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Design of an Ackermann Type Steering Mechanism

Article  in  ARCHIVE Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 1989-1996 (vols 203-210) · November 2013
DOI: 10.1177/0954406213475980

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Original Article

Proc IMechE Part C:

J Mechanical Engineering Science
Design of an Ackermann-type steering 227(11) 2549–2562
! IMechE 2013

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DOI: 10.1177/0954406213475980
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Jing-Shan Zhao1, Xiang Liu1, Zhi-Jing Feng1 and Jian S Dai2,3

Abstract
This article focuses on the synthesis of a steering mechanism that exactly meets the requirements of Ackermann steering
geometry. It starts from reviewing of the four-bar linkage, then discusses the number of points that a common four-bar
linkage could precisely trace at most. After pointing out the limits of a four-bar steering mechanism, this article inves-
tigates the turning geometry for steering wheels and proposes a steering mechanism with incomplete noncircular gears
for vehicle by transforming the Ackermann criteria into the mechanism synthesis. The pitch curves, addendum curves,
dedendum curves, tooth profiles and transition curves of the noncircular gears are formulated and designed. Kinematic
simulations are executed to demonstrate the target of design.

Keywords
Ackermann criteria, steering mechanism, four-bar linkage, noncircular gears

Date received: 14 August 2012; accepted: 7 January 2013

the geometric parameters for which the input–output

Introduction
The generally used steering mechanisms for four-
wheel vehicles are four-bar linkages1,2 which are
often called Ackermann-type steering mechanisms.1–6
The input motion from the driver at the steering wheel
is transmitted via a steering box and the steering con-
trol linkage to one of the steering knuckles and then
transmitted to the other one through the Ackermann
steering linkage.6 The main kinematic requirement of
the steering linkage of a vehicle is to provide the steer-
able wheels a correlated pivot such that their axes
intersect at a point on the rear wheel axis.7 The object-
ive for the synthesis of steering mechanism is to min-
imise the difference between the steering centres over
the full range of steering angle inputs while fitting into
a reasonable space.8 To obtain the target, several con-
flicting requirements should be simultaneously con-
sidered.5 A possible formulation of the optimisation-
based synthesis problem is to search for the values of
parameters.7
Most trucks and off-highway vehicles have rigid
steering axles equipped with Ackermann steering link-
age.6 So synthesis of function generators is a common
mechanism design problem for steering systems of
vehicles. The deviation between the desired and the
real pivoting angles given to the wheels by the steering
mechanism is called steering error.7 It requires finding
relationship of the mechanism best approximates a
specified function.4,9 Error optimisation studies in
steering linkages have been attempted by many
researchers.10 The primary goals are ensuring
minimum wheel-slip and symmetric steering control
for left and right turns, ensuring minimum cross-cou-
pling between steering and axle oscillation, maintain-
ing favorable pressure angles in the joints, and
avoiding interference between the moving parts of
the mechanism and between them and the body of
the vehicle.5
For the purpose of improving maneuverability at
low speed and controllability and stability at high
speed,11 a general method of optimal synthesis of
steering mechanisms is developed by displacement
matrix and constraints.3 Design charts are presented
which considerably facilitates the work of engineers in
1
State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, PR China
2
Centre for Advanced Mechanisms and Robotics, Tianjin University,
Tianjin, PR China
3
King’s College London, University of London, London, UK
Corresponding author:
Jing-Shan Zhao, State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China.
Email: jingshanzhao@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn

Downloaded from pic.sagepub.com at Tsinghua University on October 4, 2014

2550
determining the optimum geometry of the central-
lever steering mechanism of a vehicle.7 Also, the min-
imum of the maximum steering errors of the steering
linkage are considered as one of the optimisation tar-
gets.8 The sensitivity analysis is investigated with the
design charts on which how parametric errors affect
the performance of the steering mechanism.12 A kine-
matic model of a rack-and-pinion-type steering link-
age is developed, on the basis of which the synthesis of
the mechanism is performed using the criteria of cor-
rect turning of the wheels and good transmissibility of
the motion.13 The practical cases of the rack-and-
pinion and central-lever steering linkages are exam-
ined as planar mechanisms, and a maximum number
of only three and four independent design parameters,
respectively, are proven to exist.14 A vehicle model is
developed employing a detailed nonlinear kinematic
representation of a MacPherson strut front independ-
ent automotive suspension with a rack and pinion
steering system.15 In the kinematic study of the
McPherson-type steering suspension, the departure
in the suspension geometry is expressed as a function
of the travel of the strut and of the turn of the steering
wheel.16
In addition, differential mechanism coupled to a
higher pair, resolves the single input coming from
the steering wheel into two outputs satisfying the con-
dition of correct steering.17 Structure classification,
number and dimensional synthesis of independent
suspension mechanisms were investigated through
the atlas of in-parallel suspension linkages.18
Similarly the steering mechanism, which is often pro-
posed as planar linkages,4,10,19 can be synthesised to
satisfy the needs of number and size in engineering.
However, the synthesis of a steering mechanism that
meets the requirements of Ackermann turning geom-
etry is far more complicated than the structure only. It
is an exact trajectory tracing mechanism. Therefore,
the Ackermann criteria should be put into the dimen-
sion synthesis of the steering mechanism. Noncircular
gears make it possible to synthesise a steering mech-
anism that satisfies the Ackerman criteria.20,21
However, the new steering mechanism20 and the
eight-link mechanism21 are much more complicated
than the traditional four-bar steering systems.
This article starts from the discussion of the
number of points that a planar four-bar linkage
could precisely trace, and then proposes a noncircular
gear coupled steering mechanism which could strictly
follow the Ackermann steering rule compared with
the existing four-bar steering linkages.
Restrictions of a four-bar steering linkage
The existing mechanical steering systems used in the
automobiles all belong to four-bar linkages. To com-
prehensively understand the characteristics of the
four-bar steering mechanism, the ideal turning criteria
for a vehicle should be first discussed.
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Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)
Ackermann criteria for turning wheels
Figure 1 illustrates the ideal geometry conditions for
an automobile to turn right when the four wheels only
make pure rotations about an instant centre o.
This geometry requirement shown in Figure 1 can
be expressed as
l cot 1  l cot 2 ¼ b ð1Þ
where l denotes the wheelbase, b represents the track
of front wheels, 1 and 2 indicate the due angles of
the front left and front right wheels.
Rearranging equation (1) presents
b
cot 1  cot 2 ¼ ð2Þ
l
Equation (2) is called the ideal Ackermann turning
criteria.2,7,10 Suppose that the turning angles shown
in Figure 1 are the upper limits when turning right.
To keep the front wheels always satisfying this ideal
constraint, the instant centres of the four wheels will
shift from point o to infinity.
However, if the turning angles do not satisfy to the
Ackermann turning criteria, the rotation centres of
left front wheel and right front wheel will do not coin-
cide with each other. In this condition, the wheels are
not only rotating but also sliding. Hence, the steering
error can significantly affect the tire wear especially in
high speed.22 As a result, a steering mechanism meet-
ing the requirements of Ackermann turning criteria is
very meaningful in applications.
Could the steering four-bar linkage meet the needs
of ideal Ackermann turning criteria? What follows
will first discuss the maximal number of points that
a general planar four-bar linkage could exactly trace.
The maximum number of points a planar four-bar
linkage could trace
Suppose that there is a planar four-bar mechanism
shown in Figure 2. Its end-effector is triangle BCE.
Figure 1. Ideal Ackermann turning geometry.
Zhao et al. 2551

In the planar four-bar mechanism system shown in The following equations will always hold:
Figure 2, there are 9 independent variables, namely 8
x, y,  and si ði ¼ 1, 2, . . . , 6Þ. Now, a pair of variables < jrC  rB j ¼ s2
’1i and ’2i are introduced for a specified point jrEi  rB j ¼ s5 ð7Þ
:
Ej ðj ¼ 1, 2, . . .Þ. In the coordinate frame x1 Ay1 , the jrEi  rC j ¼ s6
coordinates of the four joints are
    Therefore, one additional independent equation
0 cos ’1 should be provided whenever a new point Ei is intro-
rA1 ¼ , rB1 ¼ s1 , duced into the constraint system besides the pair of
0 sin ’1
    ð3Þ variables ’1 and ’2 correspondingly. As a result, the 9
s4 þ s3 cos ’2 s4
rC1 ¼ , rD1 ¼ independent variables need and only need 9 different
s3 sin ’2 0 points. So a planar four-bar linkage can only precisely
trace 9 points. In other words, the trapezoid steering
The absolute coordinates of these four joints can be four-bar mechanism cannot always follow the
expressed as Ackermann criteria from point o to infinity.
Therefore, the existing mechanical steering mechan-
rX ¼ rA þ RrX1 ð4Þ isms could not always satisfy the Ackermann criteria
when steering. Although the deformations resulting
from the elastic links and rubber bushing could
where X ¼ A, B, C, D and therefore rX1 represents
 modify the Ackermann function, the method to syn-
x
the vectors in equation
 (3), r A ¼ and thesise such function-driven mechanism is urgently
cos   sin  y
R¼ . necessary in engineering applications and mechanism
sin  cos  theory.
Substituting equations (3) in equation (4), one
obtains
Ackermann-type steering mechanism
   
x x þ s1 cosð’1 þ Þ This section focuses on the synthesis of Ackermann
rA ¼ , rB ¼ ,
y y þ s1 sinð’1 þ Þ steering geometry and proposes a steering mechanism
  that could satisfy the ideal turning requirements.
x þ s4 cos  þ s3 cosð’2 þ Þ
rC ¼ , ð5Þ
y þ s4 sin  þ s3 sinð’2 þ Þ
  Requirements for an Ackermann-type steering
x þ s4 cos 
rD ¼ mechanism
s4 sin 
Suppose the bottom angle of a trapezoid linkage
For Ej ðj ¼ 1, 2, . . .Þ are known points, one can ABCD shown in Figure 3, is denoted by , then
assume that when the turning angle equals to zero, the initial
length of link BC, l20 , can be expressed as
 T
r E j ¼ xj yj ð6Þ l20 ¼ l4  2l1 cos ð8Þ

Figure 3. Ideal steering mechanism for Ackermann turning

Figure 2. Trace of a four-bar linkage. geometry.

