Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Appendixes
A Proof of the Equivalent Four-Bar Linkage 471
B Computer Program for Positions, Velocities, and
Accelerations in the Slider-Crank Mechanism 475
C Computer Program for Calculating the Cam Profile and the
Locations of the Cutter to Produce the Profile 479
Index 485
PREFACE
Kinematics of machines is the study of the relative motion of machine parts and
is one of the first consideraiions of the designer in the design of a machine.
Dynamics of machines treats with the forces acting on the parts of a machine
and the motions resulting from these forces. A dynamic analysis is necessary to
ensure that balance is provided for rotating and reciprocating parts and that all
members are adequate from the standpoint of strength.
This book is intended as an undergraduate text and contains sufficient
material for a full year's work. Part 1 of the text is concerned with kinematics of
machines and Part 2 with dynamics of machines. The book may be used for
either one of these subjects or both. If the student has already completed a
course in kinematics of machines using another text, this book should be read-
ily acceptable for a following course in dynamics of machines. Conventional
notation has been used throughout the text. If the time allotted for kinematics
and dynamics of machines iri the undergraduate curriculum is not sufficient for
including all of the topics presented in the text, the material in Chapters 9, 14,
15, and 22 can be presented in a graduate course.
As prerequisites to Part 1, "Kinematics of Machines," a course in college
physics and mathematics through calculus are sufficient. For Part 2,
''Dynamics of Machines,'' kinematics of machines and mechanics courses in
statics and dynamics are prerequisites.
Emphasis has been placed on presentation of fundamental principles. Spe-
cial constructions have been omitted in order to include more basic theory. The
major concern has been to present the principles in as simple a manner as
possible and to write a book which the student can understand. The text con-
tains numerous worked-out examples illustrating application of the theory.
In Part 1, in the chapter on accelerations, equivalent linkages are discussed
extensively because of their importance in simplifying the acceleration analysis
of direct-contact mechanisms. To aid the student in visualizing the direction of
xi
xii PREFACE
the Coriolis acceleration, it is derived for a special case, but the presentation is
then extended to the most general case of plane motion.
The Hartmann construction and Euler-Savary equation as methods for
obtaining the radius of curvature of the path of relative motion are given par-
ticular emphasis. Having found that students often experience considerable
difficulty in understanding and applying these methods, the author thus has
endeavored to present them in a simple manner with rules set down for apply-
ing them to any problem.
In Chapter 9 the mathematical analysis of velocities and accelerations in
mechanisms is treated. The limitations of analysis by trigonometry are pointed
out, and most of the chapter is devoted to analysis by complex numbers,
including analysis of complex linkages;
Planetary gear trains are discussed in Chapter 10, including planetaries
with multiple inputs. The tabular method of analysis and the principle of super-
position are used here to aid the student.
In Chapter 14 the synthesis of mechanisms by graphical and mathematical
methods is presented, and Chapter 15 is an introduction to mechanical analog
computer mechanisms.
In Chapter 20 the method of rotating vectors for investigating engine bal-
ance has been included because it simplifies the analysis. Gyroscopic effects
are treated in Chapter 21, and here the method of angular momentum has been
used because it makes it easier to visualize the direction of the gyroscopic
forces. Chapter 22, "Critical Whirling Speeds and Torsional Vibrations of
Shafts,'' includes analysis of whirling speeds of shafts with any number of disks
and analysis of stepped shafts.
In keeping with the changeover to the International System of Units (SI) in
the United States, this edition has been written using SI units. In order to aid
the American student in making the change, approximately 20 percent of the
examples in the text and the problems for assigned work are in the customary
U.S. units and 80 percent are in SI units.
As a result of many suggestions received from users of the previous edi-
tion, material in the first edition has been retained and some chapters have been
expanded. In conjunction with Chapter 9, "Mathematical Analysis," a FOR-
TRAN computer program for the slider-crank mechanism has been included in
the appendix. The program gives the positions, velocities, and accelerations of
the links as well as the positions, velocities, and accelerations of any point on
the linkage. In Chapter 10, "Cams," mathematical methods for the design of
disk cams have been added, and methods used to manufacture cams have been
included. Here it is shown how radial distances to points on the pitch curve can
be computed and how the pressure angle can be calculated for any angular
position of the cam. In addition, methods for calculating the cam profile and
also the positions of the cutter or grinder relative to the cam are presented for
various types of cam followers. A FORTRAN computer program which gives
the latter is included in Appendix C. At the time this edition was written, no
standards had yet been established on gear-tooth systems based wholly on the
PREFACE xiii
International System of Units. Hence in this edition, Chapter 12, "Gears," and
Chapter 13, "Gear Trains, Translation Screws, Mechanical Advantage" use
the tooth systems which were in use in the United States at the time; however,
these chapters use SI units and also module to express tooth size. Chapter 14,
"Synthesis of Mechanisms," has been expanded to include a discussion of how
mechanisms can be designed to increase their efficiency of force transmission,
and it is shown how the transmission angle can be calculated. Chapter 22,
which in the first edition covered critical speeds (whirling speeds of shafts), has
been considerably extended to include torsional vibrations of shafts.
