-2c)
sessed for both MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8. Taking into consideration
equipped with a load cell of 100 kN in order to estimate the flexural behavior. The pa- that this mechanical
propertyofismajor
rameters mainlyconcern
dependent on the
within thematerial matrix [61,62]
testing procedure were(amount of cement
the limits paste and
of proportionality
granular skeleton), similar results were expected regardless of the fiber content.
(fLOP ), fR1 , and fR3 ; fLOP represented the pre-cracking flexural behavior, whereas the residual
tensileThis expectation
strengths fR1 and was
fR3 proven
were usedaccurate, as seen
to derive the in Figure 4—the
constitutive modelslimitofofthe
theMSFRC
propor-for
tionality of MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 at the reference temperature
design purposes, being related with serviceability and ultimate limit states, respectively.was almost identical.
Decreasing the temperature to the threshold value for water to start freezing (0 °C), fLOP
3.started increasing
Experimental by 15.8%
Results andand 47.0% for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8, respectively. Further
Discussion
reduction in the temperature led to a significant enhancement of fLOP: a total increment of
Figure 3 gathers responses obtained by means of the 3PBT in terms of pre- and post-
67.7% and 66.5% was detected for the above listed materials at –10 °C, whereas the tem-
cracking strength and crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD); average values are
perature magnitude of –30 °C entailed an increment of 68.5% and 73.2% for MSFRC-4 and
highlighted by red lines (based on six tested specimens for each case), whereas result scatter
MSFRC-8, respectively (comparing with fLOP at 20 °C).
(envelope) is represented by a shaded area. Primarily, pre-cracking behavior was assessed
Thereafter, the effect of the temperature variation on the residual tensile strengths
for both MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8. Taking into consideration that this mechanical property
(fR1, fR3) was estimated. This mechanical parameter, apart from the characteristics of the
is concrete
mainly dependent
matrix, dependson theonmaterial
a certainmatrix
number[61,62] (amount
of factors, such asofthe
cement paste and
mechanical granular
properties
skeleton), similar results were expected regardless of the fiber content.
of the implemented fibers, fiber geometry (having a main effect on anchorage and bond
This expectation
capacity), was proven
and fiber distribution and accurate, as seen
orientation withinin the
Figure 4—the
critical limit
section. of the propor-
Therefore, the
tionality of MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 at the reference temperature
analysis of post-cracking behavior of FRC at low temperatures is a challenging aspect was almost identical.
to
Decreasing the temperature to the threshold value for water to start freezing (0 ◦ C), fLOP
be investigated.
started increasing by 15.8% and 47.0% for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8, respectively. Further
reduction in the temperature led to a significant enhancement of fLOP : a total increment
of 67.7% and 66.5% was detected for the above listed materials at –10 ◦ C, whereas the
temperature magnitude of –30 ◦ C entailed an increment of 68.5% and 73.2% for MSFRC-4
and MSFRC-8, respectively (comparing with fLOP at 20 ◦ C).
Thereafter, the effect of the temperature variation on the residual tensile strengths
(fR1 , fR3 ) was estimated. This mechanical parameter, apart from the characteristics of the
concrete matrix, depends on a certain number of factors, such as the mechanical properties
of the implemented fibers, fiber geometry (having a main effect on anchorage and bond
capacity), and fiber distribution and orientation within the critical section. Therefore, the
analysis of post-cracking behavior of FRC at low temperatures is a challenging aspect to
be investigated.
Materials 2022, 15,
Materials 2022, 14, 1153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 14
14
Materials 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Figure Flexuralpre-
Figure 3. Flexural pre-and
andpost-cracking
post-cracking strength
strength at different
at different temperatures
temperatures of: (a–d)
of: (a–d) MSFRC-4;
MSFRC-4; (e,f)
Figure 3. Flexural pre- and post-cracking strength at different temperatures of: (a–d) MSFRC-4; (e,f)
MSFRC-8.
(e–h) MSFRC-8.
MSFRC-8.

Figure 4. Mean values of fLOP with corresponding standard deviations of the studied MSFRCs at
Figure 4.
4. Mean
Mean values
values of
of ffLOP with corresponding standard deviations of the studied MSFRCs at
Figure
different temperatures. LOP with corresponding standard deviations of the studied MSFRCs at
different temperatures.
different temperatures.
Materials 2022, 15,
Materials 2022, 14, 1153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 14
14

The
The results
results that
that can
canserve
serveas
asaabase
basefor
forfurther
furtherinvestigations
investigationsare
arepresented
presentedinin
Figure
Figure5.
Analyzing the observed structural response of the tested FRC beams, the positive
5. Analyzing the observed structural response of the tested FRC beams, the positive effect effect
of
of low
low temperatures
temperatures on on the
the energy
energy required
required to
to produce
produce fiber
fiber pull-out
pull-out can
can be
be emphasized,
emphasized,
i.e., the concrete matrix that embeds the fibers shrinks with the decrease in temperature,
i.e., the concrete matrix that embeds the fibers shrinks with the decrease in temperature,
provoking
provoking an an increase
increase inin confinement
confinement pressure
pressure along
along the
the fibers
fibers and
and thus
thus enhancing
enhancing the
the
anchorage capacity of fibers. This phenomenon, in turn, improves the post-cracking flexural
anchorage capacity of fibers. This phenomenon, in turn, improves the post-cracking flex-
behavior as it was depicted in [63,64]. Importantly, the studied range of temperatures had
ural behavior as it was depicted in [63,64]. Importantly, the studied range of temperatures
no detectable negative influence on the mechanical properties of the implemented fibers
had no detectable negative influence on the mechanical properties of the implemented
and, thereby, on the overall performance of the studied FRC beams.
fibers and, thereby, on the overall performance of the studied FRC beams.

