Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transportation Geotechnics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trgeo

Influence of water and frost on the performance of natural and recycled T

materials used in unpaved roads and road shoulders
⁎
Stefan Huber , Christoph Henzinger, Dirk Heyer
Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering, Chair of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Rock Mechanics and Tunnelling, Technical University of
Munich, Munich, Germany

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, recycled materials from construction and demolition waste (C&D materials) have gained ever
Degradation of geomaterials more importance as secondary construction materials in civil engineering, especially for road construction
Strength purposes. Their use in high-grade applications is an important contribution to a circular economy. However,
Testing of materials from a technical viewpoint, reservations remain about the use of such materials. Such reservations typically
Waste management
concern their performance when exposed to water and frost. The aim of this study was to evaluate the field
Disposal
performance of unbound mixed C&D materials used in surface applications like road shoulders or unpaved roads
and exposed to the weather conditions of central Europe and to compare the mixed C&D material with two
natural reference materials. Two mixed C&D materials and two natural reference materials were field compacted
and exposed to the weather during the winter of 2017/2018 and early summer of 2018. The parameters
monitored during the period of observation were dry density, stiffness and particle breakdown due to weath-
ering. The results highlight the possible technical benefits of using C&D materials derived from construction and
demolition waste instead of natural raw materials in applications such as road shoulders or unpaved roads.

Introduction
In recent years, recycled materials from construction and demolition
waste (C&D materials) have gained ever more importance as secondary
construction materials in civil engineering, and especially for road
construction purposes. By using C&D materials as construction mate-
rials, the consumption of valuable primary construction materials such
as gravel and sand can be decreased. Additionally, the consumption of
land that would be required for the extraction of primary construction
materials and the disposal of residual mineral masses can be reduced.
The use of C&D materials for construction purposes is therefore an
important contribution to a circular economy.
A considerable number of laboratory studies has shown that C&D
materials can meet the respective requirements for the use in unbound
base or subbase layers [31,89,13,11,16,9,10,50,8,57,64,88,73], road
embankments [29,84,85] or low-volume unpaved roads [58,59].
However, the suitability of such materials depends on the physical and
chemical properties of their individual constituents [17], and therefore
some C&D materials may be more appropriate for use in certain ap-
plications than others [18,69].
A number of field studies also support the use of C&D materials for
road applications [65,34,32,33,72,55,63,77]. Some have even reported
an increase in strength and stiffness over time [34,33,63], which was
attributed to the self-cementing properties of the C&D materials in each
case. In addition to the application of C&D materials for road con-
struction purposes there are several more applications reported in the
literature illustrating the manifold application possibilities of C&D
materials. Thus, C&D materials, for example, can be used as material for
bedding pipes [14,13] and backfilling pipe trenches [81], for soil
[52,53,54] and ground improvement purposes [62,66], as landfill cover
layers [51] or in mineral sealing systems [46].
Despite all these research efforts, there are still doubts remaining
about the use of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition
waste, especially for applications in which they are subjected to
freezing temperatures or changes in water content, for instance in un-
paved roads or road shoulders. The aim of this study was to evaluate the
field performance (changes in density, stiffness, durability) of mixed C&
D materials for use in road shoulders and unpaved roads compared to
natural aggregates, under realistic weather conditions of central
Europe. Crushed limestone (LS), which is a well-established and fre-
quently used material for road construction purposes in Germany (e.g.
frost protection layer, base and sub-base layer, road shoulders), was
used as the natural reference material.
Two C&D and natural aggregates (grain size 0/8 mm and 0/32 mm)