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2552 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)

The steering linkage that meets the needs of 2 with respect to link AB,  is the angle between AB
Ackermann turning geometry is a particular path tra- and BC,  is the angle between BC and BE. Assume
cing mechanism. During turning right, the left wheel that the vehicle is turning from left to right, then the
turned 1 and the right wheel turned 2 correspond- angular velocity directions of !r1 and !r2 are shown in
ingly. To satisfy the Ackermann turning geometry, the Figure 5.
length of the link should be

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2
l2 ¼ l4  l1 cosð  2 Þ  l1 cosð þ 1 Þ þ l1 sinð  2 Þ  l1 sinð þ 1 Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð9Þ
¼ 2l21 þ l24 þ 2l21 cosð2 þ 1  2 Þ  2l1 l4 ½cosð  2 Þ þ cosð þ 1 Þ

where l2 represent the length of link BC that satisfies The coordinates of joints, A, B and C, in the coord-
the Ackermann turning criteria. inate system x1 o1 y1 are
From equation (2), one obtains 8 
  < A 0 0
b B l1 cosð þ 1 Þ l1 sinð þ 1 Þ ð12Þ
2 ¼ arc cot cot 1  ð10Þ : 
l C l4  l1 cosð  2 Þ l1 sinð  2 Þ

Substituting equation (10) into equation (9) yields So the angle  is indicated by
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
l2 ¼ l4 1 þ 22 þ 22 cos½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ  2 cosð þ 1 Þ þ cos½  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ ð11Þ

l
where  ¼ l1 , & ¼ bl.
4
Equation (11) indicates that the length of the link,
!
! !
BA  BC
l2 , should change with the change of the turning angle,  ¼ arc cos
!
!
1 , if the Ackermann criteria were satisfied. jj BA jjjj BC jj
 
l1 ½1 þ cosð2 þ 1  2 Þ  l4 cosð þ 1 Þ
¼ arc cos
Synthesis of the Ackermann-type steering l2
mechanism ð13Þ

!
Suppose the original fixed link BC are replaced by an where BA stands for a vector from point B to point
Assur II-group linkage23 BEC shown in Figure 4. It is A, ‘’ indicates the inner product of two vectors, and

!
!
an RRR-group linkage. Simultaneously, the link BE jj BA jj represents the Euclidean norm of vector BA .
is welded with a noncircular incomplete gear which In addition, the angle  is always in the interval of
meshes another noncircular incomplete gear fixed ½0,  considering the actual steering situations.
with the chassis. So, the synthesis of the steering Because arc cosðxÞ is monotonic and real within the
mechanism is now transformed into the design of a interval of ½0,  in accordance with the definition of
pair of noncircular gears and an Assur II-group of the inverse cosine, equation (13) has a unique
revolute jointed linkage BEC shown in the circled sec- solution.
tion of Figure 4 to satisfy equation (11). The link BE Substituting equation (11) into equation (13) yields

0 1
 
B  1 þ cos½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ  cosð þ 1 Þ C
 ¼ arc cos@qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffiA
2 2
1 þ 2 þ 2 cos½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ  2 cosð þ 1 Þ þ cos½  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ
ð14Þ
and EC keep in one horizontal line at the position of At the zero turning position, one obtains
zero turning which is shown by the gray lines in
Figure 4. v ¼ l20  u ð15Þ
Suppose that the length of link BE is represented
by u and the length of link EC is represented by v. The So the angle  is represented by
detailed structure of the geared five-bar steering mech-
 2  2 
anism is shown in Figure 5. In this figure, ! is the u þ l22  v2 l2  l220 þ 2ul20
angular velocity of link AB, !r1 is the relative angular  ¼ arc cos ¼ arc cos
2ul2 2ul2
velocity of noncircular gear 1 with respect to link AB, ð16Þ
!r2 is the relative angular velocity of noncircular gear

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Zhao et al. 2553

Similarly, because the angle  is also defined within ir21 can also be expressed as
the interval of ½0, , equation (16) has one solution.

! r1
Then the relative rotational angle between BA and ir21 ¼  ð24Þ

! r2
BE , , is

 ¼  þ  þ  , 1 50 where ‘’ represents that noncircular gear 1 rotates in
ð17Þ
 ¼    þ  , 1 5 0 an opposite direction as noncircular gear 2 does and
where 1 50 indicates that the vehicle turns right, vice
versa, 1 5 0 indicates that the vehicle turns left. r1 þ r2 ¼ l 1 ð25Þ
The relative angular velocity of link BE with
respect to link BA is indicated by
From equations (24) and (25), one can find that
d
!r2 ¼ ð18Þ
dt (
21 1
ir l
r1 ¼  1i r