Figure 5. Mean values of fR1 and fR3 with corresponding standard deviations of the studied MSFRCs
Figure 5. Mean values of fR1 and fR3 with corresponding standard deviations of the studied MSFRCs
at different temperatures.
at different temperatures.

Additionally, the
Additionally, the effect
effect ofof the
the higher
higher fiber
fiber content
content on on the
the enhancement
enhancement rate rate of
of the
the
residual tensile
residual tensile strength
strength (due (due to to temperature
temperature reduction)
reduction) can can bebe stressed:
stressed: the
the relatively
relatively
moderate values of residual tensile strengths in the case of MSFRC-4
moderate values of residual tensile strengths in the case of MSFRC-4 did not ensure the did not ensure the
continuous increment of post-cracking strength, i.e., both fR1 and fR3 presented similar en-
continuous increment of post-cracking strength, i.e., both fR1 and fR3 presented similar en-
hancements of
hancements of this
this parameter
parameterin inthe
therange
rangebetween
between0 0◦ C °Cand
and−−30 30 ◦°C. Contrarily,MSFRC-8
C. Contrarily, MSFRC-
8 evidenced a significant increment of residual tensile strengths
evidenced a significant increment of residual tensile strengths once temperatures surpassedonce temperatures sur-
passed
the the threshold
threshold temperature temperature
magnitude magnitude ◦
of 0 C—up of 0 to°C—up
71.2% to in 71.2% in comparison
comparison with
with the refer-
the reference
ence values (atvalues
20 ◦ C).(at 20 °C). Moreover,
Moreover, the greater the greaterinincrease
increase fR3 should in fR3
beshould be highlighted,
highlighted, opposing
opposing
the the enhancement
enhancement rate due torate lowdue to low temperatures
temperatures to theinincrease
to the increase in phenomenon
fR1 —this fR1—this phe-
results from the improvement of the bond capacity in the matrix–fiber interactioninterac-
nomenon results from the improvement of the bond capacity in the matrix–fiber that is
tion that isa generally
generally governinga failure
governing failure mechanism
mechanism (fiber debonding).
(fiber debonding).
Although the obtained experimentalexperimental outcome
outcome clearly
clearly evidenced
evidenced the the increase
increase inin pre-
pre-
post-crackingflexural
and post-cracking flexuralstrength
strengthofofthethe given
given FRCs,
FRCs, further
further studies
studies areare required
required to ex-
to extend
tenddatabase
the the database
relatedrelated
to thetoeffect
the effect
of lowoftemperatures
low temperatures on flexural
on flexural capacity
capacity of theofmaterial
the ma-
terial
in in question,
question, varying varying temperature
temperature magnitudes,
magnitudes, concreteconcrete
mixes, mixes, and fiber
and fiber type/con-
type/contents.
tents.will
This This will to
allow allow
propose to propose a relationship
a relationship betweenbetweentemperature temperature
variationvariation and the
and the flexural
flexural strength
strength of FRCs;ofthisFRCs; this relationship,
relationship, in turn,in turn, will allow
will allow to characterize
to characterize the the materials
materials at
ambient
at ambient conditions
conditions withwith a asubsequent
subsequentestimation
estimationofoftheir theirpotential
potential behavior
behavior at at more
severe conditions.

4. Numerical Analysis
4. Numerical Analysis
In
In previous
previous sections, experimental tests
sections, experimental tests have
have proven
proven the
the positive
positive effect
effect of
of low
low tem-
tem-
peratures
peratures on
on FRC
FRC by
by increasing
increasing post-cracking
post-cracking strength. Based on
strength. Based on the
the authors’
authors’ experience,
experience,
the constitutive equation proposed in the fib
the FRC constitutive equation proposed in the fib Model Code 2010 [1], which was
FRC Model Code 2010 [1], which was set
set as
as
aa reference for design engineers and practitioners to take into account the post-cracking
reference for design engineers and practitioners to take into account the post-cracking
behavior of FRC,
behavior of FRC, needs
needstotobebeadjusted
adjustedininorder
orderto to properly
properly reproduce
reproduce thethe latter.
latter. TheThead-
adjustments usually adopted in MSFRC are to reduce residual strength
justments usually adopted in MSFRC are to reduce residual strength at early stages at early stages
(for
(for
CMOD CMOD
< 0.5<mm)
0.5 mm)
sincesince the constitutive
the constitutive equation
equation tendstends to overestimate
to overestimate the flexural
the flexural post-
Materials2022,
Materials 2022,15,
14,1153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of
of 14
14

