12 Vector Techniques

Bernard Bolzano was born in 1781 in

Prague in what is now the Czech Republic.
During Bolzano’s early life there were two
major influences. The first was his father,
who was active in caring for others and
the second were the monks who taught
him, who were required to take a vow
which committed them to take special care
of young people. In the year 1799–1800
Bolzano undertook mathematical research
with Frantisek Josef Gerstner and
contemplated his future. The result of this
was that in the autumn of 1800, he went
to Charles University to study theology.
During this time he also continued to
work on mathematics and prepared a
doctoral thesis on geometry which led to
him publishing a work on the foundations
of elementary geometry, Betrachtungen über
einige Gegenstände der Elementargoemetrie in 1804.
In this book Bolzano considers points, lines Bernard Bolzano
and planes as undefined elements, and
defines operations on them. These are key ideas in the concept of linear space, which
then led to the concept of vectors.
Following this, Bolzano entered two competitions for chairs at the Charles University
in Prague. One was for the chair of mathematics and the other for the new chair in
the philosophy of religion. Bolzano was placed first in both competitions, but the
university gave him the chair in the philosophy of religion. In many ways this was the
wrong decision, given the way he was brought up with a belief in social justice and
pacifism and the fact he was a free thinker. His appointment was viewed with
suspicion by the Austrian rulers in Vienna. He criticised the discrimination of the
Czech-speaking Bohemians by the German-speaking Bohemians, against their Czech
follow citizens and the anti-Semitism displayed by both the German and Czech
Bohemians. It came as no surprise that Bolzano was suspended from his position in
December 1819 after pressure from the Austrian government. He was also suspended
from his professorship, put under house arrest, had his mail censored, and was not
allowed to publish. He was then tried by the Church, and was required to recant his
supposed heresies. He refused to do so and resigned his chair at the university. From
1823 he continued to study, until in the winter of 1848 he contracted a cold which,
given the poor condition of his lungs, led to his death.

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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

12.1 Introduction to vectors Here the unit vectors i, j and k are vectors of magnitude 1 in the directions x, y and z
respectively. These are shown in the diagram below.
Physical quantities can be classified into two different kinds:
z
(i) scalar quantities, often called scalars, which have magnitude, but no associated
direction
y
(ii) vector quantities, often called vectors, which have a magnitude and an associated
direction.
So travelling 20 m is a scalar quantity and is called distance whereas travelling 20 m due
north is a vector quantity and is called displacement. k
j

i x
Vector notation
Vectors can be represented in either two or three dimensions, and are described through
components. Hence if we want to move from the point (1, 2) on the Cartesian plane to So the vector 2i  3j  2k means 2 along the x-axis, 3 along the y-axis and 2 along There is no advantage to
the point (3, 5) we do this by stating we move 2 in the positive x-direction and 3 in the the z-axis. one notation over the
positive y-direction. There are two possible notations for this, column vector notation other. Both are used in IB
Hence a vector represents a change in position.
and unit vector notation. examinations and it is
probably best to work in
Position vectors, free vectors and tied vectors the notation given in the
Column vector notation question.
x A vector can be written as a position vector, a free vector or a tied vector.
x
In two dimensions a vector can be represented as ¢ ≤ and in three dimensions as £y≥. A position vector is one that specifies a particular position in space relative to the
y
z
¡ 2
origin. For example, in the diagram, the position vector of A is OA  ¢ ≤.
1

The conventions for x and y in terms of positive and negative are the same as in the A (2, 1)
standard two-dimensional Cartesian plane. In three dimensions this is also true, but
we need to define what a standard three-dimensional plane looks like. There are
2
three different versions, which are all rotations of each other. In all cases they obey 1
¡ 2
1 OA  ¢ ≤ means A is 2
what can be called the “right-hand screw rule”. This means that if a screw were 1
placed at the origin and turned with a screwdriver in the right hand from the positive units to the right of O and
x-axis to the positive y-axis, then it would move in the direction of the positive z-axis.
This is shown below. O (0, 0) 2 1 unit above it.

z
¡ 2 This is true for the position
The axes are always drawn Point A with coordinates (2, 1) has position vector OA  ¢ ≤.
y 1 vector of any point.
like this in this book.
Different orientations may
be used on IB examination
papers. 2
Now if we talk about a vector a  ¢ ≤ then this can be anywhere in space and is
x 1
therefore a free vector.

Unit vector notation

2
The column vector £ 3 ≥ can be represented as 2i  3j  2k using unit vectors. 1
a
2

¡ 2
A vector AB  ¢ ≤ is a tied vector since it is specified as the vector that goes from A to B.
1

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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

B a) To get from 12, 3, 12 to 13, 4, 12 we go 1 in the x-direction, 1 in the

32 1
y-direction and 0 in the z-direction. Alternatively, AB  £4  132 ≥  £1≥.
¡

1 11 0

¡
b) Similarly with BA , we go 1 in the x-direction, 1 in the y-direction and 0 in
A 2 23 1
the z-direction. Alternatively, BA  £3  142 ≥  £ 1 ≥.
¡

11 0
¡ 2 ¡ 2
It is obviously possible that OA  a  ¢ ≤ and that AB  a  ¢ ≤, but it must be
1 1
¡ ¡
Notice that in the example
understood that OA and a and AB are slightly different concepts.
¡ ¡
Whenever vectors are printed in books or in examination papers, free vectors are always AB   BA
written in bold, for example a, but in any written work they are written with a bar
underneath, a. Position vectors and tied vectors are always written as the start and end
points of the line representing the vector with an arrow above them, for example This is always true.
¡ ¡
OA , AB .
The magnitude of a vector
Forming a tied vector The magnitude (sometimes called the modulus) of a vector is the length of the line
¡ representing the vector. To calculate this we use Pythagoras’ theorem.
We now know the vector AB means the vector that takes us from A to B. If we
consider A to be the point 11, 2, 72 and B to be the point (3, 1, 6), then to get from
A to B we need to move 2 along the x-axis, 1 along the y-axis and 13 along the z-axis.
This is shown in the diagram below. Example

5
Find the magnitude of the vector a  ¢ ≤.
z 12
B (3, 1, 6)
y 5
Consider the vector a  ¢ ≤ in the diagram below.
12
13
O x
2
A (1, 2, −7) 5
1 12 12

¡
To find BA we
2 subtract the coordinates of 5 a means the magnitude
¡
So AB  £1≥. B from those of A. of a.
The magnitude is given by the length of the hypotenuse. a  252  122  13
13
¡
More commonly, we think of AB as being the coordinates of A subtracted from the
coordinates of B.
In three dimensions this becomes a little more complicated.