l1
21 ð26Þ
The absolute angular velocity of link BA is r2 ¼ 1i r
21

d1
!¼ ð19Þ
dt Equation (26) represents the pitch curves of the non-
Because the fact that gear 1 is fixed with the circular incomplete gears used to remedy the errors
chassis, the relative angular velocity of noncircular resulting from the fixed length of the link, denoted
gear 1 is by l20 in Figure 3, which is used in the traditional
trapezoid steering linkages. According to equation
!r1 ¼ ! ð20Þ d
(22) and equation (23), one obtains that d 1
and
d d
The relative transmission ratio of noncircular gears d1 are continuous about  1 , lim ¼ 0 and
2 1 !0 d1
1 and 2 with respect to link AB is lim dd2 ¼ 0, so ir21 is continuous about 1 , then the
1 !0 1
8   functions of the pitch curves expressed by equation
d >
> d d (26) are continuous about 1 .
 þ , 1 50
!r2 d <
i r21 ¼ ¼ dt ¼  ¼  d1 d1
!r1 d1 d1 >> d d
 :  , 1 5 0 Sensitivity analysis
dt d1 d1
ð21Þ Without a doubt, the manufacturing errors and
wears in joints, which are unavoidable in applications,
where ‘’ represents that the rotations of noncircular could affect the accuracy of the mechanism. Hence,
gear 1 and noncircular gear 2 are in opposite the sensitivity analysis is absolutely essential to the
directions. design.
d d
d1 and d1 can be obtained from equations (13) and Assuming that the transmission ratio of the non-
(16), respectively circular gear pair is specified as ir21 which satisfies the

dl2
l1 l2 ð1  1 Þ sin½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ  l2 l4 sinð þ 1 Þ þ 2
d d1
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð22Þ
d1 l2 l22  22
Ackermann steering criteria. It is a continuous func-
where 1 ¼ d 1
d1 ¼ ðcos 1 & sin 1 Þ2 þ sin2 1 ,
2
2 ¼ l1 f1þ tion about the steering angle, 1 . The relative rota-

!
!
cos½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þg  l4 cosð þ 1 Þ, tional angle between BA and BE , denoted by ,

 
dl2 l4  sinð þ 1 Þ  1 sin½  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ  ð1  1 Þ sin½2 þ 1  arc cotðcot 1  & Þ
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
d1 1 þ 22 þ 22 cos½2 þ   arc cotðcot   & Þ  2 cosð þ  Þ þ cos½  arc cotðcot   & Þ
1 1 1 1

And can be expressed as

(R
1 r
2 dl2 0 R i21 d# 1 50
l2 þ l220  2ul2 d ¼ 0
d  1 ir21 d# 1 5 0
¼  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
1
2 ð23Þ
d1 2 2 2 where 1 50 indicates that the vehicle turns right, vice
l2 4u l2  l2  l20 þ 2ul20
versa, 1 5 0 indicates that the vehicle turns left.

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2554 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)

! 
Accordingly, the subtended angle between BA and xC ¼ l4  l1 cosð  2 Þ

! ð28Þ
BE is yC ¼ l1 sinð  2 Þ

’¼ þ Then the relationship between point C and E is

The coordinates of joint E in coordinate system ðxE  xC Þ2 þðyE  yC Þ2 ¼ v2 ð29Þ

x1 o1 y1 shown in Figure 5 are
 Substituting equations (27) and (28) into equation
xE ¼ u cosð1 þ Þ þ l1 cosð þ 1 Þ (29) presents the relationship between steering angle
ð27Þ
yE ¼ u sinð1 þ Þ  l1 sinð þ 1 Þ 2 and the parameters u, v, l1 , . The partial deriva-
tives of steering angle related to different variable par-
Point C is on the circle whose centre is point D and ameters interpret the sensitivity of links to the output
radius is l1 . Hence, steering angle.

8
> @2  cosð1 þ ÞðxE  xC Þ þ sinð1 þ ÞðyE  yC Þ
>
> ¼
>
> @u l 1 sinð  2 ÞðxE  xC Þ  l1 cosð  2 ÞðyE  yC Þ
>
>
>
> @2 v
>
>
>
< @v ¼ l sinð   Þðx  x Þ  l cosð   Þðy  y Þ
1 2 E C 1 2 E C
ð30Þ
> @
> 2¼ ½ cos ð þ  1 Þ þ cos ð   2 Þ ð x E  x C Þ þ ½ sinð  2 Þ  sinð þ 1 ÞðyE  yC Þ
>
>
>
> @l1 l1 sinð  2 ÞðxE  xC Þ  l1 cosð  2 ÞðyE  yC Þ
>
>
>
>
>
> @ u sin ð þ  Þð xE  xC Þ þ u cosð1 þ ÞðyE  yC Þ
: 2¼ 1
@ l1 sinð  2 ÞðxE  xC Þ  l1 cosð  2 ÞðyE  yC Þ

Therefore, combining with numerical simulation, the

sensitivity values could be computed. Positive sensitivity
values indicate that the output steering angle increases
with the corresponding parameters and vice versa.

Noncircular profile design

To facilitate the analysis of pitch curves of the noncir-
cular incomplete gears, a local coordinate frame,
x1 o1 y1 shown in Figure 5, is established by letting the
origin, o1 , be on the centre of gear 1 which is also the
fixed revolute joint of link AB. The x1 -axis is along
the link AD. The y1 -axis is pointing up. The coordin-
ates of a point on the pitch curve can be expressed as

Figure 4. Geared steering mechanism to meet Ackermann x1 ¼ r1 cos ’
ð31Þ
turning geometry. y1 ¼ r1 sin ’

Figure 5. Geared five-bar steering mechanism.