⁎
Corresponding author at: Lehrstuhl für Grundbau, Bodenmechanik, Felsmechanik und Tunnelbau (Zentrum Geotechnik), Baumbachstraße 7, 81245 Munich,
Germany.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2019.100305
Received 27 September 2019; Received in revised form 3 December 2019; Accepted 4 December 2019
Available online 09 December 2019
2214-3912/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Huber, et al.
Nomenclature
List of notations
DPr is degree of compaction
EV1 is the elastic modulus determined with the static plate
load test at initial loading
EV2 is the elastic modulus determined with the static plate
load test at reloading
EVd is the elastic modulus determined with the dynamic
plate load test
MR is the resilient modulus
were compacted at a test site near Munich in the autumn of 2017. Field
tests were performed at several different times during the winter of
2017/2018 and early summer of 2018. During this period, the surfaces
of the compacted materials lay fully exposed to the weather, and the
dry density, static and dynamic modulus of deformation and particle
breakdown were monitored. This paper summarises the results of this
field study.
Literature review
Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste (e.g.
crushed concrete and mixed recycled material) differ from natural ag-
gregates in terms of a range of material properties, one of the most
important being particle density. There is a consensus in the scientific
literature that this particle density influences the overall behaviour and
suitability of such materials to a great extent: aggregates with higher
particle densities provide higher grain strength and stiffness, as well as
reduced water absorption capacity and particle breakage potential due
to compaction [25]. The resistance of individual particles to frost action
depends on the particle strength [19,75], which is usually directly re-
lated to the particle density.
Other studies reveal the influence of particle density on the load-
bearing capacity (typically measured as CBR strength, resilient mod-
ulus, stiffness) of such materials; crushed concrete (CC) usually has a
higher particle density than crushed bricks (CB) [30,35], and the load-
bearing capacity typically increases with increasing proportions of CC
and decreases with increasing proportions of CB [25,78,79]. Compared
to natural aggregates, the load-bearing capacity is reported to be
slightly lower or similar for materials primarily constituted of CC
[78,80,57,64], and lower for mixed C&D materials containing relevant
amounts of CB or other components such as mortar or plaster [79,73].
Particle breakdown due to frost action is also attributed to low
particle strength and the low particle density of porous aggregates:
freezing water contained in the porous aggregates is able to weaken the
structure of the single grains. This weakening process begins when the
water temperature falls below 4 °C (decreasing density of water, frost
action). After several cycles or if the frost pressure exceeds the re-
spective particle strength, a particle may break (c.f. [19,25]). However,
the situation cannot be reduced to particle strength and density alone.
The number and size of pores accessible to water also seem to play an
important role [19,25]. Results from Bazaz et al. [20], who exposed CC
and CB to the same number of freeze–thaw cycles and found a sig-
nificantly higher amount of particle breakdown both for coarse (9.5 mm
to 50 mm) and fine (0.3 mm to 9.5 mm) CC than for CB, were explained
by Cardoso et al. [25] by a lower number of accessible pores in the CB.
In this context, it would seem logical that the resistance of natural
aggregates to frost action is generally reported to be higher than with C
&D materials [20,75].
With regard to shear strength, comparably high friction angles are
reported for C&D materials [86,81,13,82,74,73]. This is considered to
be due to their typically angular and sharp-edged individual particles
2
Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305
resulting from the crushing process [18]. It is well known that such
granulometric parameters influence the mechanical behaviour (and of
course the friction angle) of granular materials [90,4,26,68,67]. As
known from natural materials, stress-strain behaviour and the shear
strength of such recycled aggregates strongly depend on the respective
degree of compaction [5,74].
Regarding resilient modulus MR, which often is recognised as the
parameter best reflecting a materials response to traffic loads (since it
describes materials stiffness after undergoing many load-cycles) a lot of
work has been done by several researchers on C&D materials
[19,86,60,12,28,22,64,83,70,7,6,71,21,76]. However, there is no con-
sensus in the literature on the influence of recycled aggregates on MR of
construction materials. Some researchers report that the MR of C&D
materials is similar or even higher than the MR of natural aggregates
[25,13,64,7,21,76], while others have shown that an increasing pro-
portion of recycled aggregates leads to a reduced MR [83]. Since MR of
CC is reported to be higher than MR of CB [13], this probably is also a
consequence of the different material compositions of various C&D
materials. For C&D materials containing CC, an increase of MR due to
hydraulically active components has also been reported [6].
The influence of frost action on MR was for example studied by
Soleimanbeigi et al. [86] for CC and natural aggregates. They found MR
to decrease after several initial freeze-thaw cycles for both materials.
However, only the MR of the crushed concrete material increased
during further freeze-thaw cycles. This was attributed to secondary
hardening effects (the self-cementing ability of the crushed concrete).
Comparable tendencies for the development of the MR of mixed C&D
materials subjected to freeze-thaw cycles were reported by Bassani &
Tefa [19]. However, they also identified the moulding parameters as
crucial for the development of the MR during freeze-thaw cycles (i.e.
decrease in MR for samples prepared on the dry side of optimum, in-
crease in MR for samples prepared at optimum water content and at
water contents slightly above that).
One special characteristic of C&D materials containing CC is, as
already mentioned, their self-cementing-ability. In the presence of
water, unhydrated cement can lead to secondary hydration processes
and therefore to an increase in stiffness and strength
[60,27,88,78,80,34,33,63,6]. Non-active proportions other than CC, for
instance CB, do seem to lessen the self-cementation potential though
[60].
Materials and methods
Description of materials used in the field study
Four materials from two material classes were considered in this
study: crushed limestone of grain size 0/32 mm and 0/8 mm (named LS
1 and LS 2 respectively) and mixed C&D materials from processed
construction and demolition waste of grain size 0/32 mm and 0/8 mm
(named C&D 1 and C&D 2 respectively). For the purpose of laboratory
testing, a sample of approximately 100 kg of each material was taken
from the heaps on site in accordance with DIN EN 932-1 [36] before
construction of the test fields. The samples were homogenised and split
up several times using a sample splitter as described in DIN EN 932-2
[38]. The laboratory tests were performed on the resulting test samples.
The particle size distributions of all the materials tested are shown
in Fig. 1, and relevant engineering properties are given in Table 1. The
particle size distributions all individually show a continuous grading
and a fines content of about 7–8%. The maximum dry densities (MDD)
and the corresponding optimum water contents (OWC) provided in
Table 1 were determined using the Standard-Proctor test according to
DIN 18127 [41]. The air pycnometer procedure according to TP BF-StB
Part B 3.3 [48] was used to determine the particle density ρs (dry mass
of a single grain in relation to its volume), and a special procedure was
used for the sample preparation of the C&D materials: first the particle
density ρs was determined immediately after mixing with water
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

100 Design and construction of the test fields

LS 1
90
LS 2 The test fields were constructed in a backfilling pit on 22 and 23
Percent passing by weight [%]