post-cracking
cracking capacity capacity afterafter cracking,
cracking, whereas
whereas thethe behavior
behavior at larger
at larger crack
crack openings
openings tends
tends to
to
bebe underestimated,and
underestimated, andthetheresidual
residualstrength
strengthneedsneedstotobebeincreased
increased[65,66].
[65,66].
With
Withthatthatin in mind,
mind, this section presents
presents aanon-linear
non-linearfinite finiteelement
element(FE) (FE)simulation
simulation to
to obtain
obtain and and assess
assess thethe ratio
ratio of residual
of residual strength
strength (obtained
(obtained by means
by means of a numerical
of a numerical simu-
simulation) to experimental
lation) to experimental residual
residual strength
strength (fR,NL
(fR,NL /f)R,EXP
/fR,EXP ) forFRC
for the the FRC mixes mixes (MSFRC-4
(MSFRC-4 and
and MSFRC-8) tested at different temperatures. In order
MSFRC-8) tested at different temperatures. In order to derive these fR,NL to derive these f /f
/fR,EXP
R,NL ratios,
R,EXP ratios,
the
the strategy
strategy adopted
adopted is theis the following:
following: first,first, non-linear
non-linear simulations
simulations of a beam
of a beam flexuralflexural
post-
post-cracking
cracking strength strengthtest test
were were carried
carried out out implementing
implementing an FRC-constitutive
an FRC-constitutive relationship
relationship ac-
according
cording totofib fibModel
ModelCode Code20102010 [1].
[1]. Figure
Figure 66 depicts
depicts the the schematic
schematic representation
representationof ofthe
the
stress-crack
stress-crackwidth widthcurve curvefor forFRC
FRCaccording
accordingto thefib
tothe fibModel
ModelCode Code2010 2010[1].[1].AAfullfullcurve
curveisis
obtained as the combination of the post-cracking response
obtained as the combination of the post-cracking response of plain concrete (where of plain concrete (where f ctm andfctm
Gand
F stand for mean tensile concrete strength and fracture energy,
GF stand for mean tensile concrete strength and fracture energy, respectively) and respectively) and the fiber
the
contribution
fiber contributionthrough the pull-out
through mechanism,
the pull-out the firstthe
mechanism, point being
first point = fctm σand
σ1being w1 and
1 = fctm
= 0 mm,w1 =
the
0 mm,second point σpoint
the second 2 and σ w22and
(thewintersection between the two curves), and the third one
2 (the intersection between the two curves), and the third
3 = fσctm
σone and w3 =
3 = fctm and w32.5 mm.
= 2.5 mm. Moreover,
Moreover, since
sincethethe results
resultsdid didnotnotfitfitthe
theexperimental
experimentalones ones
well, fR1 f
well, the fR1 and fR3 coefficients (to derive constitutive curves according to
the and R3 coefficients (to derive constitutive curves according thefib
to the fibModel
Model
Code
Code20102010constitutive
constitutiveequations)
equations)were weremodified
modifiedso sothat
thatthe
theresulting
resultingcurvescurvesfit fitthe
thevalues
values
atatCMOD
CMOD of 0.5 and 2.5 mm, which are the crack openings for serviceability andultimate
of 0.5 and 2.5 mm, which are the crack openings for serviceability and ultimate
limit states, respectively. The latter task was undertaken by implementing a back analysis
limit states, respectively. The latter task was undertaken by implementing a back analysis
by an iterative trial and error process.
by an iterative trial and error process.

Figure6.6.fib
Figure fibMC-2010
MC-2010[1]
[1]FRC
FRCtensile
tensileconstitutive
constitutiveequation.
equation.

In
Inorder
ordertoto carry outout
carry the the
numerical analysis,
numerical non-linear
analysis, simulations
non-linear were implemented
simulations were imple-
by
mented by means of the commercial finite element (FE) software ABAQUS CAE[67],
means of the commercial finite element (FE) software ABAQUS CAE 2016 2016as[67],
its
adequacy in properly reproducing the post-cracking flexural performance
as its adequacy in properly reproducing the post-cracking flexural performance of FRC of FRC has been
successfully proven through
has been successfully proven anthrough
available anConcrete
availableDamaged
ConcretePlasticity
Damaged(CDP) numerical
Plasticity (CDP)
model [20,66].
numerical modelCDP is a smeared
[20,66]. CDP is acrack plasticity-based
smeared numericalnumerical
crack plasticity-based model, whichmodel,assumes
which
that the main
assumes thattwothe failure
main twomechanisms are tensile cracking
failure mechanisms are tensileand concrete
cracking crushing.
and concrete Input data
crushing.
are required in terms of uniaxial stress-strain (σ–ε) curves for both tensile
Input data are required in terms of uniaxial stress-strain (σ–ε) curves for both tensile andand compressive
behavior.
compressiveIn this study, in
behavior. Inorder to minimize
this study, in ordermesh dependence
to minimize meshdue to different
dependence duemesh size,
to differ-
the stress-crack width (σ–w) tensile curve was used instead of σ–ε [67].
ent mesh size, the stress-crack width (σ–w) tensile curve was used instead of σ–ε [67]. TheThe compressive
constitutive
compressivecurve adopted
constitutive wasadopted
curve proposed was the fib Model
in proposed in theCode 2010 Code
fib Model [1], and
2010the CDP
[1], and
magnitude of the parameters adopted for all the simulations were
the CDP magnitude of the parameters adopted for all the simulations were those pro- those proposed in
ABAQUS
posed in Users’
ABAQUS Manual
Users’[67] for plain
Manual [67]concrete,
for plainwhich can be
concrete, found
which canelsewhere
be found[68].
elsewhere
[68].The adopted 2D model considering plain strain conditions is depicted in Figure 7,
whichTheshows the loading
adopted and boundary
2D model considering conditions
plain strainalongconditions
with the mesh. In agreement
is depicted with7,
in Figure
the experimental test, the boundary conditions were imposed so that vertical displacement
which shows the loading and boundary conditions along with the mesh. In agreement
was restrained (Uy = 0) at both supports and horizontal displacement (Ux = 0) in one of
Materials 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Materials 2022, 15, 1153 with the experimental test, the boundary conditions were imposed so that vertical 8 ofdis-
14

placement was restrained (Uy = 0) at both supports and horizontal displacement (Ux = 0)
in one of them. The loading was applied by means of displacement control using an ex-
plicit The
them. dynamic algorithm
loading (quasi-static
was applied by means analysis) in order
of displacement to properly
control using ancapture the post-
explicit dynamic
cracking performance
algorithm of FRC. in
(quasi-static analysis) The mesh
order comprised
to properly 485 nodes
capture and 886 triangular
the post-cracking linear
performance
of FRC. The
elements mesh with
(CPE3) comprised
a mesh485 nodes
size of 20and
mm,886refined
triangular linear
in the elementswith
mid-section (CPE3)
5 mmwith a
size
mesh size ofwherein
elements, 20 mm, the
refined
meshin size
the mid-section with 5after
was determined mm size elements,
carrying out awherein the mesh
mesh sensitivity
size was determined after carrying out a mesh sensitivity analysis.
analysis.