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Zhao et al. 2555

where ’ represents the polar angle of point P shown in where x1 and y1 are prescribed by equation (31), ha is
Figure 6. the addendum coefficient, m is the gear module, dx d’ is
1

dy1
Specifying the parameters, b, l, li ði ¼ 1, 2, 4Þ, u and the derivative of x1 with respect to ’, and d’ is the
v, the pitch curve of the noncircular gear 1 can be derivative of y1 with respect to ’.
obtained by associating equations (26) and (31). Similarly, the dedendum curve of the bottom non-
After knowing the pitch curves of the two noncircular circular gear can also be obtained as
incomplete gears, the addendum and dedendum
8
curves can be obtained in line with the equidistance > dy1
>
>
line formula. In the coordinate frame, x1 o1 y1 shown >
> d’
>
> xd1 ¼ x1  s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2  2ffi hf m

in Figure 6, the addendum curve equation of the fixed >
>
>
> dx1 dy1
noncircular incomplete gear can be represented by >
< þ
d’ d’
8 ð32bÞ
> dy1 >
> dx1
>
> >
>
>
> d’ >
> d’
>
> xa1 ¼ x1 þ s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2  2ffi ha m

>
> yd1 ¼ y1 þ s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2  2ffi hf m

>
> >
>
>
> dx 1 dy 1 >
> dx 1 dy 1
>
< þ : þ
d’ d’ d’ d’
ð32aÞ
>
> dx1
>
> where hf is the dedendum coefficient.
>
> d’
>
> ya1 ¼ y1  s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2  2 ha m

The functions of the addendum and dedendum
>
> dx dy
>
> 1 1
curves are continuous because of the pitch curves
: þ
d’ d’ are continuous as mentioned above.
For any point, N, on the gear profile shown in
Figure 7, it either locates outside the pitch curve or
inside (including on) it. Assume that the inward or
outward normal of the profile on N intersects the
pitch curve at a point, P. The directional vectors, r1 ,
and its tangent line, r01 will be
 T
r1 ¼ r1 cos ’ r1 sin ’ ,
 T
r01 ¼ r01 cos ’  r1 sin ’ r01 sin ’ þ r1 cos ’ ð33Þ

The tangent of the pitch curve at point P is indi-

cated by PT in Figure 7, and the angle turned from
Figure 6. Addendum and dedendum curves of a noncircular OP to PT anticlockwise about point P is denoted by
incomplete gear. 2 ð0, Þ.

Figure 7. Tooth profiles of a noncircular incomplete gear.

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2556 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)

Therefore the pitch curve, while the lower sign represents the
profiles inside the pitch curve, P0 is the intersection
r1  r01 r01 ð’Þ points of the profiles and the pitch curve, 2 ð0, Þ
cos ¼ ¼ q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2 ð34aÞ
jjr1jj jjr01jj which can be worked out using equation (34),
is the
r21 ð’Þ þ r01 ð’Þ
specified pressure angle.
Theoretically, the profiles are defined precisely in
where 2 ð0, Þ, r1 ð’Þ is represented by equation (26), accordance with equation (36); however, it is impos-
r01 ð’Þ is the derivative of r1 ð’Þ with respect to ’, the sible to calculate the whole accurate points on the
polar angle of radial line OP. Alternatively, can also profiles. Therefore the calculation precision of the
be expressed as profiles depends on the interval of polar angle, ’,
the smaller the interval is, the higher the precision
r1 ð’Þ will be.
tan ¼ ð34bÞ
r01 ð’Þ For a standard spur gear, the pitch p and the tooth
thickness s are both m=2 on the pitch curve, where m
The polar angle of vector PN shown in Figure is the gear module. Therefore, the arc length deter-
7(a) is mined by the two adjacent crossover points of the
profiles and the pitch curve is m=2. Then the polar
Ro ¼’þ þ
 ð35aÞ angles of other intersection points, ’0 , can be deter-
mined by solving the integral equation
where Ro represents the polar angle of the vector PN Z ’0
when point N locates on the right profile of the tooth
r1L ð’Þd’ ¼ nm=2 ð37Þ
and is outside of the pitch curve. 0
When point N locates on the right profile of the
tooth but is inside of the pitch curve shown in Figure For a rack cutter, the transitional curves are
7(b), there is shaped by the envelope of the tip fillet of rack teeth.
As shown in Figure 8, the rack cutter has tip fillets of
Ri ¼’þ þ
ð35bÞ identical radii of . The points S and E represent the
start point and end point of the fillet curve and Of is
where Ri represents the polar angle of the vector PN the centre of the fillet. Point A is any point on the tip
when point N locates on the right profile of the tooth fillet. Line AOf and the pitch line intersect at point C.
and is outside of the pitch curve. Since Of is the centre of the fillet, line AOf , in fact, is
Similarly, one can find that the polar angles of the the inward normal of the tip fillet.
A is the acute
vector PN when point N locates on the left profile of angle subtended by AC and the pitch line, so
the tooth, shown in Figure 7(c) and (d) are
5
A 5 2 where
is the standard pressure angle.
 Consequently, there is
Lo ¼’þ 

ð35cÞ
Li ¼’þ 


! ha m   sin

jjCOf jj ¼ 0 ð38Þ
sin
A
where Lo represents the polar angle of the vector PN
when point N locates on the left profile of the tooth

!
and is outside of the pitch curve, and Li represents where jjCOf jj is the length of the line segment COf ,
the polar angle of the vector PN when point N locates ha0 is the addendum coefficient of the rack and gener-
on the left profile of the tooth and is outside of the ally equals 1, and m is the module. Therefore
pitch curve.
The coordinates of the profile can be expressed seg-
!