80 C&D 1 November 2017 roughly 60 km north-west of Munich, Germany. The

planum (formation level) on which the test fields were constructed
70 C&D 2
mainly consisted of recycled material (crushed concrete and crushed
60 brick), which had been previously placed and compacted. Dynamic
plate load tests (Light Falling Weight Deflectometer, Portable Impulse
50
Plate Load Test Device), conducted prior to the construction of the test
40 fields, indicated EVd values mostly between 30 MN/m2 and 55 MN/m2.
Only in the southwestern part low EVd values between 8 MN/m2 and
30
12 MN/m2 were measured, which were attributed to the locally soaked
20 area of the subsoil below the planum. A schematic illustration of the EVd
values measured on the planum is shown in Fig. 2. Due to limited time,
10
space and construction equipment available on the test site, it was
0 unfortunately not possible to construct the test field at a different time,
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 at another location with more homogeneous subsoil conditions or after
Particle size [mm] replacing the soaked subsoil. However, the comparison of the results
Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of the materials used in this study. between the embankment built on inadequate subsoil (southern area of
lane 1) and the embankment built on adequate subsoil (northern area of
lane 1) is an illustrative example of the importance of subgrade quality
Table 1 for the performance of any material used in unpaved roads or road
Engineering properties of the materials used in this study.
embankments.
Material property mixed C&D material (C&D) Limestone (LS) Each material was distributed over a length of around 25 m and a
base-width of about 3.5 m with a wheel loader in two layers, each
C&D 1 C&D 2 LS 1 LS 2
roughly 0.3–0.4 m. Each of the two layers was compacted with a
Max. Grain [mm] 1
40 8 36 10 compaction roller (operating weight ~6.5 tonnes) in six dynamic passes
≤31.5 mm1 [%] 98.8 – 98.3 – (3 times forward, 3 times backward) and two static passes (1 time
≤2 mm1 [%] 31.9 61.4 28.6 40.7 forward, 1 time backward) to compensate for the shallow loosening
≤0.06 mm1 [%] 7.2 7.6 8.4 8.7
effects caused by the dynamic compaction process. After compaction (at
CU2 36.8 22.6 82.8 41.3
CC2 2.7 1.6 5.3 4.6 final height), each testing lane had a length of around 25 m and a width
ρS3 [Mg/m3] 2.666/2.717 2.676/2.727 2.71 2.72 of about 1,5 m and the total thickness of the compacted test fields was
OWC4 [%] 15.7 20.6 8.8 9.9 found to be between 0.5 m and 0.6 m. In the area of the soaked sub-
MDD 4 [Mg/m3] 1.870 1.680 2.150 2.070
surface, however, only a total layer thickness between 0.3 m and 0.4 m
Permeability k5 [m/s] 1.9 ∙ 10-6 8.1 ∙ 10-7 – 2.9 ∙ 10-7
was achieved. A picture of the completed test fields is given in Fig. 3.
1
particle size distribution according to DIN EN ISO 17892–4 [44].
2
Coefficient of uniformity (CU) and Coeficient of curvature (CC) according to
DIN EN ISO 14688–2[45]. Field testing methods
3
Particle density determined with the air pycnometer according to TP BF StB
Part B 3.3 [48]. Each lane shown in Fig. 3 was divided into a northern and a
4
Maximum dry density (MDD) and Optimum water content (OWC) deter- southern area and each area was further subdivided into four individual
minded using the Standard-Proctor test according to DIN 18127 [41]. sub-fields, each about 2 m long and 1.5 m width. This was done to
5
Permeability according to DIN 18130 [37], for DPr ≈ 100%. obtain two individual data sets per date of testing and material (re-
6
immediately after mixing with water.
7 plicates). With the exception of the soaked area of lane 1, the northern
4 days after mixing with water.
and southern areas and sub-fields can be considered as identical. The
four individual sub-fields were numbered, with the numbering in-
(original procedure used for natural, non-porous materials) and then
creasing from the outside to the inside (see Fig. 4). The locally soaked
the particle density ρs was determined after four days of soaking (with
area of the subsoil in the northwestern part of lane 1 again is indicated
the purpose of allowing the water to penetrate most accessible pores).
in Fig. 4 (sub-fields 1S to 3S). Since the static and dynamic moduli of
The measured values of particle density ρs immideately after mixing
deformation determined on the compacted test material in this area
with water approximately correspond to the “oven-dried particle den-
sity ρrd” according to DIN EN 1097-6 [43], which relates the dry mass of
Table 2
a single particle in relation to its volume including intraparticulate
Material composition of C&D 1.
sealed voids and including water accessible voids. The measured values
of particle density ρs after four days of soaking approximately corre- Class Type Percent by mass (%)
spond to the “apparent particle density ρa” according to DIN EN 1097-6 Rc Concrete and mortar1)
58.90
[43], which relates the dry mass of a single particle in relation to its Ru Unbound aggregates2) 26.46
volume including intraparticulate sealed voids, but excluding water Rb Fired clay bricks and ceramics 8.87
accessible voids. Rbm Lightweight particles3) 5.35
Rg Glass 0.13
The material composition of C&D 1 determined on the fraction of
Ra Asphalt 0.07
particles of the material greater than 4 mm in accordance with DIN EN X Non-mineral constituents4) 0.15
933-11 [40] is shown in Table 2. For C&D 2, the material composition Xi Ferrous and non-ferrous metals 0.07
was not determined due to the smaller grain sizes. However, C&D 2 was
1
produced from the same base material as C&D 1. Also natural aggregates predominantly with cement mortar.
2
Also natural aggregates with low adhesion of cement mortar.
3
Aerated concrete, pumice, sand-lime brick, gypsum.
4
Wood, plastic, textiles and paper.