Figure7.7.2D
Figure 2DFEM
FEMmodel
modeladopted:
adopted:mesh
meshand
andboundary
boundaryconditions
conditionsconsidered.
considered.

Theresults
The resultsof ofthe
thenon-linear
non-linearsimulations
simulationsfor forMSFRC-4
MSFRC-4and andMSFRC-8
MSFRC-8for forallalltempera-
temper-
atures
tures areare plottedininFigure
plotted Figure8.8.The Theload–CMOD
load–CMODgraphs graphsinclude
includethreethreecurves:
curves:experimental
experimental
resultsand
results andtwotwofrom
fromnon-linear
non-linearsimulations
simulations(1) (1) implementing
implementing the the fib
fib Model
Model Code Code [1] [1] con-
con-
stitutiveequation
stitutive equation(FE (FEMC-2010,
MC-2010,derivedderivedusing usingfR1fR1and
andfR3 fR3 obtained
obtained from from thetheexperimental
experimental
testspresented
tests presentedin inSection
Section3) 3)and
and(2) (2)using
usingthe theconstitutive
constitutive curve curve (FE(FE MC-2010
MC-2010 Modified),
Modified),
adjusted so
adjusted sothat
thatthetheresults
resultsfit fitthe
theexperimental
experimental curve curve at at 0.5
0.5 and
and 2.5
2.5 mm.
mm. As As cancan bebe seen,
seen,
the
thesimulations
simulationswith withFE FEMC-2010
MC-2010 Modified
Modifiedonly only fitfitthe
the experimental
experimental data data atat these
these points,
points,
and
andhardening
hardeningisisproduced produced in in
a linear
a linearway. Based
way. on the
Based onauthors’ experience,
the authors’ in those
experience, in cases
those
where the hardening is produced in a curved way, more
cases where the hardening is produced in a curved way, more points would be necessary points would be necessary in the
constitutive
in the constitutiveequation in orderintoorder
equation better toadjust
better the
adjustexperimental
the experimentaloutcome [65,66].[65,66].
outcome
ItItisisworth
worthnoticing
noticingthat thatthethe ultimate
ultimate displacement
displacement in in fib fib
thethe ModelModelCodeCode[1] constitutive
[1] constitu-
curve
tive curveis 2.5ismm 2.5 mm (set (set
as the stress
as the for for
stress ultimate
ultimate limit
limitstate
stateanalysis).
analysis).However,
However,in inthis
this
research
researchstudy, study,after
after2.5 2.5mm,
mm,the theconstitutive
constitutive curve
curve smoothly
smoothly decreases
decreases to zero
to zero stress,
stress,set set
at
wat=w5 =mm, in order to better capture the flexural bearing capacity
5 mm, in order to better capture the flexural bearing capacity of MSFRC at latter of MSFRC at latter stages.
Without the last branch
stages. Without the lastofbranch
the curve,of the the maximum
curve, post-cracking
the maximum load of the
post-cracking tests,
load of after the
the tests,
drop due to cracking, cannot be captured since it is produced
after the drop due to cracking, cannot be captured since it is produced for crack openings for crack openings higher
than
higher2.5than mm 2.5[65,66].
mm [65,66].
Table
Table3 gathers
3 gathers more detailed
more information
detailed regarding
information fR1 andffR1R3 and
regarding parameters for MSFRC-
fR3 parameters for
4MSFRC-4
and MSFRC-8, respectively. These parameters were used
and MSFRC-8, respectively. These parameters were used for deriving the con- for deriving the constitutive
curves
stitutive obtained
curvesfrom the experimental
obtained data and bydata
from the experimental meansandofby themeans
back analysis.
of the back In addition,
analysis.
the table also presents the fR,NL /f R,EXP ratios for each MSFRC
In addition, the table also presents the fR,NL/fR,EXP ratios for each MSFRC mix and tempera- mix and temperature.
ture.Based on the outcome presented in the table, it can clearly be seen that the ranges
fR,NL /fon
of theBased the ratios
R,EXP outcome either fR1 or
for presented in fthe
R3 are quite
table, narrow,
it can clearly particularly
be seen that forthefR1ranges
. In this of
sense, it could be stated that the f R,NL /fR,EXP ratios are constant despite
the fR,NL/fR,EXP ratios for either fR1 or fR3 are quite narrow, particularly for fR1. In this sense, it the increasing
post-cracking strength with decreasing temperature. In view of this, in cases where no
could be stated that the fR,NL/fR,EXP ratios are constant despite the increasing post-cracking
data are available for low temperatures, and the structure is expected to be subjected to
strength with decreasing temperature. In view of this, in cases where no data are available
large temperature variations, the same fR,NL /fR,EXP ratio (for either fR1 and fR3 ) at reference
for low temperatures, and the structure is expected to be subjected to large temperature
temperature could be taken for the MSFRC design.
variations, the same fR,NL/fR,EXP ratio (for either fR1 and fR3) at reference temperature could
be taken for the MSFRC design.
Materials
Materials2022, 15,14,1153
2022, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
9 of 14

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Results
Results for
forMSFRC-4
MSFRC-4and
andMSFRC-8
MSFRC-8atat
studied temperatures
studied in terms
temperatures of “load–CMOD”.
in terms of “load–CMOD”.

Table3.
3. ffRNL/f/f
REXP ratio for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 at studied temperatures.
Table RNL REXP ratio for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 at studied temperatures.