The author believes that problem work is of great importance to students in
engineering courses because it aids motivation, understanding, and retention.
At the end of each chapter the text contains a large number of problems of
varying difficulty and length, which can all be worked on 216 x 279 mm
(8~ x 11 in) paper. Scales have been specified for all graphical work so that
the solutions will come out a reasonable size.
In some chapters the number of problems for assigned work has been
increased. A number of the problems in this edition are design problems, and
these are found in the chapters on linkages, cams, gears, gear trains, synthesis,
and flywheels.
Material taken directly from other sources is acknowledged in the book,
and the author wishes to express appreciation to the manufacturers who gener-
ously presented photographs.
In conclusion, the author wishes to express appreciation for the many
helpful suggestions received from users of the previous edition.
George H. Martin
PART
ONE
KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
CHAPTER
ONE
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
1-1 KINEMATICS
1-2 DYNAMICS
Dynamics of machines treats with the forces acting on the parts of a machine
and the motions resulting from these forces. - --
1-3 MACIDNE
Figure 1·1
Figure 1-3
6 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
1-5 MECHANISM
A kinematic chain is a system of links, that is, rigid bodies, which are either
joined together or are in contact with one another in a manner that pennits them
to move relative to one another. If one of the links is fixed and the movement of
any other link to a new position will cause each of the other links to move to
defmite predictable positions, the system is a constrained kinematic chain. If
one of the links is held fixed and the movement of any other link to a new
position will not cause each of the other links to move to definite predictable
positions, then the system is an unconstrained kinematic chain. A mechanism
or linkage is a constrained kinematic chain. When link 1 in Fig. 1-1 is held fixed,
the piston and connecting rod each have a definite position for each position of
the crank. Thus, the linkage is a constrained kinematic chain and is therefore a
mechanism. Suppose, however, we have an arrangement of links as shown in
Figure 1·4
.
: : ·.- ,. ~ -~ -' ' . - .· : . . . -:.'.; ;.,:.,,
Figure l·S
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 7
Figure 1-6
,,_-_-- -- -o.. __ _
.... ,, '--..... --
',, '0-------------- --- -
'0--- - - - - - - - - - --------:..--~
'•
Figure 1-7
Figure 1·8
Fig. 1-7. Note that if link 1 is fixed, then with link 2 in the position shown, links
3, 4, and 5 will not have definite predictable positions, but could assume many
positions some of which are shown with dashed lines. Thus, this is an uncon-
strained kinematic chain and is therefore not a mechanism. Further, let us
consider Fig. 1-8, in which three bars are pinned together as shown. An ar-
Jangement of this type does not constitute a kinematic chain because there can
be no motion of the members relative to one another. Such an assemblage is not
a mechanism but is a structure or truss.
A machine is a mechanism which transmits forces. The mechanism in Fig.
1-1 becomes a machine when a force is applied to one of the .pistons and is
transmitted through the connecting rod and crank to produce rotation of the
crankshaft. An electric motor is a machine, but one might question whether it is
a mechanism. Actually it is a four-link mechanism which is equivalent to the
one shown in Fig. 1-9. In Fig. 1-9 disks 2 and 4 rotate about a common axis and
are connected by a connecting bar, which is link 3. In the electric motor the
rotating polarity of the field coils is analogous to disk 2, the driver in Fig. 1-9.
The magnetic field functions as the connecting bar 3, and the armature is
equivalent to the driven disk 4.
Though all machines are mechanisms, not all mechanisms are machines.
Many instruments, for example, are mechanisms but are not machines because
they do no useful work nor do they transform energy. For example, a clock
does no work in excess of that required to overcome its own friction.