3
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

soaked
Lane 1 –
Limestone 1
8 MPa 12 MPa 28 MPa 34 MPa 34 MPa 30 MPa 1.5 m

Lane 2 –
C&D 1
47 MPa 44 MPa 45 MPa 27 MPa 44 MPa 42 MPa 1.5 m

Lane 3 –
Limestone 2
48 MPa 44 MPa 42 MPa 35 MPa 38 MPa 41 MPa 1.5 m

Lane 4 –
C&D 2
55 MPa 54 MPa 52 MPa 48 MPa 47 MPa 51 MPa 1.5 m

S N

3.0 m 8.0 m 8.0 m 3.0 m

Fig. 2. Dynamic moduli of deformation EVd determined on the planum before the construction of the test fields.

were largely influenced by the soaked subsoil (the moduli of de-
formation were considerably lower, see Fig. 2) these results are shown
dashed and are discussed separately in the discussion of the results (see
Sections ‘Static modulus of deformation on initial loading (EV1)’, ‘Static
modulus of deformation on reloading (EV2)’ and ‘Dynamic modulus of
deformation (EVd)’).
Field tests were performed on several occasions during the winter of
2017/2018 and early summer of 2018. The relevant weather data re-
presentative for the area of the test site and test period were provided as
daily mean values by four weather stations located approximately
11 km, 14 km, 19 km and 35 km around the test fields. All of the
weather stations show very similar values for precipitation and tem-
perature. Using the weather data in the vicinity of the test site, the
relevant weather data at the test site were calculated using a 1/r2
weighting scheme [91]. The weather data from the four weather sta-
tions and the virtual data for the test site are illustrated in Fig. 5.
The relevant freezing-period occurred during 4th February and 3rd
March 2018 (marked in Fig. 5) and a freezing-index FI of 103
[°C × days] was calculated from the mean daily temperatures within
this period [92]. Using design curves of the US Corps of Engineers for
prediction of the frost penetration in a well-drained, non-frost suscep-
tible base course as a function of the freezing-index FI (see e.g.
[92,93]), a frost penetration depth of about 0.4 m was obtained. The
frost penetration depth is thus well below 80 cm, which are usually
used as design parameter for the frost penetration depth in traffic en-
gineering in Germany [87].
Testing of the individual sub-fields was carried out in ascending
order according to the numbering, with one sub-field from the north
and one from the south being tested on each testing date (replicates). In
total, there were four testing dates. The first testing was conducted on
22 November 2017 (lane 1 and 2: materials LS 1 and C&D 1) and 23
November 2017 (lane 3 and 4: materials LS 2 and C&D 2), immediately
after the installation and compaction of the respective materials (tested
sub-fields: 1S and 1N). After a period without any significant frost
periods but with occasional precipitation, the second series of tests were
performed on 10 January 2018 (2S and 2N). It was ensured that there

Fig. 3. Test fields after construction.

4
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

soaked area

Lane 1: LS 1 1S 2S 3S 4S 4N 3N 2N 1N 1.5 m

Lane 2: C&D 1 1S 2S 3S 4S 4N 3N 2N 1N 1.5 m

Lane 3: LS 2 1S 2S 3S 4S 4N 3N 2N 1N 1.5 m

Lane 4: C&D 2 1S 2S 3S 4S 4N 3N 2N 1N 1.5 m

S N

3.0 m 2.0 m 2.0 m 3.0 m

Fig. 4. Subdivision of the test fields.

had been no groundfrost to influence the measurements before any tests
were carried out. This was done by excavating a small pit in one of the
sub-fields which had already been tested, and by checking the tem-
perature of the now open cross-section with an infrared thermometer.
The third testing date was on 4 April 2018 (3S and 3N) after a cold
phase with periods of very low temperatures and snowfall. Again, it was
ensured that there was no groundfrost to influence the measurements.
Between the penultimate and the final testing date on 7 June 2018 (4S
and 4N), no more temperatures below zero Celsius were recorded. The
heavy precipitation shown in Fig. 5 on the last testing date occurred in
the late afternoon/evening of that day and only after the tests had been
completed.
The field tests performed on each of the individual sub-fields on the
respective testing dates included density checks and a check of stiffness
(static and dynamic plate load tests). Table 3 shows a summary of the
number of tests performed at each testing date. The dry density was
investigated using the rubber balloon method and a nuclear gauge (type
“Troxler 3440”). The rubber balloon method was used on each testing
date and testing was performed in each sub-field of the northern and
southern areas in accordance with the German standard DIN 18125-2
[39]. On the first testing date, two tests with the rubber balloon method
were performed in each sub-field of the northern and southern areas
(four results per material) while on the other testing dates only one test
with the rubber balloon method was performed in each sub-field (two
results per material). On the first and last testing date, the dry density
was additionally determined using a nuclear gauge as per TP BF-StB
Part B 4.3 [94]. Again, two tests with the nuclear gauge were performed
in each sub-field on the first testing date (four results per material)
while on the last testing date just one test was conducted (two results
per material). Measurements with the nuclear gauge were performed in
any case at three different measuring depths per measuring point (0.05,
0.15 and 0.30 m) and the dry densities obtained were evaluated both as
individual and averaged values.
The stiffness of the compacted materials was monitored by means of
static and dynamic plate load tests. Both test methods allow the mea-
surement of the stiffness of the uppermost compacted layer and are
used in German earthworks practice either as an indicator of the per-
formance of the compacted material when subjected to loading or as an
indirect measure of relative compaction.
The static modulus of deformation at initial loading (EV1) and re-
loading (EV2) was determined in the centre of each individual sub-field
(one static plate load test per sub-field, this means two results per
testing date and material) according to German standard DIN 18134
[42]. A static plate load of 0.3 m in diameter (thickness 25 mm) was
used in each case. The load plate was set on the level surface (if ne-
cessary on a thin bed of dry middle sand) and the test setup was ar-
ranged properly. To measure the settlements, a single dial gauge was
placed in the centre of the load plate. After preloading of the load plate