Example

If A has coordinates 12, 3, 12 and B has coordinates 13, 4, 12 find:
¡
a) AB
¡
b) BA

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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

Example Example

3 If A has coordinates 12, 3, 12 and B has coordinates 17, 6, 12, find these
Find the magnitude of the vector £4≥. vectors.
¡
7 a) AB
3 ¡
b) 2 BA
The vector £4≥ is shown in the diagram below. OA is the magnitude of the ¡
7 c) p AB
vector. 72 5
¡
(a) AB  £ 6  3 ≥  £3≥
A
1  112 0
7 27 5
¡
3 (b) BA  £ 3  6 ≥  £3≥
1  112
4
7 C
0
5 10
¡
4 2 BA  2£3≥  £ 6 ≥
0 0
O B
3 5 5p
¡
(c) p AB  p £3≥  £3p≥
We know by Pythagoras’ theorem that OA  2OC2  AC2. 0 0
Applying Pythagoras’ theorem again, OC2  OB2  BC2.
Hence
OA  2OB2  BC2  AC2 Equal vectors
1 OA  23  4  7
2 2 2
Vectors are equal if they have the same direction and magnitude.
1 OA  274

Example
Multiplying a vector by a scalar
a1 2a  2
Find the values of a, b and c for which the vectors 3 £2b  3≥ and £ b  1 ≥
When we multiply a vector by a scalar we just multiply each component by the scalar.
c 5c  2
3 6
Hence the vector c hanges in magnitude, but not in direction. For example 2¢ ≤  ¢ ≤ are equal.
4 8
3 If they are equal then
has the same direction as ¢ ≤ but has twice the magnitude. This is shown in the
4 31a  12  2a  2
diagram below. 1 3a  3  2a  2 1 a  1
312b  32  b  1
8
1 6b  9  b  1 1 b  
3 5
4
3c  5c  2 1 c  1
There is no symbol for
multiplication in this case.
3
4
This is important as the
symbols  and  Negative vectors
have specific meanings in
vectors. A negative vector has the same magnitude as the positive vector but the opposite
2 2
direction. Hence if a  ¢ ≤ then a  ¢ ≤.
3 3c 3 3
In general, c ¢ ≤  ¢ ≤.
4 4c

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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

Zero vectors Perpendicular vectors

A zero or null vector is a vector with zero magnitude and no directional property. It is In the two-dimensional case we use the property that with perpendicular lines the
product of the gradients is 1.
0
denoted by ¢ ≤ or 0i  0j in two dimensions. Adding a vector and its negative vector
0
gives the zero vector, i.e. a  1a2  zero vector.
Example

3
Example In the case of an equation Find a vector perpendicular to ¢ ≤.
1
like this the zero vector
If a  2i  4j  7k and 2a  b  0i  0j  0k, find b. 0i  0j  0k could just From the diagram below we can see that the line representing this vector has
2a  4i  8j  14k be written as 0. 1
a gradient of  .
b  2a  14i  8j  14k2  4i  8j  14k 3
3
If 2a  b  0 then
b  2a −1
Unit vectors
Hence the line representing the perpendicular vector will have a gradient of 3. There are an infinite
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude one. To find this we divide by the magnitude of
1 number of perpendicular
the vector. If n is the vector then the notation for the unit vector is n̂. Therefore a perpendicular vector is ¢ ≤. vectors.
3

Example
In three dimensions this is more complicated and will be dealt with later in the chapter.
Find a unit vector parallel to m  3i  5j  2k.
The magnitude of 3i  5j  2k is 232  52  122 2  238.
Exercise 1
13i  5j  2k2.
1
Hence the required vector is m̂ 
238
1 Find the values of a, b and c.
2 a 1 3a a 2a
Parallel vectors a £3≥  2£b  1≥ b £ b ≥  £ 2b2 ≥ c 3£b  1≥  4£2b  3≥
4 c2 2 c6 4 3
Since parallel vectors must have the same direction, the vectors must be scalar multiples
of each other. 2 If the position vector of P is i  j and the position vector of Q is 2i  3j,
find:
3 15 15 3 ¡
b  PQ 
¡
So in two dimensions ¢ ≤ is parallel to ¢ ≤ since ¢ ≤  5 ¢ ≤. a PQ
2 10 10 2
2 1
In three dimensions 4i  2j  5k is parallel to 12i  6j  15k since 3 If the position vector of A is ¢ ≤ and the position vector of B is ¢ ≤, find:
3 5
12i  6j  15k  314i  2j  5k2.
b  AB 
¡ ¡
a AB
4 Write down a vector that is parallel to the line y  3x  5.
Example 5 Find the magnitude of these vectors.
¡ 2 x 3
4 12 a m  3i  5j b OP  ¢ ≤ c ¢ ≤¢ ≤
7 y 9
Find the value of k for which the vectors £2≥ and £6≥ are parallel.
8 k x 4
¡
2 d a  2i  4j  3k e £y≥  £1≥ f OA  2i  7j  2k
4 2 12 1 z 2
£2≥  2£1≥ and £6≥  6 § k ¥
8 4 k 1
6
6 State which of the following vectors are parallel to £3≥.
4
k 4 5
 4 1 k  24.
d 0.5p 12i  6j  8k2
Hence these vectors are parallel when 1 4
6 a £12≥ b ij k c £15≥ ˛

3 3
16 20
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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