!
jjAC jj ¼ jjCOf jj þ  ð39Þ
ment by segment as follows
8 R’
>
> x1l ¼ r1 cos ’  ’0 r1 ð’Þ cos
cosð’ þ 
Þd’
< y ¼ r sin ’  R ’ r ð’Þ cos
sinð’ þ 
Þd’
>
1l 1
R’0’ 1
>
> x 1r ¼ r 1 cos ’  r ð’Þ cos
cosð’ þ þ
Þd’
>
: R ’’0 1
y1r ¼ r1 sin ’  ’0 r1 ð’Þ cos
sinð’ þ þ
Þd’
ð36Þ

where the subscript 1l denotes the left profile of

gear 1, subscript 1r denotes the right profile of gear
1, r1 is the polar radius of point P on gear 1, ’0 is the
polar angle of vector o1 P0 shown in Figure 7, the
upper sign in  or  represents the profiles outside Figure 8. Rack cutter and tip fillet.

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Zhao et al. 2557

and When
A changes from
to 2 , the position of point
A will correspondingly change on the tip fillet. To

!

! avoid undercutting by rack cutters, there should be

jj CP jj ¼ ha0 m tan
þ  cos
þ jjCOf jj cos
A
ð40Þ min sin2

mmax 4 ð44Þ
ha0

!
where jjAC jj is the length of the line segment AC,
and  is the radius of the fillets shown in Figure 8. where mmax is the maximum gear module allowed,
Since line AC is the inward normal of the tip fillet, min is the minimal radius of curvature of the pitch
the rack cutter tip fillet and the transition curve of the curve, ha0 is the addendum coefficient of the cutter
noncircular gear should be tangent at point A if and is generally equal to 1.
the pitch line of the rack cutter and the pitch curve With theoretical analysis one can get the numerical
of the noncircular gear are tangent at the point C. method for gear profile as follows:
Therefore, the corresponding point on the transition
curve can be determined when the position of point A 1. Substitute the structure parameters into equation
is specified. (26) and get the pitch curves;

!
Assume that the polar angle of OC is denoted by 2. Calculate the addendum and dedendum curves in
’C and C 2 ð0, Þ is the subtended angle between the accordance with equation (32a) and (32b);
point vector and its tangent line at point C. Hence, ’C 3. Calculate the maximum gear module allowed in
can be worked out using accordance to equation (44), and choose an appro-
Z priate module m;
’C

! 4. Assuming that the polar angle of the starting point
r1L ð’Þd’ ¼ jj CP jj ð41Þ
’0 P0 on the pitch curve, ’0 , is specified and the cor-
responding profile is a right(left) profile;
where ’0 is calculated by (37), and jjCPjj is repre- 5. Prescribe the interval of the polar angle ’, ’,
sented with equation (40). Then C can be worked such as ’ ¼ 0:01rad, then the polar angle of
out using (34) where ’1L ¼ ’C . the ithði ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . .Þ point on the profile is
Thus, after specifying the angle
A shown in ’ ¼ ’0  i’;
Figure 9, the polar angle of CA is 6. Calculate the in line with equation (34b), then
get the coordinates of the ithði ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . .Þ point
’CA ¼ ’C þ C þ
A  2 ð42Þ on the profile according to equation (36);
7. Calculate the polar angle of the ithði ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . .Þ
point Pn on the Rpitch curve, ’n , by solving the
’
Therefore, the coordinates of the point A are now integral equation ’0n r1 ð’Þd’ ¼ nm=2;
represented by 8. Repeat steps 5–7 to complete the whole gear
8   profile.
< xA ¼ r1L ð’C Þ cos ’C þ 
! 
AC  cos ’CA

! ð43Þ Moreover, the calculation precision of the pitch
: yA ¼ r1L ð’C Þ sin ’C þ  AC  sin ’CA curves and the profiles respectively depend on the
intervals of 1 and ’.
where ’C can be worked out using equation (41), and
’CA is represented by equation (42). Parametric optimisation and numerical
simulation
In general, the maximum turning angle allowed by
front wheels is a certain value between 7p/36 and
p/4, and between 35 and 45 in degrees. For the
steering mechanism shown in Figure 5, only the par-
ameters l1 , u and could be optimised because the
structure parameters b, l and l4 are specified by the
vehicle. To reach this target, the following process can
be followed.
The steering mechanism should satisfy the request
of the maximum turning angle of the front wheels
which is not more than 4 . Consequently the maximum
turning  angle interval
 of the steering mechanism
is 1 2 arc cot cot  4 þ bl , 4 in line with equa-
tion (10). Analysing the profile calculation method,
Figure 9. Coordinates of the transition curve. one can find that the maximum polar angle 1 max

