Container Handling - II

UNIT 10 CONTAINER HANDLING II

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 Containers – Stowage, Numbering, Markings, Unloading and Securing

including documentation
10.3 Technical Aspects: Container Safety and Container Vessel Damages
10.4 Legal Aspect: CSC plate and CSC code
10.5 Problems Associated with containers: Damages, Security, Jo-Jo Weights &
Stability Issues
10.6 Future Issues in Container Handling
10.7 Summary

10.1 INTRODUCTION
A fundamental part of a ship’s securing system is the container stowage arrangement. As
a cadet it is important that the parameters of a ship’s stowage and securing arrangement
should be known to you. Good practice suggests that container should be stowed with the
heaviest containers at the bottom of the stack and the lightest containers at the top. It is
not necessary to adopt this practice because of number of reasons. Loadicator is a marine
software package which capable of performing strength and stability calculations during
the loading/ unloading process of a vessel. Reduction of operational cost of ship, speed
and flexibility, increased safety during transportation, etc. are measure advantages of this
package. You must also know various steps to be taken during container loading and
unloading as described in this unit.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to
• provide necessary instructions for containers stowage arrangmenet,
• explain technical aspects related to container safety,
• describe the legal aspects of container handling and
• define problems associated with contaienr handling.

10.2 CONTAINERS – STOWAGE, NUMBERING,

MARKING, UNLOADING AND SECURING
INCLUDING DOCUMETNATION
(i) Container Stowage Arrangement
A fundamental part of a ship’s securing system is also the container stowage
arrangement. A securing system is based on a number of parameters which can have
a variable value, e.g.
- Total column weight
- Maximum tier weights
- Ship metacentric height (GM)
A change in any of these will change the forces acting upon the containers and
their securing arrangements. Therefore, it is important that the parameters of a
ship’s stowage and securing arrangement are known.
95
Environmental Good practice would suggest that containers should be stowed with the heaviest
Protection containers at the bottom of the stack and the lightest containers at the top.
However, this may not happen in practice for a number of reasons, e.g.
• Loading light containers at the bottom of the stow to reduce the ship’s
stability (GM)
• Commercial considerations.
With the high cost of restoring containers at some terminals, the operators may
look to reduce costs by stowing in port of discharge rotation. This can lead to
container weights varying throughout the stow
There is no theoretical objection to a heavier container over stowing a lighter one
as long as the resultant forces acting upon the containers and their securing
arrangement are not exceeded.
However, it can be the case that to keep the resultant forces within acceptable
limits a reduction in the total column weight may be required to allow heavier
containers to be stowed above lighter ones.
Stacking Precautions
Operators often stack containers on piers, in transfer facilities, or in other storage
areas. Proper safety precautions are also required here to prevent accidents and
damage.
When stacking, operators should pay particular attention to the proper alignment of
top and bottom corner fittings of the containers. When putting a container on the
ground or pier in a terminal area, operators will ensure that a firm, flat, level
surface is provided so that the container can be supported by its four bottom corner
fittings. There must be no projections on the landing surface which could possibly
damage the bottom structure of the container.

Figure 10.1: Container Stacking

On larger container ships, the containers are stowed 9 - 12 high in the hold. In such
cases, the containers loaded must either be only partly full or designed to have
greater stackability.

96
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.2: Indicating Stacking Heights on a Container