8 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
Figure 1·9
1-6 INVERSION
Figure 1·10
Figure 1·11
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 9
Figure 1-12
Figure 1-13
1-7 PAIRING
Two bodies in contact constitute a pair. Lower pairing exists when two sur-
faces are in contact. Examples of lower pairing are a piston and its cylinder wall
and a journal and its supporting bearing. Higher pairing refers to contact which
exists at a point or along a line. Examples of higher pairing are a ball bearing,
where point contact exists between the ball and race, and a roller bearing,
where contact between the roller and race is along a line. In Fig. 1-14 lm:ver
pairing exists at A, B, C, and D. If instead of being cylindrical, the piston were
made a sphere as in Fig. 1-15, then the piston would contact the cylinder wall
10 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
D
Figure 1·14
Figure 1-15
along a circle. Thus there would be higher pairing and it would make for greater
wear.
A body has plane motion if all its points move in planes which are parallel to
some reference plane. The reference plane is called the plane ofmotion. Plane
motion can be one of three types: translation, rotation, or a combination of
translation and rotation.
1-9 TRANSLATION
A body has translation if it moves so that all straight lines in the body move to
parallel positions. Rectilinear translation is a motion wherein all points of the
body move in straight-line paths. The piston in Fig. 1-1 has rectilinear transla-
tion. A translation in which points in the body move along curved paths is
called curvilinear translation. In the parallel-crank mechanism shown in Fig.
3-2 the connecting link 3 has curvilinear translation.
1-10 ROTATION
In rotation all points in a body remain at fixed distances from a line which il)
perpendicular to the plane of motion. This line is the axis of rotation, and points
in the body describe circular paths about it. The crank in Fig. 1-1 has a motion
of rotation if the frame of the engine is fixed.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 11
Many machine parts have motions which are a combination of rotation and
translation. For example, in the engine in Fig. 1-16 consider the motion of the
connecting rod as it moves from position BC to B C These positions are
1 1
•
shown again in Fig. 1-17. Here we see that the motion is equivalent to a
translation fromBC toB C followed by a rotation fromB C toB C Another
11 1 11 1 1 1
•
equivalent motion is illustrated in Fig. 1-18. This shows a rotation of the rod
1 1
about C from position BC to B" C, followed by a translation from B " C to
B C'. Thus the motion of the connecting rod can be considered as a rotation
1
A point which rotates about an axis at a fixed distance and at the same time
moves parallel to the axis describes a helix. A body has helical motion if each
Figure 1-16
,8" 8
r-------------
-r--
8 L-f -----.--t--
1
1
----
I --------
-----1.
~2
---
.
----- - - - - - - -
-
----
- --
-----::::.-~~------------ c
Figure 1-17
I
I
I 8 '" ~1 rt 2
point in the body describes a helix. The motion of a nut along a screw is a
common example.
A mechanism completes a cycle of motion when it moves through all its possi-
ble configurations and returns to its starting position. Thus the slider-crank
mechanism in Fig. 1-16 completes a cycle of motion as the crank makes one
revolution. The time required for one cycle is the period. The relative positions
of the links at any instant during the cycle of motion for the mechanism consti-
tute aphase. When the crank in Fig. 1-16 is in position 01o the mechanism is in
one phase of its motion. When the crank is in position 02 , the mechanism is in
another phase.
1-15 VECTORS
Two types of quantities are treated in mechanics. Scalar quantities are those
which have magnitude only. Examples are distance, area, volume, and time.
Vector quantities have magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and force.
-------,1---
Figure 1-19
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 13
Figure 1-20
0
Figure 1-21 Figure 1-22
I
I
I
I
I
A-8 1 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0
0
Figure 1-23 Figure 1-24
It should be noted that when laying out vertors in order to determine their
resultant, their given magnitudes and directions must be maintained, but the
order in which they are laid out does not affect their resultant. The resultant is
always directed outward from the pole and is the closing side of a polygon.
The subtraction ofvectorsA andB in Fig. 1-21 is accomplished as follows.
In order to find the resultant of A ~ B we may write this as A -tt (-B). That is,
we add a minus value of vector B to vector A as shown in Fig. 1-24. Similarly,
to fmd the resultant of B ~A we may write this as B -tt (-A). Thus a minus
value of vector A is added to vector B as shown in Fig. 1-25. We note that
subtraction of a vector consists of adding its negative value.
Composition refers to the adding together of any number of vectors. The sum is
called their resultant, and the vectors are called the components of the resul-
tant. It is important to note that any given number of vectors has but one
resultant. For example, the vectors in Fig. 1-26 can be added in any order, as
illustrated by Figs. 1-27 to 1-29, yet their resultant is the same.