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2558 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)

Figure 10. The extreme values of polar angle 1 .

should meet that 1 max 4 4 ; otherwise it is impossible Table 1. Primary parameters of a vehicle.
to get the last segment of the left profile, as shown in
Figure 10(a). Similarly, the minimum polar angle Sequence l4 ðmmÞ l ðmmÞ b ðmmÞ m ðmmÞ
ð Þ ha hf
1 min should be smaller than the minimum turning
1 1200 2800 1600 2 20 1 1.25
angle which is represented in Figure 10(b). As a
2 1350 2800 1600 2 20 1 1.25
result,
   there  should be 1 2 ½arc cot
3 1350 2950 1600 2 20 1 1.25
cot  4 þ bl  2 , 4 þ 1  where 1 and 2
are determined by the pitch curves of the two gears. 4 1350 2950 1750 2 20 1 1.25
Obviously, the coordinates of point P satisfy both
equation (32b) and equation (36). That is to say, one
can obtain 1 and 2 by associating equation (32b)
Table 2. Optimisation results.
and equation (36). Generally, it is safe to assume
1 ¼ 2 ¼ 10 . For instance, assuming that Sequence l1 ðmmÞ u ðmmÞ (rad)
b ¼ 1600 mm, l ¼ 2800 mm; then 1 2 ½76:8 , 55 . 7
What follows will investigate the optimisation of 1 100.00 26.24 12
7
the structure parameters of the steering mechanism. 2 100.00 26.24 12
7
3 100.00 25.96 12
7
4 100.00 26.42 12
The optimisation variables and constraint conditions
As mentioned above, the optimisation variables, in
vector form, can be expressed as As a result, the transmission ratio satisfies that
 T
x ¼ l1 u ð45Þ
1 l1  2
4  ir21 ðxÞ4 ð48Þ
l1  1 2
Firstly, the parameters should be neither too big
nor too small so long as they meet the space arrange-
ment of chassis. The upper and lower limits of the Inequality (48) always holds for 1 2 ½1 min , 1 max .
variable vectors can be expressed with
(  T
xU ¼ l1 max umax max
Object function and the optimisation analysis
 T ð46Þ
xL ¼ l1 min umin min The particular characteristic of noncircular gear is
that the transmission ratio is variable within a certain
The minimum radius of pitch curves should not be interval. To keep a balanced design for a pair of mesh-
too small, otherwise structure interference might ing noncircular, the width of the interval should be as
occur. Assume that the minimum radius of pitch narrow as possible. Suppose
curve of gear 1 is 1 and the minimum radius of
R 1 max
pitch curve of gear 2 is 2 . Associating equation (26) ir21 ð1 , xÞd1 ð1 max , xÞ  ð1 min , xÞ
1 min
presents EðxÞ ¼ ¼
1 max  1 min 1 max  1 min
8
> ir21 ðxÞl1 ð49Þ
>
< r1 ¼  51
1  ir21 ðxÞ
ð47Þ
> l1
>
: r2 ¼ 5 2 where EðxÞ denotes the mean value of ir21 ð1 , xÞ within
1  ir21 ðxÞ the interval ½1 min , 1 max .

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Zhao et al. 2559

The variance of transmission ratio can be subse- can be defined as

quently defined as
FðxÞ ¼ min½fðxÞ ð52Þ
R 1 max  r 2
1 min i21 ð1 , xÞ  EðxÞ d1
fðxÞ ¼ ð50Þ where x is subjected to inequality (48) while
1 max  1 min
xL 4x4xU .
Substituting the equation (49) to equation (50) and Because ir21 ðxÞ and ðxÞ are continuous functions
simplifying it presents about x, so fðxÞ is also a continuous function. As a
result, the minimum value of fðxÞ must occur at one of
R 1 max  r 2
the three points, the upper boundary of the x-variable
1 min i21 ð1 , xÞ d1
fðxÞ ¼  EðxÞ2 ð51Þ interval, the lower boundary of the x-variable interval
1 max  1 min
and the point where the partial derivative of fðxÞ with
where fðxÞ measures the variable amplitude of the respect to x equals zero. The partial derivative of fðxÞ
transmission ratio. Thus the object function, FðxÞ, can be expressed as

 
R 1 max @ir21 ð1 , xÞ @EðxÞ
2 1 min ir21 ð1 , xÞ d1  ½ð1 max , xÞ  ð1 min , xÞ
@fðxÞ @x @x
¼ ð53Þ
@x 1 max  1 min

Sequence 1 Sequence 2
90 90 80(mm)
80(mm)
120 60 120 60
60 60

150 40 30 150 40 30

20 20

180 0 180 0

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

The pitch curve of noncircular gear 1 The pitch curve of noncircular gear 1
The pitch curve of noncircular gear 2 The pitch curve of noncircular gear 2

Sequence 3 Sequence 4
90 80(mm) 90 80(mm)
120 60 120 60
60 60

150 40 30 150 40 30

20 20

180 0 180 0

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

The pitch curve of noncircular gear 1 The pitch curve of noncircular gear 1
The pitch curve of noncircular gear 2 The pitch curve of noncircular gear 2

Figure 11. The pitch curves of noncircular gears in polar coordinate.