7 Find the values of c for which the vectors are parallel.

14 18
12.2 A geometric approach to vectors
a i  2j  3k and 3i  cj  9k b £35≥ and £45≥ To add two vectors we just add the x-components, the y-components and the z-
components. To subtract two vectors we subtract the x-components, the y-components
4t ct c 9
and the z-components.
c £8t≥ and £12t≥
10t 15t
8 A two-dimensional vector has a modulus of 13. It makes an angle of 60° Example
with the x-axis and an angle of 30° with the y-axis. Find an exact value for
this vector. If a  2i  6j  12k and b  i  6j  7k find a  b.
5 a  b  12  12i  16  62j  112  72k
9 Find a unit vector in the direction of £6≥.  i  12j  19k
1
10 A, B, C and D have position vectors given by
i  3j  2k, 2i  j  4k, 3i  2j  7k and 3i  5j  4k. Determine
which of the following pairs of lines are parallel. Example
a AB and CD b BC and CD c BC and AD

11 A triangle has its vertices at the points P (1, 2), Q (3, 5) and R 11, 12. Find
3 2
˛ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
¡ ¡ ¡ If OA  £ 4 ≥ and OB  £4≥ find OA  OB .
the vectors PQ , QR and PR , and the modulus of each of these vectors. 2 7
12 A parallelogram has coordinates P(0, 1, 4), Q 14, 1, 32, R(x, y, z) and
3 2 3  2 5
S 11, 5, 62 .
˛

OA  OB  £ 4 ≥  £4≥  £4  142 ≥  £ 0 ≥
˛
¡ ¡

2  172
a Find the coordinates of R.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ 2 7 9
b Find the vectors PQ , QR , SR and RP .
c Find the magnitude of each of the vectors in part b.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ We can also look at adding and subtracting vectors geometrically.
d Hence write down the unit vectors in the directions of PQ , QR , SR and RP .
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
13 If PQRST is a pentagon, show that PQ  QR  RS  PT  TS .
14 Consider the hexagon shown. Vector addition
¡ ¡
a Let the vectors p and q be represented by the lines AB and BC respectively as shown
P Q
b in the diagram.
U R C

p+q
T S q
¡
Find the vector represented by SU .
A p B

ab ab
15 The vector ¢ ≤ is parallel to the x-axis and the vector ¢ ≤ is parallel
b 2a  b ¡
Then the vector represented by the line AC is defined as the sum of p and q and is
2
to ¢ ≤. Find the values of a and b. written as p  q. This is sometimes called the triangle law of vector addition.
1
16 The vector 1p  2q  r2i  12p  q  r2j  13p  2q  r2k is parallel
to i  j and the vector 1p  2r2i  1p  q  2r2j  1p  2q  2r2k is
Alternatively it can also be represented by a parallelogram. In this case let p and q be
¡ ¡
parallel to the z-axis. Find the values of p, q and r. represented by AB and AD .

17 If OP  13x  2y2p  1x  y  32 q, OQ  1x  y  22p  12x  y  12q

¡ ¡
D p C
¡ ¡
and 2 OP  3OQ, where vectors p and q are non-parallel vectors, find the
q
values of x and y. p+q q

A p B

314 315
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

¡ ¡
It should be noted that since DC is the same in magnitude and direction as AB , the Example
¡ ¡

If A has coordinates 10, 1, 22 and B has coordinates 12, 3, 52, find:
line DC can also represent the vector p. Similarly BC can represent the vector q.
¡ a) the position vector of the point C, the midpoint of AB
Comparing this with the triangle, it is clear that the diagonal AC can represent the sum
¡ ¡
b) the position vector of the point D which divides the line AB in the ratio of
AB  BC . This is known as the parallelogram law of vector addition. 1 : 2.
This also shows that vector addition is commutative.
a)
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
q  p  AD  DC  AC  AB  BC  p  q
¡
20 2
AB  £3  112 ≥  £2≥
¡

Put very simply, vector addition can be thought of as getting C

52 3
from the start point to the end point by any route. Hence in
1
the case of the triangle the route along two sides is the 2
same as the route along the third side because they start ¡ 1¡ 1 1
AC  AB  £2≥  § 3 ¥
and finish at the same point. 2 2
3 2
A B
¡ ¡ ¡
Hence AB  BC  AC
1 1
0 1  2
¡ ¡ ¡
This concept can be extended to more than two vectors. To F The diagram shows that OC  OA  AC  £1≥  § 3 ¥ § 7 ¥.
E
get from A to F we can either go directly from A to F or we 2 2 2
can go via B, C, D, and E. Hence D
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ B
AF  AB  BC  CD  DE  EF .

C
C

A B O A
1
b) Since the line AB is divided in the ratio of 1 : 2 the point D is the way
3
along the line.
Example
B
A quadrilateral has coordinates A 11, 1, 42, B (3, 2, 5), C (1, 2, 0), 2
D 11, 2, 12. Show that:
˛

¡ ¡ ¡ D
1
a) AB  BC  AC
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
O A
b) AB  BC  CD  AD

2 2 0 2
¡ ¡ ¡ 2
a) AB  £3≥, BC  £ 0 ≥, AC  £ 3 ≥ 3
2 3
1 5 4 ¡ 1¡ 1 2
AD  AB  £2≥  ¶ ∑  • 2 ∂
2 2 0 3 3 3
¡ ¡ ¡ 3 3
AB  BC  £3≥  £ 0 ≥  £ 3 ≥  AC 3
1
1 5 4 3
2 2 Therefore the position vector of D is
¡ ¡
b) CD  £ 0 ≥, AD  £ 3 ≥
1 5 2 2
2 2 2 2 0 3 3
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
AB  BC  CD  £3≥  £ 0 ≥  £ 0 ≥  £ 3 ≥  AD
¡ ¡ ¡ 5 ∂
OD  OA  AD  £1≥  • 2 ∂ •
5 1 5 3
1 2 3  .
3
1

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12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