25 100
Air temperature 0.2 m above surfa ce at test site
Pre cipi tation at test site
20 90
Air temperature 0.2 m above surfa ce at surr oundin g wea ther sta tio ns
Pre cipi tation at surro unding weather sta tion s
15 80

10 FI = 103 70
Precipitation [mm]
Tem perature [°C]

[°C x days]

5 60

0 50
4th testing
2nd testing

3rd testing
1st testing
construction

-5 40

-10 30

-15 20

-20 10

-25 0
12.10.2017 13.12.2017 13.02.2018 16.04.2018 17.06.2018

Fig. 5. Weather data from the four weather stations, located approximately 11 km, 14 km, 19 km and 35 km around the test fields and virtual weather data at the test
site.

5
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

Table 3
Summary of the tests performed at each testing date.
1st testing date 2nd testing date 3rd testing date 4th testing date

Sub-fields LS 1-1S, LS 1-1N LS 1-2S, LS 1-2N LS 1-3S, LS 1-3N LS 1-4S, LS 1-4N

C&D 1-1S, C&D 1-1N C&D 1-2S, C&D 1-2N
LS 2-1S, LS 2-1N LS 2-2S, LS 2-2N C&D 1-3S, C&D 1-3N C&D 1-4S, C&D 1-4N
C&D 2-1S, C&D 2-1N C&D 2-2S, C&D 2-2N LS 2-3S, LS 2-3N LS 2-4S, LS 2-4N
C&D 2-3S, C&D 2-3N C&D 2-4S, C&D 2-4N
Rubber balloon 2 tests/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field
Nuclear gauge 2 tests/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field
Static plate load 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field
Dynamic plate load 2 tests/sub-field 2 tests/sub-field 2 tests/sub-field 2 tests/sub-field
Grain size distribution 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field 1 test/sub-field

(0.01 MN/m2 for at least 30 s) a loading/unloading/reloading sequence
(0.08/0.16/0.25/0.33/0.42/0.50/0.25/0.125/0.01/0.08/0.16/0.25/
0.33/0.42 MN/m2) was applied. The single load steps were applied
uniformly and continuously each within 60 s and each load step was
held for 120 s. Subsequently, static moduli of deformation were cal-
culated using the procedure described in DIN 18134 [42] from the slope
of the secant through the points corresponding to 0.3 ∙ σmax and
0.7 ∙ σmax (EV1 from initial loading, EV2 from reloading).
The dynamic modulus of deformation EVd was determined using the
dynamic plate load test (Light Falling Weight Deflectometer, Portable
Impulse Plate Load Test Device) according to TP BF-StB Part B 8.3 [49]
again using a plate load of 0.3 m in diameter (thickness 20 mm). The
load plate was set on the level prepared test surface (if necessary on a
thin bed of dry middle sand) and the loading device was placed on the
load plate. Then six drops with the falling mass (10 kg) were carried
out. The first three drops were used as preloading impacts and the next
three drops were used for determination of EVd. EVd was determined at
two points of each sub-field (four results per testing date and material)
and the mean value of these two measurements per sub-field is given in
the evaluation below (see Section ‘Dynamic modulus of deformation
(EVd)’).
Samples of uncompacted material (taken from between the lanes)
were obtained at each testing date for grain-size analyses to quantify
the effect of particle breakdown due to frost action.
The selected procedure of dividing the lanes into northern and
southern areas and these areas into individual sub-fields allowed for
double data sets (replicates) for all of the materials (except the crushed
limestone LS 1 in lane 1 (soaked area). The dispersion of results can
therefore be seen from the figures presented hereafter (comparing the
results of the northern area with the results of the southern area).
Results and discussion
Dry density
The initial relative degree of compaction of material LS 1 was found
to be between DPr ≈ 94% and 98%, for LS 2 between DPr ≈ 93% and
100%, for C&D 1 between DPr ≈ 96% and 101%, and for C&D 2 be-
tween DPr ≈ 94% and 99%. The measured dry density of each material
directly after compaction and at each following testing day is shown in
Fig. 6 (note: a mean value is shown in cases where more than one test
was performed per sub-field). The dry densities are depicted separately
in each case for the northern (ending “-N”) and southern (ending “-S”)
testing area for each material and, with a few exceptions, show good
agreement. The dry densities determined by the rubber balloon method
(“rb”) and the nuclear gauge (“ng”) on the first and last testing dates
correspond well for each material. An influence of the soaked area
below LS 1-S on the dry densities achieved in the compacted layer in
this area cannot be deduced.
When comparing the results of the rubber balloon method and the
nuclear gauge, however, the differences between both methods should
be considered. With the rubber balloon method, the density is de-
termined approximately in the uppermost 0.2 m of a compacted layer.
The dry densities measured with the nuclear gauge represent mean
values from three measurements at different depths (0.05, 0.15 and
0.30 m).
The data illustrated in Fig. 6 indicate in most cases a trend of de-
creasing dry density for both limestone and C&D materials, especially

2.2
LS1-S,rb
LS1-S,ng
2.1 LS 1-N
LS 1-S LS1-N,rb
LS 2-S LS1-N,ng
2.0
LS 2-N LS2-S,rb
Dry density ρd [Mg/m³]

LS2-S,ng
1.9
C&D 1-N LS2-N,rb
LS2-N,ng
1.8 C&D 1-S
C&D 1-S,rb
C&D 1-S,ng
1.7
C&D 1-N,rb
C&D 2-N C&D 1-N,ng
1.6 C&D 2-S C&D 2-S,rb
C&D 2-S,ng
1.5
C&D 2-N,rb
C&D 2-N,ng
1.4
22.09.2017 31.12.2017 10.04.2018 19.07.2018

Fig. 6. Development of dry density determined by the rubber balloon method (rb) and the nuclear gauge (ng) over time.