Loadicator
The marine software package (loading indicator or loadicator) is capable of
performing strength and stability calculations during the loading/unloading process
of a vessel (containerships, etc), supported by user friendly graphical and print
outputs, on line messages, etc. It complies with all the relevant IMO regulations
and has already been certified by several classification societies (ABS, NKK,
Bureau Veritas, etc).
This software package includes all the standard functions of similar software
products and additionally some extra utilities, constituting the innovative aspects
of the product, which are:
(a) Autoload, automatic calculation of any loading condition based on
either the total cargo to be carried or the vessel's draft. It calculates
the distribution of the total cargo in the various cargo holds.
(b) Autosequence, calculation of the loading sequence and automatic
issuing of the relevant IMO forms.
(c) Lashing Calculation, strength calculations at the cargo support points
and at the lashings of containers
(d) Additionally some softwares load the containers in compliance with
IMDG segregation.
The main advantages of the package include the following:
• Reduction of the operational cost of the ship, as a result of the better
distribution of the load along the ship, which is associated with lower
stresses imposed on the ship, better exploitation of its loading
capacity and savings on fuel.
• Speed and flexibility during the loading/unloading process.
• Increased safety during the transportation of goods and people.
A plan is prepared as follows:
(ii) Container Numbering
Vessel Cell Numbering
Container slot positions aboard ship are expressed by three co-ordinates indicating:
Bay -- Row -- Tier
Bays
Are numbered lengthwise from bow to stern with odd numbers for 20'
containers and even numbers for 40' containers. The even number between
two 20' containers is used to define 40' bays.
Rows 97
Environmental Are numbered from centreline to portside with even numbers and from centreline
Protection to starboard with odd numbers. The container row stowed on the centreline is
marked 00.
Tiers
In under deck stows, containers are numbered vertically downwards with
even numbers from top to bottom. The bottom row will be 02, except where
as a result of the hull contour; the bottom of an adjacent row is at a higher
level. In case of two half heights the bottom ones are to be numbered by an
odd number.
On deck stowage is indicated by code key 8 followed by an even number
sequence.

Figure 10.3: Container Storage Plan – Deck 01-13

Figure 10.4: Container Storage Plan – Deck 15-25

The weight of the container is shown individually for each container and as the
combined weight of the entire tier. (Figure 10.7, 10.8).
(iii) Marking on Containers
Cargo handlers must know the actual weight of each loaded container (payload
plus tare weight).
The address markings tell where the shipment is coming from and where it is
going, also the labels must indicate if the cargo is a dangerous good. Additionally a
refrigerated container should be separately indicated.

98
The current standard which deals with the coding, identification Container Handling - II

and marking of containers is DIN EN ISO 6346, dated January

1996.

Figure 10.5: Container Markings

Container Identification Marking

The following photo shows a variant of horizontal marking which additionally
includes country, size and type codes (in accordance with the 1985 version of DIN
ISO 6346, use of which is still permitted):

Figure 10.6: Container Identification Markings.

Appropriate abbreviations are used for the various countries, here US for United
States of America, GB for Great Britain etc.
The first digit of the size code indicates the length of the container, with the
number 4 standing for a 40' container.
The second digit indicates height and whether or not a gooseneck tunnel is present.
In our example, the number 3 stands for a height of 8'6" with gooseneck tunnel.
The first digit of the type code indicates container type. Here, 1 means that the
container is a closed container with ventilation openings. The second digit of the
type code relates to special features. The 0 used here means opening at the end.

99
Environmental
Protection The corresponding data are laid out underneath. The abbreviation g.n.t. stands for gooseneck
tunnel. A differently laid out size code summary is shown below:

In the type code, the first digit (i.e. the 3rd digit overall) indicates the container type and
the second (i.e. the 4th digit overall) indicates special features. However, there is a
connection between the respective digits, which the following representation is intended
to explain:

100
 Container Handling - II

The current standard, used for this marking, is not limited to numbers but also uses letters
to make marking more precise. In addition, swap-bodies and the like are also covered by
the coding. The superordinate term for both numbers and letters is character. The
introductory country code has been discontinued.

The first character of the size code indicates the length of the receptacle:

In the example, the 4 accordingly stands for a 40' container.

The second character is the code for the height and width of the container:

The standard type code allows identification of container type and other characteristics.
Since this system is not yet complete, the standard recommends use of the group code if
special characteristics of the container type have not yet been fixed or are unknown. The
highest unassigned code character should be used as a provisional mark when it is
necessary to represent significant characteristics which are not yet included in the table.