Vector subtraction
Example
We can now use this principle to look at the subtraction of two vectors. We can first
consider a  b to be the same as a  1b2.
PQRS is a quadrilateral where X and Y are the midpoints of PQ and RS respectively.
¡ ¡ ¡
Show that PS  SR  2 XY . R
D a C ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Since PX  XQ , XQ  PX  0 Y
¡ ¡
b a  (b) 1 XQ  XP  0 S
b ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
Similarly YR  YS  0 1 RY  SY  0
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
A a B Now XY  XP  PS  SY and
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ P Q
XY  XQ  QR  RY X
a  1b2 is the same as DC  CB and hence the diagonal DB can represent
¡ ¡ ¡

¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

a  1b2 Thus in terms of the parallelogram one diagonal represents the addition of Hence 2 XY  XP  PS  SY  XQ  QR  RY
¡ ¡ ¡

two vectors and the other the subtraction of two vectors. This explains geometrically 1 2 XY  PS  QR
¡
why to find AB we subtract the coordinates of A from the coordinates of B.
¡ ¡ ¡
Alternatively if we consider the triangle below we can see that AB  AO  OB . Hence
¡ ¡ ¡
AB  OA  OB  a  b  b  a. Exercise 2

B
ba 1 If a  2i  j  5k, b  i  5j  6k and c  3i  6j  8k, find:
A a ab b abc c bc d 2a  b  4c
b e 3a  3b  2c f 2a  3b  7c g ma  20mb  3mc
a
2 If a  i  j, b  2i  3j and c  4i  7j, find:
O a a  2b  3c b a  2b  3c
c the angle that a  b  c makes with the x-axis.

Example
1 2 5
The diagram shows quadrilateral ABCD, where AB  2p, DC  p and
¡ ¡
3 Vectors a, b, c and d are given by a  £1≥, b  £4≥, c  £1≥ and
¡ 1 0 3
AD  q.
a) What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?
p 7
D C
b) Find these in terms of p and q. d  £5≥. If b  a is parallel to c  d, find the value of q. Also find the
q
¡ q
i) BC ratio of their moduli.
A B
¡ 2p
ii) DB
¡ ¡ ¡
iii) AC 4 In the triangle shown, OA  a and OB  b and C is the midpoint of AB.
a) Since AB and DC are parallel and AD is not parallel to BC, the shape is a B
trapezium.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
b) (i) BC  BA  AD  DC
b C
 2p  q  p  q  p
¡ ¡ ¡
(ii) BD  DC  CB
 p  31q  p2 4  2p  q
O
a A
¡ ¡ ¡
(iii) AC  AD  DC Find:
qp
¡ ¡ ¡
a AB b AC c CB
¡
d Hence, using two different methods, find OC .

318 319
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

1
¡ ¡ ¡
4 10 The cuboid ABCDEFGH shown has AB  a, AD  b and AE  c. Find in
5 If the position vector of A is ¢ ≤ and the position vector of B is ¢ ≤,
16 4
terms of a, b and c: H
find: ¡ ¡
a BC b FH
¡ ¡
a AB b  AB  ¡ ¡
E
c AH d AG D G
c the position vector of the midpoint of AB ¡
c
e BH
d the position vector of the point dividing AB in the ratio 2 : 3. b
A F
C
7 1
6 If the position vector of P is ¢ ≤ and the position vector of Q is ¢ ≤, a
13 3
find: B
11 If PQR is a triangle and S is the midpoint of PQ, show that
b  PQ 
¡ ¡
a PQ ¡ ¡ ¡
¡ QR  PR  2 PS .
c the position vector of the midpoint of PQ ¡ ¡ ¡
12 ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon in which AB  a, BC  b and CD  c
¡
d the position vector of the point dividing PQ in the ratio 1 : 7. ¡
and DE  d. Find in terms of a, b, c and d:
¡ ¡
7 In the triangle shown, OA  a and OB  b. The point C lies on AB such
¡ ¡ ¡
a DG b AH c FA
that AC : CB  1 : k where k is a constant. B
13 T, U and V are the midpoints of the sides PQ, QR and PS of a triangle. Show
Find: k ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
b that OP  OQ  OR  OT  OU  OV, where O is the origin.
a AC b BC c BA d OC C ¡ ¡
1 14 OABC is a rhombus, where O is the origin, OA  a and OC  c.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
O
a A a Find AB , BC , AC and OB in terms of a and c.
¡ ¡ ¡ b What is the relationship between c  a and c  a?
8 ABCD is the parallelogram shown, where AB  a and BC  b. AC and
¡ ¡ 1¡
BX intersect at 90º and AX  AD .
3
D C
12.3 Multiplication of vectors
a Find:
When we multiply two vectors there are two possible answers. One answer is a scalar
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
i) CD ii) CA iii) BD iv) AX v) XD and the other is a vector. Hence one is called the scalar product and one is called the
b vector product. We use a “dot” to signify the scalar product and a “cross” to signify
2k 4k ¡
b If a  ¢ ≤ and b  ¢ ≤, find AC in the vector product. It is quite common therefore to refer to the “dot product” and
3c c x
“cross product”.
terms of k and c.
The reason why there need to be two cases is best seen through physics. Consider the
A B
a concept of force multiplied by displacement. In one context this gives the work done,
c Hence find, in terms of k and c, a vector which is a scalar quantity. In another context it gives the moment of a force (the turning
¡
parallel to BX . effect), which is a vector quantity. Hence in the physical world there are two possibilities,
¡ ¡ ¡ and both need to be accounted for in the mathematical world.
9 The trapezium shown has AB  a, BC  b and AD  3b. E and F are
points on BC such that BE : EF : FC  m : n : 3. Scalar product
Find:
¡ ¡ D
a BE b EF The scalar product or dot product of two vectors a and b inclined at an angle of u is
written as a # b and equals ab cos u.
¡ ¡
C
c CF d AF
¡
3b b A
e ED “Inclined at an angle of u”
b
B means the angle between
the two vectors is u.
a

A a B

320 321
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

and a # 1b  R2   OA  OC  cos a  OA  OF 

The following results are important. ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

So a # 1b  R2  a # b  b # R, proving the scalar product is distributive over addition.