Temperature MSFRC-4 MSFRC-8

Temperature MSFRC-4 MSFRC-8
(°C) fR,EXP (MPa) fR,NL (Mpa) fR,NL/fR,EXP fR,EXP (Mpa) fR,NL (Mpa) fR,NL/fR,EXP
(◦ C) fR,EXP (MPa) fR,NL (Mpa) fR,NL /fR,EXP fR,EXP (Mpa) fR,NL (Mpa) fR,NL /fR,EXP
20 0.94 0.60 0.64 1.88 1.35 0.72
200 0.94
1.20 0.60
0.80 0.64
0.67 2.41.88 1.801.35 0.75 0.72
fR1 0 1.20 0.80 0.67 2.4 1.80 0.75
fR1 −10 1.23 0.80 0.65 2.89 2.25 0.78
−10 1.23 0.80 0.65 2.89 2.25 0.78
−−30
30 1.22
1.22 0.80
0.80 0.66
0.66 2.832.83 2.252.25 0.80 0.80
20 1.03 1.03 1.00 2.26 2.40 1.06
20 1.03 1.03 1.00 2.26 2.40 1.06
00 1.40
1.40 1.60
1.60 1.14
1.14 3.023.02 3.203.20 1.06 1.06
fR3fR3
−−10
10 1.49
1.49 1.80
1.80 1.21
1.21 3.873.87 4.604.60 1.19 1.19
−−30
30 1.52
1.52 1.80
1.80 1.18
1.18 3.753.75 4.604.60 1.23 1.23
Materials 2022,15,
Materials2022, 14,1153
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
10 14

In
Inorder
ordertotoverify
verifythis
thisassumption,
assumption, inin
Figure
Figure9 were
9 wereplotted the the
plotted FE simulations
FE simulations using the
using
residual strengths
the residual from from
strengths the teststheattests
eachattemperature
each temperature and multiplied by the fR,NL
and multiplied /fR,EXP
by the ratio
fR,NL/fR,EXP
(for
ratio (for feither
either R1 and ffR1 ) at 20fR3◦)Cat(i.e.,
R3 and 20 f°C /fR1,EXP
(i.e.,
R1,NL fR1,NL/f=R1,EXP
0.65 =and 0.75
0.65 for 0.75
and MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-
for MSFRC-4 and
8, respectively, and
MSFRC-8, respectively, f /f
R3,NLand = 1.10 for both solutions). As can be seen,
fR3,NL/fR3,EXP = 1.10 for both solutions). As can be seen,
R3,EXP the differences
the dif-
at CMODat0.5
ferences and 2.5
CMOD 0.5mm
andhave 2.5 mm a deviation lower than
have a deviation lower 10% in all
than 10%cases (Figure
in all 9) which
cases (Figure 9)
iswhich
assumed to be acceptable for engineering design. Moreover, taking
is assumed to be acceptable for engineering design. Moreover, taking into consid- into consideration
the scatter
eration the in the experimental
scatter in the experimental tests oftests
MSFRC post-cracking
of MSFRC performance,
post-cracking these these
performance, new
simulations are inside the envelope, which means that this approach
new simulations are inside the envelope, which means that this approach is representative is representative of
the mechanical performance of each solution
of the mechanical performance of each solution of MSFRC. of MSFRC.

Figure 9. Results in terms of load–CMOD for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 using fR,NL/fR,EXP at reference
Figure 9. Results in terms of load–CMOD for MSFRC-4 and MSFRC-8 using fR,NL /fR,EXP at reference
temperature to derive the constitutive curves.
temperature to derive the constitutive curves.
It is worth noticing that, in a hypothetical situation in which no tests were performed
It is worth noticing that, in a hypothetical situation in which no tests were performed
at low temperatures,f fR1 and
at low temperatures, and ffR3 at different temperatures could be obtained based on the
R1 R3 at different temperatures could be obtained based on the
established relationship “temperature variation–flexuralstrength”
established relationship “temperature variation–flexural strength”that
thatisisto
tobe
beelaborated
elaborated
once the broader database of the experimental results is developed, as proposed in in
once the broader database of the experimental results is developed, as proposed Section
Section 3.
3.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, an experimental program was described following an analysis of low
In this paper,
temperature an the
effects on experimental program was
pre- and post-cracking described
flexural following
behavior an analysis offiber
of macro-synthetic low
temperature
reinforced effects (MSFRC).
concrete on the pre- In and
total,post-cracking
48 prismatic flexural
notched behavior
beams were of macro-synthetic
tested under a
fiber reinforced
three-point concrete
bending (MSFRC).varying
configuration, In total,temperatures
48 prismatic notched ◦ C to −
from 20 beams 30 ◦ C.
were tested under
Moreover,
a three-point
numerical bending
analyses configuration,
were performed to varying
verifytemperatures
the suitabilityfrom 20 °C
of the to −30constitutive
current °C. Moreo-
ver, numerical
models suggestedanalyses
by thewere performed
fib Model Codeto2010
verify
forthe suitability
simulating ofpre-
the the current constitutive
and post-cracking
models suggested
response by thetested
of the MSFRCs fib Model
at lowCode 2010 for simulating
temperatures. the pre-
The following and post-cracking
conclusions may be
derived
response from theMSFRCs
of the obtainedtested
results:at low temperatures. The following conclusions may be
•derived
Lowfrom the obtained
temperatures led toresults:
an increase in the required energy to produce fiber pull-out,
• and Lowtherefore,
temperatures led to an increase
post-cracking in the required
flexural behavior energy tofR1
was enhanced: produce
and fR3fiber pull-out,
increased to
and therefore, post-cracking flexural behavior
54% and 71%, respectively, for temperatures below 0 C. was ◦
enhanced: fR1 and fR3 increased to
• A54% and 71%,
greater respectively,
increase in fR3 at low fortemperatures
temperatures(in below 0 °C. with the observed values
comparison
• of A greater
fR1 ) wasincrease in fR3This
observed. at low temperatures
could be due to(in comparison
the confinement witheffect
the observed
caused by values
the
of fR1) was of
shrinkage observed.
the matrixThis could be due
embedding thetofibers.
the confinement effect caused
This effect seemed to leadbyto the
a shrink-
higher
age of the matrix embedding the fibers. This effect seemed to lead to a higher fiber
Materials 2022, 15, 1153 11 of 14