6
S. Huber, et al.
during the frost period in winter 2017/18. This loosening of the par-
ticulate structure of the compacted surface can be attributed to the
influence of weathering, most probably in the form of phase transition
of the pore-water from liquid to solid and vice versa. This process is
cyclic (at least during transition seasons there are low temperatures at
night and warm temperatures during the day) and is expected to loosen
particle contacts. However, this process is limited to the uppermost part
of the compacted layer (see Fig. 7). Between the third and the fourth
testing date, no more temperatures below freezing point were recorded
(see Fig. 5) and there was almost no further significant loosening of the
materials (exception: C&D 1-N). In half of the cases, even an increase of
dry densities was observed.
Fig. 7 summarises the dry densities determined with the nuclear
gauge on the first and fourth day of testing (before and after the frost
period, note: a mean value is shown in cases where more than one test
was performed per sub-field). The dry densities are shown for each
material separately for the northern (ending “-N”) and the southern
(ending “-S”) sub-field, and again, they agree well for all materials at
the respective testing dates. In addition, no clear differences can be
observed between limestone and the C&D materials. The dry densities
shown in this figure are the individual results obtained with the nuclear
gauge at different depths. The figure clearly indicates that the decrease
in dry density was mostly constrained to the uppermost layer of the
compacted materials (irrespective of maximum grain size). With in-
creasing measuring depth, however, no systematic decrease of the dry
densities could be observed. This is due to the fact that weathering and
low temperatures affect in particular the near-surface areas and is in
accordance with the estimated frost penetration depth of about 0.4 m
(see Section ‘Field testing methods’). Long-lasting temperatures well
below freezing, which could cause the loosening of even deeper areas
by frost, were not measured during the measurement campaign (see
temperatures in Fig. 5).
Static modulus of deformation on initial loading (EV1)
The static moduli of deformation on initial loading (EV1) as de-
termined on the surface of the individual sub-fields are shown in Fig. 8.
With the exception of LS1, where the southern part of lane 1 was partly
constructed on the soaked subsoil (see Fig. 2), the EV1 values de-
termined on the northern and southern sub-fields show good agreement
for all other materials (LS 2, C&D1, C&D 2). For the natural materials,
the stiffness on initial loading (EV1) tended to decrease over time until
Dry density ρd [Mg/m³]
1.6 1.8 2.0
0.00
0.05
0.10
4th testing
Measuring depth [m]
4th testing
0.15
0.20
1st testing
0.25
1st testing
0.30
LS 1-S LS 1-N C&D 1-S
0.35
Fig. 7. Dry density determined by the nuclear gauge over measuring depth – left: LS 1 and C&D 1 (both 0/32 mm), right: LS 2 and C&D 2 (both 0/8 mm).
Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305
the third testing date (areas LS 1-N and LS 2-S and LS 2-N). This is
attributed to the decreasing dry densities by the third testing date due
to weathering effects (see Section ‘Dry density’). A lower dry density at
the surface indicates a looser grain structure, which leads to lower
stiffness and thus lower EV1 values. After the third testing date (after the
frost phase), the EV1 values remain almost unchanged, as do the dry
densities (see Section ‘Dry density’).
It is interesting to note that an increase of stiffness over time was
recorded for the southern area of lane 1 (LS 1-S), where the planum
showed low initial stiffness (soaked area) and the compacted layer
thickness was only between 0.3 m and 0.4 m (see Section ‘Design and
construction of the test fields’). Beginning from the first testing date
(EV1 value in the southern area was well below EV1 value in the
northern area), the EV1 values in the southern region of lane 1 increased
from sub-field LS 1-1S to LS 1-4S, until LS 1-4S reached a quite similar
level like LS 1-4N at last testing date. However, this increase cannot be
seen as an increase over time, because the stiffness of the planum
gradually increased from sub-field LS 1-1S to sub-field LS 1-4S and was
comparable to the stiffness of the planum below LS 1-4N at the last
testing date (see Fig. 2). Moreover, the compacted layer thickness was
not constant in lane 1 but increased from 0.3–0.4 m to 0.5–0.6 m to-
wards the northern end of the southern area (i.e. sub-field LS 1-4S).
Using a plate of 0.3 m in diameter, the depth of influence of static plate
load tests is approximately 0.3–0.6 m according to various authors and
the respective Austrian standard [15,1,24,23,3,61]. Therefore, the in-
fluence of the stiffness of the subbase on the measured values of EV1
decreased as testing proceeded from sub-field LS 1-1S to LS 1-4S. The
increase of stiffness over time for LS 1-S is therefore predominantly due
to the increasing thickness of the compacted layer as well as to the
increasing stiffness of the planum from sub-field LS 1-1S to LS1-4S (see
Fig. 2 and Fig. 4).
By way of contrast, the two recycled materials C&D 1 and C&D 2
show increasing or decreasing EV1 values in the period between first
and third testing (winter). After the frost period, however, EV1 increases
consistently both for C&D 1 and C&D 2. In particular, C&D 1 shows a
significant increase in EV1. This increase in stiffness is expected to be a
consequence of secondary hardening effects in deeper parts of the
compacted layer, which were obviously dominant compared to the
superficial loosening effects shown in Fig. 7.
Dry density ρd [Mg/m³]
2.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
0.00
0.05 1st testing
0.10 4th testing
Measuring depth [m]
0.15
4th testing
0.20
0.25 1st testing
0.30
C&D 1-N LS 2-S LS 2-N C&D 2-S C&D 2-N
0.35
7
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