Parallel vectors

If two vectors are parallel, then a # b  ab cos 0 or ab cos p This result can be extended to any number of vectors.

So a # b  ab
Scalar product of vectors in component form
Let p  a1i  b1j  c1k and q  a2i  b2j  c2k
Perpendicular vectors
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

Then p # q  1a1i  b1j  c1k2 # 1a2i  b2j  c2k2

˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

 1a1a2i # i  b1b2j # j  c1c2k # k2

p
If two vectors are perpendicular, then a # b  ab cos ˛ ˛ ˛

2
 1a1b2i # j b1c2j # k  c1a2k # i  b1a2j # i  c1b2k # j  a1c2i # k2
So a # b  0
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

We need to look at what happens with various combinations of i, j and k:

Commutativity i # i  j # j  k # k  112 112 cos0  1
i # j  j # i  i # k  k # i  j # k  k # j  112 112 cos  0
p
We know that a # b  ab cos u and b # a  ba cos u. 2
Since ab cos u  ba cos u then a # b  b # a. Hence

The scalar product is commutative. p # q  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2

So there are two ways of calculating the scalar product. We normally use this form as we
Distributivity rarely know the angle between two vectors.

The scalar product is distributive across addition.

This means a # 1b  R2  a # b  a # R. Example

If a  3i  j  k and b  2i  j  6k, find a # b.

Proof
a # b  132 122  112 112  112 162
¡ ¡ ¡
Consider the diagram below, where OA  a, OB  b and BC  R. AOˆ B  u, AOˆ C  a, 616
¡ ¡ ¡  1
and the angle BC makes with BD, which is parallel to OA, is b.

B D

Example
b Given that x # p  q # x show that x is perpendicular to p  q.
x#pq#x
  1x#pq#x0 Since the scalar product
O A
E a F x#px#q0 is commutative
x # 1p  q2  0
¡ Using the distributive law
Clearly OC  b  R Since the scalar product is zero, x and p  q are perpendicular.

Now a # b  a # R   OA  OB  cos u   OA  BC  cos b

¡ ¡ ¡ ¡

  OA  a  OE    EF  b
¡ ¡ ¡

  OA  OF 
¡ ¡

322 323
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

Example Angle between two vectors

If we draw two intersecting vectors, there are two possible angles where one is the Remember that supplement
Show that the triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3), B 12, 1, 4 2 and C 13, 3, 22 is supplement of the other. means “subtract from
not right-angled. 180º” or “subtract from p”
Is the angle between the vectors a or b?
We first write down the vectors representing each side. depending on whether we
are working in radians or
1
¡ degrees.
AB  £3≥ 

1
1
¡
BC  £2≥
2 There is a convention for this. The angle between two vectors is the angle between their
directions when those directions both converge or both diverge from a point. Hence in
2
¡ this case we require a.
AC  £5≥
1 Now we know which angle to find, we can find it using the two formulae for scalar
product.
1 1
Now AB # BC  £3≥ # £2≥  112 112  132 122  112 122  1  6  2  5
¡ ¡

1 2 Example
1 2
BC # AC  £2≥ # £5≥  112 122  122 152  122 112  2  10  2  14
¡ ¡
Find the angle u between a  3i  2j  4k and b  2i  4j  7k.
2 1 We know that a # b  132 122  122 142  142 172  6  8  28  26
1 2 So ab cos u  26
AB # AC  £3≥ # £5≥  112 122  132 152  112 122  2  15  2  15
¡ ¡

Now a  232  122 2  42  29  4  16  229

1 2
Since none of the scalar products equals zero, none of the sides are at right angles to
each other, and hence the triangle is not right-angled. And b  222  42  72  24  16  49  269

26
Hence cos u 
229269
1 u  54.5°

Example

In the triangle ABC shown, prove that c # c  1a  b2 # 1a  b2. Example

A 3 2
c If the angle between the vectors a  £1≥ and b  £1≥ is 60º, find the
a 1 x
values of x.
B C
b
We know that a # b  132 122  112 112  112 1x2  6  1  x  7  x
Using the scalar product So 7  x  ab cos 60°
c2  a # a  a # b  b # a  b # b
Now a  232  112 2  112 2  29  1  1  211
1 c2  a2  0  0  b2
Since AB and BC are at
1 AC2  AB2  BC2 right angles to each other And b  222  112 2  x2  24  1  x2  25  x2
This is Pythagoras’ theorem and hence the relationship is proven.
21125  x2
Hence 7  x  211 25  x2 cos 60° 
2

324 325
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

This equation cannot be solved by any direct means so we need to use a b a  2i  5j  2k, b  i  4j  lk
calculator.
c a  li  3k, b  2i  j  5k
l l
d a  £1≥, b  £ l ≥
3 2
7 Show that the triangle ABC is not right-angled, given that A has coordinates
12, 1, 22 , B 13, 3, 12 and C 12, 1, 42.
¡ ¡
8 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to PQ and to PR , where
¡ ¡

The answer is x  2.01 or 10.0. PQ  i  j  2k and QR  i  2j  k.

2 3
9 If the angle between the vectors p  £ 1 ≥ and q  £ x ≥ is 80º, find the
possible values of x. 1 4
Exercise 3
10 Taking O as the origin on a cube OABCDEG of G F
side 2 cm as shown, find the angle between
3 2 7 the diagonals OF and AG.
1 Given that a  ¢ ≤, b  ¢ ≤ and c  ¢ ≤, find: D E
1 5 3 2 cm