fiber bond (higher matrix–fiber friction). This outcome is of paramount importance

for design procedures at ultimate conditions.
• The numerical analysis adopting the multi-linear constitutive model that is suggested
by the fib Model Code 2010 evidenced a certain overestimation of the real flexural
behavior in cases of studied MSFRC prismatic beams. This phenomenon led to the
requirement of introducing correction factors to properly simulate the structural
response of the elements in question. Importantly, the imposed correction factors (for
both fR1 and fR3 ) were almost identical despite the temperature variation, although the
fiber content did have an effect on these values.
The outcome of the described research program reveals the enhanced performance
of the given FRCs in terms of pre- and post-cracking flexural strengths—therefore, these
phenomena should be taken into account during the design procedures of elements that
are to be subjected to low temperatures during transient or in-service conditions. However,
further investigation is required to expand the experimental database related to the behavior
of FRCs at low temperatures. This will allow to evaluate the “temperature–pre- and post-
flexural strength” relationships so that designers and practitioners will only need to carry
out the characterization of the required material at ambient conditions (20 ◦ C) in order to
adequately predict structural behavior at low temperatures.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.d.l.F. and N.T.; methodology, S.A. and A.N.; software,
A.N.; analysis, S.A., A.N. and I.R.; investigation, I.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A. and
A.N.; writing—review and editing, A.d.l.F. and N.T.; visualization, S.A.; supervision, A.d.l.F. and
N.T.; project administration, A.d.l.F. and N.T.; funding acquisition, A.d.l.F. and N.T. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 836270. The authors
also express their gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for the financial
support received under the scope of the project CREEF (PID2019-108978RB-C32). The first author
personally thanks the Department of Enterprise and Education of Catalan Government for providing
support through the PhD Industrial Fellowship (2018 DI 77) in collaboration with Smart Engineering
Ltd. (UPC’s Spin-Off). The second author, in turn, acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Science,
Innovation and University for providing support through the PhD Industrial Fellowship (DI-17-09390)
in collaboration with Smart Engineering Ltd. (UPC’s Spin-Off). Any opinions, findings, conclusions,
and/or recommendations in the paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
views of the funding organizations.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Fib. Fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010; International Federation for Structural Concrete (FIB): Lausanne, Switzerland,
2013; ISBN 9783433030615.
2. Spanish Ministry of Public Works. Code on Structural Concrete, EHE-08, Permanent Commission of the Concrete; Spanish Ministry of
Public Works: Madrid, Spain, 2008.
3. RILEM. Bending Test: Final Recommendations; RILEM TC-162-TDF. Mater. Struct. 2002, 35, 579–582.
4. Italian National Research Council CNR. CNR-DT 204/2006 Guide for the Design and Construction of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
Structures; Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche: Rome, Italy, 2006.
5. DBV. Guide to Good Practice Steel Fibre Concrete; German Society for Concrete and Construction Technology: Berlin, Germany, 2001.
6. ACI Committee 544. Report on Design and Construction of Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Elevated Slabs; American Concrete Institute:
Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2004; ISBN 9781942727323.
7. Zollo, R.F. Fiber-reinforced Concrete: An Overview after 30 Years of Development. Cem. Concr. Compos. 1997, 19, 107–122.
[CrossRef]
Materials 2022, 15, 1153 12 of 14