80
LS 1-S LS 1-N

Static m odulus of deformation Ev 1 [MN/m 2]

LS 2-S LS 2-N C&D 1-S
70
C&D 1-S C&D 1-N
60 C&D 2-S C&D 2-N

C&D 1-N
50

40 C&D 2-S
LS 1-N
C&D 2-N
30
LS 2-N
20
LS 2-S
LS 1-S
10
measurement
on soaked area
0
22.09.2017 31.12.2017 10.04.2018 19.07.2018

Fig. 8. Development of the static modulus of deformation EV1 on initial loading over time.

Static modulus of deformation on reloading (EV2)
The evolution of static moduli of deformation on reloading (EV2)
determined on the surface of the individual test fields on the respective
testing dates is shown in Fig. 9. Again, the results from the southern and
northern sub-fields are in good agreement for all materials (except LS
1). The data shows that the stiffness on reloading (EV2) of the natural
materials LS 1-N and LS 2 is practically constant over time (no marked
increase or decrease). The stiffness increased with time exclusively in
the southern area of lane 1 (LS 1-S), where the planum showed low
initial stiffness due to the soaked subsoil and where the compacted
layer thickness was only between 0.3 m and 0.4 m (see Section ‘Design
and construction of the test fields’). Again, the increasing stiffness of LS
1-S from sub-field LS 1-1S to sub-field LS 1-4S can be attributed to an
increasing stiffness of the planum and a decreasing influence of the
stiffness of the planum on the measured values of EV2 as testing pro-
ceeded from sub-field LS 1-1S to LS 1-4S, away from the soaked area
(see Fig. 2).
The measured values for EV2 of materials C&D 1 and C&D 2, on the
other hand, show a substantial increase over time despite the superficial
loosening during the frost period of the winter of 2017/2018 (see
Section ‘Dry density’). Since the superficial loosenings are compensated
during the initial loading for the determination of EV1, EV2 is influenced
predominantely by secondary hardening effects of deeper areas and
thereby increases significantly over time.
Comparison of the available data (dry density, EV1 and EV2) strongly
suggests that the dry density of all of the compacted materials in the
uppermost layers is decreasing there due to weathering (rain and frost
action). At the same time, secondary hardening effects take place in the
compacted layers of the C&D materials (C&D1 and C&D 2), while they
do not occur for the natural materials. As a result the EV1 value of the
natural materials (LS 1 and LS 2) decreases due to weathering (super-
ficial loosening). Because the EV2 values of the natural materials are
practically constant over time (no secondary hardening effects), this
weathering does not seem to be substantial (and its effect is apparently
compensated during initial loading). In layers constructed with C&D
materials from construction and demolition waste, both effects (de-
crease of density due to weathering and secondary hardening) are ex-
pected to occur simultaneously. However, the influence of strength
increase due to secondary hardening effects seems to compensate for

400
LS 1-S LS 1-N
C&D 1-S
LS 2-S LS 2-N
Static m odulus of deformation Ev 2 [MN/m 2]

350 C&D 1-N

C&D 1-S C&D 1-N
C&D 2-S C&D 2-N
300

250
C&D 2-S

200 C&D 2-N

150
LS 1-N
LS 2-S
LS 2-N
100

50 LS 1-S
measurement
on soaked area
0
22.09.2017 31.12.2017 10.04.2018 19.07.2018

Fig. 9. Development of the static modulus of deformation EV2 on reloading over time.