a a#b b b#c c a # 1b  c2 d b#i

e a # 1c  b2 g a # 12b  c2 h b # 12a  3c2
C
f 3a # c B

2 Given that a  2i  3j  4k, b  i  5j  2k and c  2i  2j  k, 2 cm

O
find: 2 cm A
a a#b b c#b c b#b d a # 1c  b2
11 A quadrilateral ABCD has coordinates A (0, 0, 1), B (1, 1, 3), C (3, 0, 6) and
e 1a  b2 # i f b # 1a  2b2 g c # 1a  2b2 h b#ab#c D 12, 1, 42. Show that the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
3 Calculate the angle between each pair of vectors. 12 A quadrilateral ABCD has coordinates A 11, 2, 12 , B (2, 3, 0), C (3, 5, 3)
a a  2i  4j  5k, b  i  3j  8k and D 12, 3, 22. Show that the diagonals of the quadrilateral are
2 3 perpendicular. Hence state, giving a reason, whether or not the quadrilateral
b a  ¢ ≤, b  ¢ ≤
5 1 is a rhombus.
3 1 13 Using the scalar product, prove that the diagonals
of this rhombus are perpendicular to one another.
c a  £3≥, b  £4≥
q
4 3
d a  i  2k, b  j  k
3 4
e a  £1≥, b  £0≥
p
4 0
1
t
2t R
2 14 In the quadrilateral PQRS shown,
f a  £ t ≥, b  ¶ ∂ s
t prove that
S
3t r
3 ¡ p

t
PR #¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
QS  PQ # RS  QR # PS .
P Q
q
4 Find p # q and the cosine of the angle u between p and q if
p  i  3j  2k and q  i  j  6k. 15 If a # b  a # c, show that a is perpendicular to b  c.
5 Find which of the following vectors are perpendicular to each other. ¡ ¡
16 If A, B, C, D are four points such that BC  DA  0, prove that ABCD is a
a  3i  2j  k, b  2i  j  4k, c  3i  2j  k, ¡ ¡
d  36i  27j  54k, e  i  2j, f  4i  3j  6k parallelogram. If AB # BC  0, state with a reason whether the
6 Find the value of l if the following vectors are perpendicular. parallelogram is a rhombus, a rectangle or a square.
2 1 17 Given that a and b are non-zero vectors show that if a  b then a  b
a a  £1≥, b  £1≥ and a  b are perpendicular.
l 2
326 327
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

18 If a and b are perpendicular vectors, show that:

1a  b2 # 1a  b2  1a  b2 # 1a  b2 The vector product is not commutative.
¡ ¡ ¡
19 Triangle ABC is right-angled at B. Show that AB # AC   AB 2.
20 Given that a, b and c are non-zero vectors, a
b
c and Distributivity
a # 1b  c2  b # 1a  c2, show that c # 1a  b2  0.
The vector product is distributive across addition.

Vector product r  1p  q2  r  p  r  q.

The vector product or cross product of two vectors a and b inclined at an angle u is Proof
written as a  b and equals ab sin un̂,, which is a vector quantity.
Consider two vectors p and q with the third vector r which is perpendicular to both p
and q. Hence the plane containing p and q also contains p  q, and r is perpendicular
Hence it is a vector of magnitude ab sin u in the direction of n where n is Remember that n̂ is a to that plane.
perpendicular to the plane containing a and b.
unit vector.
Now obviously n̂ can have one of two directions. This is decided again by using a
r
“right-hand screw rule” in the sense that the direction of n is the direction of a screw
turned from a to b with the right hand. This is shown in the diagram below. p
q
p q
n

r  p, r  q and r  1p  q2 must also lie in this plane as all three are vectors that
are perpendicular to r.
b
If you are unsure, try
this with a screwdriver
and a screw! r
 a

The fact that the vector B p A

In other words a  b  ab sin un̂ where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to both a rq
product of a and b is r

r
and b. perpendicular to both a q (p  E

p
 q)
p q
and b is very important G
The following results are important. F
when it comes to the C D
work that we will do with
Parallel vectors
planes in Chapter 13.
¡
If two vectors are parallel, then a  b  ab sin 0n̂ or ab sin pn̂ Remember that for parallel Now r  q  AE  rq sin 90°  rq
So a  b  0 vectors, a # b  ab ¡
Similarly r  p  AG  rp sin 90°  rp

And r  1p  q2  AF  r1p  q2 sin 90°  r1p  q2 

¡
Perpendicular vectors
p
Remember that for Hence the sides of the quadrilateral AEFG are r times the lengths of the sides in
If two vectors are perpendicular, then a  b  ab sin n̂ perpendicular vectors, quadrilateral ABCD. Since the angles in both figures are the same ( r  p is a 90° rotation
2
So a  b  abn̂ a#b0 of p, r  q is a 90° rotation of q, and r  1p  q2 is a 90° rotation of p  q ), ABCD
and AEFG are both parallelograms.
Commutativity ¡ ¡
Now we know that AF  AE  EF
¡
b
We know a  b  ab sin un̂1 and that nˆ 1 Hence r  1p  q2  r  p  r  q, and we have proved the distributive law when r
b  a  ba sin un̂2. is perpendicular to p and q.
By thinking of the right-hand screw rule we can see that  a Now let us consider the case where r is not perpendicular to p and q. In this case we
n̂1 and n̂2 must be in opposite directions. need to form the plane perpendicular to r with vectors p and q inclined at different
angles to r. p1, q1 and 1p1  q1 2 are the projections of p, q and 1p  q2 on this
Hence a  b  b  a. nˆ 2
plane. u is the angle between r and p.

328 329
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

r So there are two ways of calculating the vector product. We normally use this
determinant form as we rarely know the angle between two vectors.
We can use the vector product to calculate the angle between two vectors, but unless
there is a good reason, we would normally use the scalar product. One possible reason

q
would be if we were asked to find the sine of the angle between the vectors.

p
q
 p
q1

p1
p1 
q1
Example
Now r  p  rp sin un̂ and r  p1  rp1 sin 90°n̂, where n̂ is a vector perpendicular
If a  i  3j  2k and b  2i  4j  k, find
to r, p and p1.
a) the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b
Also p1  p sin u and hence r  p1  rp sin un̂  r  p. The angle between r b) the sine of the angle between a and b.