8. Groli, G.; Pérez, A.; Marchetto, F.; Aríñez, F. Serviceability performance of FRC columns under imposed displacements: An
experimental study. Eng. Struct. 2015, 101, 450–464. [CrossRef]
9. Pujadas, P.; Blanco, A.; de la Fuente, A.; Aguado, A. Cracking behavior of FRC slabs with traditional reinforcement. Mater. Struct.
Constr. 2012, 45, 707–725. [CrossRef]
10. Tiberti, G.; Minelli, F.; Plizzari, G.A.; Vecchio, F.J. Influence of concrete strength on crack development in SFRC members. Cem.
Concr. Compos. 2014, 45, 176–185. [CrossRef]
11. Conforti, A.; Zerbino, R.; Plizzari, G.A. Influence of steel, glass and polymer fibers on the cracking behavior of reinforced concrete
beams under flexure. Struct. Concr. 2018, 20, 133–143. [CrossRef]
12. McMahon, J.A.; Birely, A.C. Service performance of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) slabs. Eng. Struct. 2018, 168, 58–68.
[CrossRef]
13. Serrano, R.; Cobo, A.; Prieto, M.I.; de las Nieves González, M. Analysis of fire resistance of concrete with polypropylene or steel
fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 122, 302–309. [CrossRef]
14. Jin, L.; Zhang, R.; Dou, G.; Du, X. Fire resistance of steel fiber reinforced concrete beams after low-velocity impact loading. Fire
Saf. J. 2018, 98, 24–37. [CrossRef]
15. Khaliq, W.; Kodur, V.; Asce, F. Effectiveness of Polypropylene and Steel Fibers in Enhancing Fire Resistance of High-Strength
Concrete Columns. J. Struct. Eng. 2018, 144, 1–12. [CrossRef]
16. Carlesso, D.M.; de la Fuente, A.; Cavalaro, S.H.P. Fatigue of cracked high performance fiber reinforced concrete subjected to
bending. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 220, 444–455. [CrossRef]
17. Germano, F.; Tiberti, G. Post-peak fatigue performance of steel fiber reinforced concrete under flexure. Mater. Struct. 2015, 49(10),
4229–4245. [CrossRef]
18. Fall, D.; Shu, J.; Rempling, R.; Lundgren, K.; Zandi, K. Two-way slabs: Experimental investigation of load redistributions in steel
fibre reinforced concrete. Eng. Struct. 2014, 80, 61–74. [CrossRef]
19. Mahmood, S.M.F.; Foster, S.J.; Valipour, H. Moment redistribution and post-peak behaviour of lightly reinforced-SFRC continuous
slabs. Eng. Struct. 2021, 232, 111834. [CrossRef]
20. Nogales, A.; Tošić, N.; de la Fuente, A. Rotation and moment redistribution capacity of fibre reinforced concrete beams: Parametric
analysis and code compliance. Struct. Concr. 2021. (Online version before inclusion in an issue). [CrossRef]
21. Venkateshwaran, A.; Tan, K.H. Moment redistribution in continuous steel-fibre-reinforced concrete slabs. Struct. Build. 2020, 173,
161–174. [CrossRef]
22. Nia, A.A.; Hedayatian, M.; Nili, M.; Sabet, V.A. An experimental and numerical study on how steel and polypropylene fibers
affect the impact resistance in fiber-reinforced concrete. Int. J. Impact Eng. 2012, 46, 62–73. [CrossRef]
23. Teng, T.; Chu, Y.-A.; Chang, F.-A.; Shen, B.-C.; Cheng, D.-S. Development and validation of numerical model of steel fiber
reinforced concrete for high-velocity impact. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2008, 42, 90–99. [CrossRef]
24. Rai, B.; Singh, N.K. Statistical and experimental study to evaluate the variability and reliability of impact strength of steel-
polypropylene hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 44, 102937. [CrossRef]
25. Vivas, J.C.; Zerbino, R.; Torrijos, M.; Giaccio, G. A test procedure for evaluating the impact behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete.
Mater. Struct. 2021, 54, 208. [CrossRef]
26. Liu, X.; Sun, Q.; Yuan, Y.; Taerwe, L. Comparison of the structural behavior of reinforced concrete tunnel segments with steel fiber
and synthetic fiber addition. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 2020, 103, 103506. [CrossRef]
27. Conforti, A.; Trabucchi, I.; Tiberti, G.; Plizzari, G.A.; Caratelli, A.; Meda, A. Precast tunnel segments for metro tunnel lining: A
hybrid reinforcement solution using macro-synthetic fi bers. Eng. Struct. 2019, 199, 109628. [CrossRef]
28. De la Fuente, A.; Pujadas, P.; Blanco, A.; Aguado, A. Experiences in Barcelona with the use of fibres in segmental linings. Tunn.
Undergr. Sp. Technol. 2012, 27, 60–71. [CrossRef]
29. Aidarov, S.; Mena, F.; de la Fuente, A. Structural response of a fibre reinforced concrete pile-supported flat slab: Full-scale test.
Eng. Struct. 2021, 239, 112292. [CrossRef]
30. Leporace-Guimil, B.; Mudadu, A.; Conforti, A.; Plizzari, G.A. Influence of fiber orientation and structural-integrity reinforcement
on the flexural behavior of elevated slabs. Eng. Struct. 2021, 113583. [CrossRef]
31. Di Prisco, M.; Colombo, M.; Pourzarabi, A. Biaxial bending of SFRC slabs: Is conventional reinforcement necessary? Mater. Struct.
Constr. 2019, 52, 1–15. [CrossRef]
32. De la Fuente, A.; Aguado, A.; Molins, C.; Armengou, J. Innovations on components and testing for precast panels to be used in
reinforced earth retaining walls. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 2198–2205. [CrossRef]
33. Meda, A.; Plizzari, G.A.; Riva, P. Fracture behavior of SFRC slabs on grade. Mater. Struct. Constr. 2004, 37, 405–411. [CrossRef]
34. Meda, A.; Plizzari, G.A. New design approach for steel fiber-reinforced concrete slabs-on-ground based on fracture mechanics.
ACI Struct. J. 2004, 101, 298–303. [CrossRef]
35. Aidarov, S.; Mena, F.; de la Fuente, A. Self-compacting Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete: Material Characterization and Real Scale
Test up to Failure of a Pile Supported Flat Slab. In Proceedings of the RILEM-fib International Symposium on Fibre Reinforced
Concrete, Valencia, Spain, 20–22 September 2021; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 702–713.
36. Alberti, M.G.; Enfedaque, A.; Gálvez, J.C. The effect of fibres in the rheology of self-compacting concrete. Constr. Build. Mater.
2019, 219, 144–153. [CrossRef]
Materials 2022, 15, 1153 13 of 14