Resolution refers to the breaking down of a vector into any number of
components. Any vector can be resolved into an infmite number of sets of
components. It is often convenient to resolve a vector into two components-
for example, a horizontal component and a vertical component. If a vector is
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 15
~
B-A
c
Figure 1·27
Figure 1·28
Figure l-29
16 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
resolved into two components, each component has a magnitude and a direc-
tion. When any two of these four quantities are known, the other two can be
found.
Suppose we wish to find the two components of vector A, Fig. 1-30, if their
directions are known as shown by dashed lines at the left in the figure. Through
the origin and terminus of vector A draw lines parallel to given directions. The
intersection of these two lines determines the magnitudes of components B and
c.
In Fig. 1-31 the two components of vector A are to be found when their
magnitudes B and C, as shown to the left, are known. From the origin of vector
A two arcs are swung, one with a radius equal to B and the other with a radius
equal to C. Similarly from the terminus of vector A we swing two arcs, one with
radius B and the other with radius C. The intersections of the arcs determine
the directions of the two components. There are two possible solutions. The
components are vectors B and Cor vectors B' and C'.
In Fig. 1-32 the two components of vector A are to be found; the magnitude
and direction of one component, B, is known. From the origin of vector A this
component is laid off. The closing side of the polygon then determines the other
I
I /
/
I /
\B /
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 1-30
c I
I
/
/
Figure 1·31
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 17
Figure 1·32
8_....---
-- -- /
Figure l-33
PROBLEMS
l·l In Fig. Pl-la the rectangle at point Cis used to indicate that BC and CD is one continuous
member and that BC and CD are not separate parts pivoted together at C. This symbol is used
throughout the text. For each drawing, state whether the figure represents a mechanism, an uncon-
strained kinematic chain, or a structure.
18 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
(b)
(a)
B 8
(c) (d)
Figure P1-1
1-2 Given the vectors in Fig. P1-2, use a scale of 1 in = 10 units and determine the following
vectors:
(a) H =A ~B
(b) I= A -+B
(c) J =A--+ C ~ B--+ E
(d) K=G-+F#D-+C#B
(e) L =- D-+tE-+F-+G
A =20
270°
crt
J~·· 3~
Figure Pl-2
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 19
1-3 For each of the vector polygons in Fig. Pl-3 write the vector equation giving the resultant R.
8 0 \
\
0 R\
\
Z____. -N
1-4 Resolve a vector A which has a magnitude of 20 units and a direction of 135° into two vectors B
and C. B is to have a direction of 80° and Cis to have a direction of 210°. Scale: I in = 10 units.
Determine the magnitudes of Band C.
1·5 Resolve a vector T which has a magnitude of 50 units and a direction of 120° into two vectorsR
and S. The magnitude of R is to be 30 units and the magnitude of Sis to be 66 units. Scale: 1 mm =
unity.
1-6 Resolve a vector A which has a magnitude of 50 units and a direction of210o into two vectorsB
and C. C is to be 37.5 units and is to be directed at 75°. Determine the magnitude of B and its
direction in degrees. Scale: 1 mm = unity.
1·7 Resolve a vector T which has a magnitude of 60 units and a direction of 345° into two vectorsR
and S. Sis to have a direction of 315°. The magnitude of R is to be 32.5 units. Scale I mm = unity.
Indicate on the drawing the magnitude of S.
CHAPfER
TWO
PROPERTIES OF MOTION, RELATIVE MOTION,
METHODS OF MOTION TRANSMISSION
2-1 INTRODUCTION
The motion of a rigid body can be defined in terms of the motion of one or more
of its points. Thus we will first study the motion of a point.
The pa,th of a moving point is the locus of its successive positions, and the
distanqe traveled by the point is the length of its path of motion. Distance is a
scalar quantity since it has magnitude only.
Figure 2-1
Consider the body in Fig. 2-2 to be rotating about the fixed axis 0 and let P be a
point fixed in the body. As P moves to P', the angular displacement of line 0 P
or the body is ao, which occurs in a time at. The average angular velocity of
the body during this interval is
22 KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
Figure l-2
~=ftxr~d
mm nun
The angular velocity of a machine part is often expressed in revolutions per
minute (abbreviated r/min) and is denoted by n. Since each revolution equals
21T rad,
w =21m (2-8)
and
V = 21rRn (2-9)
Since the radii of rotation for all points in a rotating body have the same
angular velocity w, we see from Eq. (2-7) that the magnitudes of their linear
velocities are directly proportional to their radii. Thus in Fig. 2-3,
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.