Using an identical method, r  q1  r  q and r  1p1  q1 2  r  1p  q2. and p1 is 90º because i j k

this is how we set up the a) a  b  3 1 3 23
Since r is perpendicular to p1, q1 and p1  q1 we can use the distributive law that we plane in the beginning.
4
proved earlier, that is, r  1p1  q1 2  r  p1  r  q1.
2 1
 i33  182 4  j31  44  k3 142  64
Hence r  1p  q2  r  p  r  q and we have proved that the distributive law also  11i  3j  10k
holds when r is not perpendicular to p and q.
Hence the unit vector is

111i  3j  10k2  111i  3j  10k2

1 1
Vector product of vectors in component form 211  3  1102
2 2 2
2230
Let p  a1i  b1j  c1k and q  a2i  b2j  c2k
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

b) We know that a  b  ab sin un̂

Then p  q  1a1i  b1j  c1k2  1a2i  b2j  c2k2
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

 1a1a2i  i  b1b2j  j  c1c2k  k2  1a1b2i  j  b1c2j  k

˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛
1 11i  3j  10k  212  32  22 222  142 2  12

111i  3j  10k2
 c1a2k  i  b1a2j  i  c1b2k  j  a1c2i  k2 1
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

 sin u 
We need to look at what happens with various combinations of i, j and k: 2230
1
i  i  j  j  k  k  1  1  sin 0°  perpendicular vector  0 1 1  214221  sin u 
2230
For the others the answer will always be 2230 230 115
1 sin u   
p 214221 B 294 B 147
1  1  sin  perpendicular vector  perpendicular vector
2
From the definition of the unit vectors the perpendicular vector to i and j is k, to j and k
is i, and to i and k is j. The only issue is whether it is positive or negative, and this can be
determined by the “right-hand screw rule”. A list of results is shown below.
Example
ijk j  i  k
A, B and C are the points (2, 5, 6), (3, 8, 9), and (1, 1, 0) respectively. Find the
jki k  j  i unit vector that is perpendicular to the plane ABC.
¡ ¡
kij i  k  j The plane ABC must contain the vectors AB and BC . Hence we need a
vector perpendicular to two other vectors. This is the definition of the cross
Hence p  q  a1b2k  b1c2i  c1a2j  b1a2k  c1b2i  a1c2j
˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛ ˛

product.
 1b1c2  c1b2 2i  1c1a2  a1c2 2j  1a1b2  b1a2 2k 32 1 13 2
¡ ¡

 1b1c2  c1b2 2i  1a1c2  c1a2 2j  1a1b2  b1a2 2k

Now AB  £8  5≥  £3≥ and BC  £1  8≥  £7≥
96 3 09 9
This can be written as a determinant:
Therefore the required vector is
i j k
i j k ¡ ¡
AB  BC  3 1 3 3 3
p  q  3 a1 b1 c1 3
2 7 9
a2 b2 c2

330 331
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

 i3 1272  1212 4  j3 192  162 4  k3 172  162 4 Area of a parallelogram

 6i  3j  k
B C
Hence the unit vector is
h
16i  3j  k2  16i  3j  k2
1 1

2162 2  32  112 2 246 A D

The area of a parallelogram  base  height

 AD  h
 1AD 2 1AB sin u 2
Example ¡ ¡
 AD  AB 
2 6 4
If a  £ 3 ≥, b  £3≥ and c  £ 3 ≥, find c # a  b. The area of a parallelogram is the magnitude of the vector product of two
1 2 1 adjacent sides.
In an example like this it is important to remember that we have to do the vector
product first, because if we calculated the scalar product first we would end up
trying to find the vector product of a scalar and a vector, which is not possible.
i j k Example
a  b  32 3 1 3 Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD where A has coordinates
6 3 2 12, 3, 12, B 13, 2, 12, C 11, 0, 42 and D (3, 0, 1).
 i36  34  j34  162 4  k3 162  184
˛ ˛

We first need to find the vectors representing a pair of adjacent sides.

3 3 2 1 3 2 1
¡ ¡
 £10≥ AB  £2≥  £ 3 ≥  £5≥ and AD  £0≥  £ 3 ≥  £3≥
24 1 1 0 1 1 2
4 3 i j k
¡ ¡
Therefore c # a  b  £ 3 ≥ # £10≥  12  30  24  6 Now AB  AD  3 1 5 0 3
1 24 1 3 2
 i3 1102  04  j32  04  k3 132  152 4
 10i  2j  2k
Now the area of the parallelogram ABCD is
Example
 AD  AB   21102 2  122 2  22  2108 units2
¡ ¡

Show that 1a  b2  1a  b2  2b  a.
Consider the left-hand side.
1a  b2  1a  b2  1a  a2  1b  a2  1a  b2  1b  b2
Area of a triangle
Now a  a  b  b  0
Hence 1a  b2  1a  b2  1b  a2  1a  b2 B

Now we know a  b and b  a are the same in magnitude but in opposite

directions. h
Therefore 1a  b2  1a  b2  2b  a

A C

The area of triangle ABC  2 base  height

1

 12 1AC 2 1h2

Application of vector product
 12 1AC 2 1AB sin u 2
We will see that a very important use of vector products is in the representation of planes,
¡ ¡
which will be dealt with in Chapter 13. However, there are two other applications that are  12AC  AB 
useful to know.

The area of a triangle is half the magnitude of the vector product of two sides.

332 333
12 Vector Techniques 12 Vector Techniques

This is consistent with the idea that the area of a triangle is half the area of a parallelogram. 9 P, Q and R are the points (0, 0, 3), (3, 4, 6) and 10, 1, 02 respectively. Find
the unit vector that is perpendicular to the plane PQR.
10 Two sides of a triangle are represented by the vectors 1i  j  k2 and
Example 15i  2j  2k2. Find the area of the triangle.