37. Cavalaro, S.H.P.; Aguado, A. Intrinsic scatter of FRC: An alternative philosophy to estimate characteristic values. Mater. Struct.
Constr. 2015, 48, 3537–3555. [CrossRef]
38. Tiberti, G.; Germano, F.; Mudadu, A.; Plizzari, G.A. An overview of the flexural post-cracking behavior of steel fiber reinforced
concrete. Struct. Concr. 2018, 19, 695–718. [CrossRef]
39. Parmentier, B.; De Grove, E.; Vandewalle, L.; Van Rickstal, F. Dispersion of the mechanical properties of FRC investigated by
different bending tests. In Tailor Made Concrete Structures; Taylor & Francis Group: Abingdon, UK, 2008; pp. 507–512.
40. Amin, A.; Gilbert, R.I. Instantaneous crack width calculation for steel fiber-reinforced concrete flexural members. ACI Struct. J.
2018, 115, 535–543. [CrossRef]
41. Colombo, M.; Martinelli, P.; di Prisco, M. On the evaluation of the structural redistribution factor in FRC design: A yield line
approach. Mater. Struct. 2017, 50, 1–18. [CrossRef]
42. De la Fuente, A.; Escariz, R.C.; de Figueiredo, A.D.; Aguado, A. Design of macro-synthetic fibre reinforced concrete pipes. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2013, 43, 523–532. [CrossRef]
43. Di Prisco, M.; Martinelli, P.; Parmentier, B. On the reliability of the design approach for FRC structures according to fib Model
Code 2010: The case of elevated slabs. Struct. Concr. 2016, 17, 588–602. [CrossRef]
44. Di Prisco, M.; Plizzari, G.; Vandewalle, L. Fibre reinforced concrete: New design perspectives. Mater. Struct. Constr. 2009, 42,
1261–1281. [CrossRef]
45. Facconi, L.; Minelli, F. Verification of structural elements made of FRC only: A critical discussion and proposal of a novel
analytical method. Eng. Struct. 2017, 131, 530–541. [CrossRef]
46. Facconi, L.; Plizzari, G.; Minelli, F. Elevated slabs made of hybrid reinforced concrete: Proposal of a new design approach in
flexure. Struct. Concr. 2019, 20, 52–67. [CrossRef]
47. Enfedaque, A.; Alberti, M.G.; Gálvez, J.C.; Domingo, J. Numerical simulation of the fracture behaviour of glass fibre reinforced
cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 136, 108–117. [CrossRef]
48. Enfedaque, A.; Alberti, M.G.; Galvez, J. Analysis of the Versatility of Multi-Linear Softening Functions Applied in the Simulation
of Fracture Behaviour of Fibre-Reinforced Cementitious Materials. Materials 2019, 12, 3656. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Enfedaque, A.; Alberti, M.G.; Galvez, J.; Cabanas, P. Numerical Simulation of the Fracture Behavior of High-Performance
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete by Using a Cohesive Crack-Based Inverse Analysis. Materials 2022, 15, 71. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. de Maio, U.; Fantuzzi, N.; Greco, F.; Leonetti, L.; Pranno, A. Failure Analysis of Ultra High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete Structures Enhanced with Nanomaterials by Using a Diffuse Cohesive Interface Approach. Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 1792.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Di Prisco, M.; Martinelli, P.; Dozio, D. The structural redistribution coefficient KRd : A numerical approach to its evaluation. Struct.
Concr. 2016, 17, 390–407. [CrossRef]
52. φoтoгрaф Cергей φилинин. Available online: https://sergeyfilinin.ru/#portfolio (accessed on 25 December 2021).
53. Lee, G.C.; Shih, S.; Chang, K.C. Mechanical Properties of Concrete at Low Temperature. J. Cold Reg. Eng. 1988, 2, 13–24. [CrossRef]
54. Xie, J.; Yan, J.B. Experimental studies and analysis on compressive strength of normal-weight concrete at low temperatures. Struct.
Concr. 2018, 19, 1235–1244. [CrossRef]
55. Montejo, L.A.; Sloan, J.E.; Kowalsky, M.J.; Hassan, T. Cyclic Response of Reinforced Concrete Members at Low Temperatures. J.
Cold Reg. Eng. 2008, 22, 79–102. [CrossRef]
56. Pigeon, M.; Cantin, R. Flexural properties of steel fiber-reinforced concretes at low temperatures. Cem. Concr. Compos. 1998, 20,
365–375. [CrossRef]
57. Caballero-Jorna, M.; Roig-Flores, M.; Serna, P. Short-term effects of moderate temperatures on the mechanical properties of steel
and macrosynthetic fiber reinforced concretes. In Proceedings of the RILEM-Fib X International Symposium on Fibre Reinforced
Concrete BEFIB 2021, Valencia, Spain, 20–22 September 2021; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021.
58. Richardson, A.; Ovington, R. Temperature related steel and synthetic fibre concrete performance. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 153,
616–621. [CrossRef]
59. CEN. EN 14651; Test Method for Metallic Fibre Concrete. Measuring the Flexural Tensile Strength (Limit of Proportionality (LOP),
Residual). European Committee for Standardization: Bruxelles, Belgium, 2007; ISBN 9780580610523.
60. CEN. EN 12350-2:2019; Testing Fresh Concrete. Slump Test. European Committee for Standardization: Bruxelles, Belgium, 2019.
61. König, G.; Kützing, L. Modelling the increase of ductility of HPC under compressive forces—A fracture mechanical approach.
In Proceedings of the Third International RILEM Workshop on High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites, Mainz, Germany,
16–19 May 1999; RILEM Publications SARL: Bagneux, France, 1999; pp. 251–260.
62. Mena, F.; Aidarov, S.; de la Fuente, A. Hormigones autocompactantes reforzados con fibras para aplicaciones con alta respons-
abilidad estructural. Campaña experimental en laboratorio. In Proceedings of the III Congreso de Consultores de Estructuras,
Barcelona, Spain, 3–5 April 2019; pp. 1–10.
63. Bentur, A.; Mindess, S. Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites; Taylor & Francis: Abingdon, UK, 2007.
64. Kim, J.K.; Mai, Y.-W. High strength, high fracture toughness fibre composites with interface control-A review. Compos. Sci. Technol.
1991, 41, 333–378. [CrossRef]
65. Galeote, E.; Nogales, A.; de la Fuente, A. Analysis of design constitutive model for plastic fibre reinforced concrete through inverse
analysis. In Proceedings of the 75th RILEM Week, Merida, Mexico, 29 August–3 September 2021; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg,
Germany, 2021.
Materials 2022, 15, 1153 14 of 14

66. Nogales, A.; Galeote, E.; de la Fuente, A. Finite element analysis characterization of macro synthetic fibre reinforced
concrete constitutive equation. In Proceedings of the 75th RILEM Week, Merida, Mexico, 29 August–3 September 2021;
Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021.
67. Dassault Systèmes Simulia. Abaqus CAE User’s Manual (6.12); Dassault Systèmes: Vélizy-Villacoublay, France, 2012.
68. Nogales, A.; de la Fuente, A. Elevated Flat Slab of Fibre Reinforced Concrete Non-Linear Simulation up to Failure; Springer International
Publishing: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022; Volume 36, ISBN 9783030837198.