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2560 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 227(11)

1
Sensitivity of link BE(°/mm)
0.8
Sensitivity of link CE(°/mm)
0.6 Sensitivity of link AB(°/mm)
Sensitivity of noncircular gear pair(°/°)
0.4
Sensitivity value

0.2

–0.2

–0.4

–0.6

–0.8

–1
–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Steering angle of left wheel (°)

Figure 12. Sensitivity values with parameters in sequence 1.

Figure 13. Assembly of an Ackermann-type steering mechanism.

The numerical algorithm such as trapezoid integra- The pitch curves of noncircular gears correspond-
tion formula can be used to obtain an enough precise ing to the parameters listed in Tables 1 and 2 in polar
solution of the above problem by programming at coordinate are presented in Figure 11. And the gear
MATLAB. The program is not discussed here for profile can be obtained by numerical method
the sake of length. aforementioned.
Listed in Table 1 are the primary parameters of a Accordingly, the sensitivity values can be computed,
vehicle. With these parameters, numerical simulations as Figure 12 shows, by substituting the parameters in
based on the optimisation method proposed above are sequence 1 into equation (30). From Figure 12 one can
executed. Suppose that find that the variation range of the sensitivity value of
(  T link BE is the largest, but the absolute sensitivity value
xU ¼ 200 80 75 of link CE is the largest. Therefore, the wear resistance
 T , 1 ¼ 2 ¼ 20 mm
xL ¼ 100 20 105 ability of joints connected to link BE and CE should be
improved in applications, or the joints with preload
function can be used in this system to reduce the influ-
Four sets of vehicle parameters shown in Table 1 ence of wear in joints. What’s more, the steering system
are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the design should allow the vehicle to tend to under-steer
method. The optimisation results are listed in Table 2. once the abrasion occurs.

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Zhao et al.
Figure 14. Steering motion of the mechanism.
With any set of parameters of Tables 1 and 2, the
first set of parameters for example, an Ackermann-
type steering mechanism can be designed and
assembled by software Pro/Engineer 4.0 as shown in
Figure 13.
Figure 13 indicates that this kind of steering mech-
anism is similar in structural compactness to the trap-
ezoid four-bar mechanism but can precisely satisfy the
Ackermann turning requirements. And the steering
motion of the proposed mechanism is verified in
Figure 14. In applications, the pitch curve might be
modified when taking account of the tires and other
elastic elements. However, the method proposed in
this article can be used to design an ideal
Ackermann-type steering mechanism.
Conclusions
This article proposed a steering mechanism that pre-
cisely satisfies the needs of Ackermann turning
geometry. After pointing out that a planar four-bar
linkage could exactly trace 9 points at most, it put
the Ackermann criteria into the size synthesis for
steering mechanism by using the incomplete noncir-
cular gears. Therefore, the synthesis of the steering
mechanism become the design of the pitch curves,
addendum curves, dedendum curves, tooth profiles
and transition curves of a pair of noncircular
gears. Kinematic simulations shown that the target
of design could be completely reached by the incom-
plete noncircular gear coupled five-link mechanism.
The steering mechanism should improve the vehicle
steering performance but has similar structure to the
existing steering four-bar linkages; as a result, it has
a very wide application prospect especially in the
light carriages.
Funding
This research was supported by the Natural Science
Foundation of Beijing under Grant 3112014, the National
Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
51175277 and the Program for New Century Excellent
Talents in University. The authors gratefully acknowledge
these support agencies.
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2561
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!
!
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!
’C polar angle of OC shown in
Appendix Figure 9 (rad)
’i ði ¼ 1, 2Þ input and output angles of a four-
Notation
bar linkage (rad)
b track of front wheels (mm) bottom angle of a trapezoid
ha addendum coefficient linkage (rad)
hf dedendum coefficient  radius of the fillets shown in
ir21 relative transmission ratio of the Figure 8 (mm)
noncircular gear 1 and gear 2 1 minimum radius of pitch curve of
l wheel base (mm) noncircular gear 1 (mm)
l1 length of swing arm of the trape- 2 minimum radius of pitch curve of
zoid linkage (mm) noncircular gear 2 (mm)
l2 length of link BC that satisfies min minimal radius of curvature of
Ackermann criteria (mm) the pitch curve
l20 length of link BC when turning  subtended angle shown in
angle equals to zero (mm) Figure 2 (rad)
l4 length of link AD (mm) 1 steering angle of the front left
m gear module wheel (rad)
mmax maximum gear module allowed 2 steering angle of the front left
p pitch (mm) wheel (rad)
r1 radius of noncircular gear 1 (mm) l
 ¼ 1
r2 radius of noncircular gear 2 (mm) l4
si ði ¼ 1, 2, 3, length of each link shown in b
 &¼
4, 5, 6Þ Figure 2 (mm) l
u length of link BE (mm)
v length of link EC (mm)

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