Find the area of the triangle ABC with coordinates A 11, 3, 12, B 12, 1, 42 11 Relative to the origin the points A, B and C have position vectors
and C 14, 3, 32.
˛ ˛

0 2 4
¡ ¡
We begin by finding AB and BC . £ 1 ≥, £2≥ and £1≥ respectively. Find the area of the triangle ABC.
2  1 3 4  122 6 2 1 3
¡ ¡
Now AB  £ 1  3 ≥  £2≥ and BC  £ 3  1 ≥  £2≥ 12 The triangle ABC has its vertices at the points A (0, 1, 2), B (0, 0, 1) and
4  112 3 3  142 1 C (2, 6, 3). Find the area of the triangle ABC.
i j k ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
¡ ¡ 13 Given that AB  i  4j, AC  3i  j  2k, AP  2 AB and AQ  4 AC ,
Hence AB  BC  3 3 2 3 3
6 2 1 find the area of triangle APQ.
14 A parallelogram OABC has one vertex O at the origin and the vertices A
 i3 122  162 4  j3 132  1182 4  k3 162  1122 4 and B at the points (3, 4, 0) and (0, 5, 5) respectively. Find the area of the
 4i  15j  6k parallelogram OABC.
15 A parallelogram PQRS has vertices at P 10, 2, 12, Q 12, 3, 72 and
Now the area of triangle ABC is
R 11, 0, 42. Find the area of the parallelogram PQRS.
˛ ˛

2277
 AB  BC   242  1152 2  62 
1 ¡ ¡ 1 ¡
units2 16 A parallelogram PQRS is such that PX  5i  j  2k and
2 2 2 ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
PY  3i  7j  k, where PQ  5 PX and Y is the midpoint of PS .
¡ ¡
Find the vectors representing the sides PQ and PS and hence calculate
the area of the parallelogram.
Exercise 4
1 4 3
17 If a  £6≥, b  £ 7 ≥ and c  £ 4 ≥, determine whether or not
1 If a  i  2j  3k and b  2i  4j  k, find: 0 1 1
a ab b a  1a  b2 c b  1a  b2
a  1b  c2  1a  b2  c.
d a  13a  2b2 e 12a  b2  a f 1a  2b2  12a  b2
g a # 1a  b2
18 If a  b  a  c, show that the vector c  b is parallel to a.

2 Find the value of a  b for the given modulus of a, modulus of b and angle
between the vectors a and b.
Review exercise
a a  3, b  7, u  60° b a  9, b  213, u  120°
c a  218, b  2, u  135° M
C
7
4
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷
1 The points P, Q, R, S have position vectors p, q, r, s given by
1

p  i  2k
=
0 +

3 If OPQ is a triangle with a right angle at P, show that

¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ q  1.2j  1.4k
 OP  OQ  OP # PQ . r  5i  6j  8k
4 If a  b  0, show that a  kb where k is a scalar. s  j  7k
5 Given that b  c  c  a show that a  b is parallel to c. respectively. The point X lies on PQ produced and is such that PX  5PQ,
6 If a and b are perpendicular, show that a # a  b  0 irrespective of the and the point Y is the midpoint of PR.
values of a and b. a Show that XY is perpendicular to PY.
3 4 b Find the area of the triangle PXY.
7 If a  £4≥ and b  £2≥, find c Find a vector perpendicular to the plane PQR.
3 3 d Find the cosine of the acute angle between PS and RS.
a the unit vector n̂ perpendicular to both a and b 2 1 2
b the sine of the angle u between a and b. ✗
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
2 Let a  £1≥, b  £ p ≥ and c  £4≥
8 If a  i  3j  k and b  i  2k, find 0 6 3
a the unit vector n̂ perpendicular to both a and b a Find a  b
b the sine of the angle u between a and b. b Find the value of p, given that a  b is parallel to c. [IB May 06 P1 Q11]

334 335
12 Vector Techniques

1m 1  2m
✗M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
3 The point A is given by the vector £2  m≥ and the point B by £2  2m≥,
3m 3  2m
¡ ¡
relative to O. Show that there is no value of m for which OA and OB are
perpendicular.
✗ 4 If a and b are unit vectors and u is the angle between them, express a  b in
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

terms of u. [IB May 93 P1 Q12]

✗ 5 A circle has a radius of 5 units with a centre at (3, 2). A point P on the circle
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

has coordinates (x, y). The angle that this radius makes with the horizontal is
¡
u. Give a vector expression for OP .

✗ 6 Given two non-zero

M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE

#
8
5
2
vectors a and b such that a  b  a  b, find the
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

value of a b. [IB Nov 02 P1 Q18]

✗ 7 Show
M
C
7
4
1
0
that the points A (0, 1, 3), B (5, 3, 2) and C (15, 7, 0) are collinear (that
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

is, they lie on the same line).

M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷

=
8 Find the angle between the vectors v  i  j  2k and w  2i  3j  k.
0 +

Give your answer in radians. [IB May 02 P1 Q5]

✗ 9 The
M
C
7
4
1
circle shown has centre D, and the points
M–
CE
8
5
M+
%
9
6
ON
X
–
÷

A, B and C lie on the circumference of the

0
2 3
+
=
C

circle. The radius of the circle is 1 unit.

¡ ¡ b
Given that DB  a and DC  b, show that
ACˆ B  90°. A B
D a

✗ 10 Let a be the angle between a and b, where

M
C
7
4
1
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
ON
X
–
÷

a  1cos u2i  1sin u2j, b  1sin u2 i  1cos u 2j and 0 6 u 6

=

p
0 +

. Express
4
a in terms of u. [IB Nov 00 P1 Q11]
M
C
7
4
1
0
M–
CE
8
5
2
M+
%
9
6
3
+
ON
X
–
÷

=
11 The points X and Y have coordinates (1, 2, 3) and 12, 1, 02 respectively.
¡ ¡ ¡ ¡
OA  2 OX and OB  3 OY . OABC is a parallelogram.
a Find the coordinates of A, B and C.
b Find the area of the parallelogram OABC.
¡ ¡
c Find the position vector of the point of intersection of OB and AC .
¡ ¡
d The point E has position vector k. Find the angle between AE and BE .
e Find the area of the triangle ABE.

✗ 12 Given u  3i  2j  5k and v  i  4j  mk, and that the vector

M
C
7
M–
CE
8
M+
%
9
ON
X
–

12u  3v2 has magnitude 2265, find the value of m. [IB Nov 93 P1 Q8]
4 5 6 ÷
1 2 3
=
0 +

336