8
S. Huber, et al.
superficial loosening effects due to weathering even for initial loading
(EV1). For reloading (EV2) the effect of superficial loosening is also
compensated during initial loading, and therefore secondary hardening
effects are all the more dominant, leading to an increase of EV2 values
over time. These joining effects of superficial loosening, secondary
hardening, and recompaction during initial loading (EV1) typically lead
to increasing ratios EV2/EV1 with time for recycled materials from de-
molition waste, which already do exhibit high ratios EV2/EV1 directly
after compaction (see [56]).
Dynamic modulus of deformation (EVd)
Fig. 10 shows the evolution of the dynamic moduli of deformation
(EVd) determined during the testing period (note: a mean value from
two test results is shown in every case). The EVd values obtained on the
southern (ending “-S”) and northern (ending “-N”) sub-fields at the
respective testing dates are again consistent for all materials (exception
LS 1). At the first testing date (immediately after compaction of the
respective materials), significantly higher deformation moduli EVd were
measured for the natural materials (with the exception of LS 1-S due to
the soaked subsoil) than for the C&D materials. In addition, for both the
natural and the C&D materials (exception LS 1-S), higher EVd values are
achieved on the coarser-grained materials (0/32 mm) than on the finer-
grained materials (0/8 mm).
As a result of the measuring depth of the dynamic load plate, which
is between 1 and 2 times the diameter of the load plate (0.3–0.6 m using
a load plate of 0.3 m diameter) according to several authors
[47,1,2,24,3,61], the influence of the soaked area of the planum below
the southern part of lane 1 is again clearly visible from the data ob-
tained in sub-field LS 1-S. The area again displayed significantly lower
EVd values compared to LS 1-N.
Despite the decreasing dry densities near the surface (see Section
‘Dry density’), the EVd values for all the materials tested increased
during the winter of 2017/2018 and the trends generally accord with
the increase in the EV2 values shown in Fig. 9. A decrease of the EVd
values due to surface loosening, such as that observed for the EV1 values
of the natural materials (see Section ‘Dry density’), was not observed.
This is due to the fact that the dynamic modulus of deformation EVd was
determined after three drops of the falling mass (preloading impacts),
as suggested by TP BF-StB Part B 8.3 [49]. It is assumed that these
preloading impacts effectively compensated for the loosening of the
compacted materials due to weathering near the surface.
At the second testing date, the finer-grained C&D material (C&D 2)
120
Dynam ic m odulus of deformation EVd [MN/m 2]
100
80
60
40
20
0
22.09.2017
Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305
already achieved EVd values equal to those of the coarser-grained nat-
ural material (LS 1). From the third testing date onwards, higher EVd
values are achieved with all C&D materials than with the natural ma-
terials. The distinct increase of the EVd values for the C&D materials
over the testing period is again expected to be due to secondary hard-
ening effects of unhydrated cement components. While the final values
of the coarse C&D 1 material were still about three times their initial
values, the sharp decrease between the 3rd and 4th testing could not be
explained.
Particle breakdown due to frost action
Fig. 11 shows all the particle size distributions determined for the
materials tested on the respective testing dates. The particle size dis-
tributions of the two natural materials (LS 1 and LS 2) are given in
Fig. 11 (left), while Fig. 11 (right) shows the particle size distributions
of the two C&D materials (C&D 1 and C&D 2). In particular, for the
finer-grained materials LS 2 and C&D 2 with their maximum particle
size of 8 mm, the particle size distributions determined on the in-
dividual testing dates hardly differ from one another. Changes in grain-
size distribution are also listed in Table 4. The data indicates a high
homogeneity for both materials (LS 2 and C&D 2) with regard to their
particle size distribution. It also can be seen that no reduction in the size
of the particles occurred due to the influence of freeze-thaw cycles. The
grain-size distributions of the two coarser-grained materials LS 1 and C
&D 1 show a more pronounced scattering. Nor could any refinement of
the materials due to freeze-thaw cycles be observed. For C&D 2 the fines
content even seems to decrease during the observational period. There
is no plausible explanation for an increase in fines and so the relatively
minor differences in fines content may be attributed to local variations
of material composition.
Conclusions
This study reports on the behaviour of two processed materials from
mixed construction and demolition waste (C&D materials) and two
natural materials (crushed limestone, LS) used for applications in which
they are exposed to natural weathering in the form of water and frost
action (e.g. road shoulders, unpaved roads). The test fields were con-
structed in November 2017, and field tests were conducted several
times during the winter of 2017/2018 and the early summer of 2018.
The parameters monitored for the compacted materials were dry den-
sity (rubber balloon method and nuclear gauge), load-bearing capacity
C&D 1-N, C&D 1-S:
errors in the last
measurement?
C&D 1-N
C&D 1-S
C&D 2-N
C&D 2-S
LS 1-N
LS 2-S
LS 2-N
LS 1-S LS 1-S LS 1-N
measurement LS 2-S LS 2-N
on soaked area
C&D 1-S C&D 1-N
C&D 2-S C&D 2-N
31.12.2017 10.04.2018 19.07.2018
Fig. 10. Development of the dynamic modulus of deformation EVd over time.
9
S. Huber, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 22 (2020) 100305

100 100
1st testing 1st testing
90 90
2nd testing 2nd testing

Percent passing by weight [%]

Percent passing by weight [%]
80 3rd testing 80 3rd testing
4th testing 4th testing
70 70

60 60

50 50 C&D 2
LS 2 C&D 1
40 40

30 LS 1 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0,01 0,1 1 10 100 0,01 0,1 1 10 100
Particle size [mm] Particle size [mm]

Fig. 11. Particle size distributions determined on the individual testing dates – natural materials (left) and C&D materials (right).

Table 4 perform over the long term compared to natural materials when the
Gradation of the base material compared to the gradation samples taken on the compacted surface is run over regularly by wheels (during wet and frost
individual testing days (cumulative). periods).
Fraction LS 1 LS 2 C&D 1 C&D 2
Declaration of Competing Interest
Base material < 0.063 mm 8–9% 9% 6–8% 8%
< 2 mm 28–29% 40–42% 29–34% 61–62%
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Data from all testing < 0.063 mm 7–10% 8–11% 2–8% 6–10%
dates < 2 mm 26–39% 38–47% 23–34% 57–62% interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.

(static and dynamic plate load tests) and particle breakdown due to Acknowledgements
frost action (particle size distributions). The following conclusions can
be drawn from this study: This report is based on a research project funded by the Bavarian
Research Foundation, under research project No. 1135-14, as well as a
• Weathering (especially in the form of rain and freezing tempera- research project funded by the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital
tures) leads to reduced dry densities at the surface of both the Infrastructure, represented by the Federal Highway Research Institute,
compacted natural and C&D materials. As a result of this effect, the under research project No. 05.0194/2016/MGB. The authors are ex-
stiffness on initial loading EV1 (static plate load test) decreases clusively responsible for the content.
during winter periods. One practical consequence of such an effect
observed on all of the materials is the possibility that track ruts may References
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