101
Environmental
Protection

102
Container Handling - II

103
Environmental
Protection

104
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.7: Identifying Mark Plus Size and Type Codes

The container is 12,192 mm or 40' long (number 4 or 1st character of the size code). Its
height is 2895 mm or 9'6" and its width is greater than 2438 mm or 8' and is less than or
equal to 2500 mm (letter E or second character of the size code). As regards type, the
container is a general purpose container without ventilation, whose main characteristic is
that it has vents in the upper part of the cargo space (characters G1 of the type code).
The owner code and product group code are also known as the alpha prefix. The
check digit is often written in a box:
There now follows an examples of marking according to DIN EN ISO 6346, January
1996:

Figure 10.8: Markings o a Container, an example

According to the two characters 42 of the size code, the container is 12,192 mm or 40'
long, 2591 mm or 8'6" high and 2438 mm or 8' wide. The type code characters G0 state
that the container is a general purpose container without ventilation but with openings at
one or both end(s).

Also shown is the gross and tare

weights

Figure 10.9: Marking Indicating Weights

(iv) Container Unloading

When reading a container or bay stowage plan (see Figure 7-12), personnel must
do the following:
(a) Locate the port of discharge code by visually matching up the code
against the containers shown in the stowage plan. 105
Environmental
Protection

Figure 10.10: Identification of Container Codes

(b) Locate and identify containers. Using the port of discharge code, you
visually identify and account for all containers to be discharged.
This helps you to plan for a specific number of containers to be
discharged.
(c) Follow the discharge sequence; containers with the smallest number
(loaded first) must be discharged last. Always remember, first on—
last off; last on—first off.
(d) Check off each container space as the container is removed.

Figure 10.11: Reading the Bay Plan

(v) Securing of Containers

After each container has been stuffed, it should be ensured that—
106
 • The doors have been securely closed and are watertight. Container Handling - II

• A seal has been placed on the container.

• The seal number has been recorded, and the shipping documents and
the proper markings have been placed on the container.
Cargo Securing Manual
SOLAS Chapters VI and VII require a Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) for
all types of ships engaged in the carriage of cargoes other than solid and
liquid bulk cargoes.
"This Cargo Securing Manual specifies arrangements and cargo securing
devices provided on board the ship for the correct application to and the
securing of cargo units, containers, vehicles and other entities, based on
transverse, longitudinal and vertical forces which may arise during adverse
weather and sea conditions."
(a) The modern, fully cellularized containership requires no container
lashing under deck. The cell structure stops the container from
moving. An exception to this may occur in some vessels where two
20-foot containers are stowed, in tandem, in a 40-foot cell. In some
cases it may be necessary to install stacking cones at each level to
lock the containers in position. The cell guides for the 40-foot
container will hold one end of the 20-foot container, but where they
butt against each other in the middle there may not be any restraining
structure. Stacking cones or bridge fittings must be used.
(b) Most of the new ships employ a locking-type stacking cone for on-
deck stowage. The cone secures the bottom container to the deck or
hatch cover, or locks each container above to the one below. With this
system, it is normally permissible to stow containers two-high on
deck without installing deck lashings. When containers are stowed
three-high, additional cross lashings are installed from the bottom
corners of the second tier of containers with no lashings on the third
tier. When stowed four-high, additional cross lashings are installed on
the fourth tier.
Figure 10.9 illustrates two types of container lashing equipment.
The tensioners/wire assemblies use a wire lashing fitted with multiple
washers which set the proper length for tensioning. The rigid rods are
tensioned with a turnbuckle. The turnbuckles have removable
tensioning wheels, as shown.

Figure 10.12: Two Types of Container Lashing Equipment

Many vessels still use stacking cones between containers. These cones will
keep the containers from shifting from side to side but are unable to restrain
107
Environmental any lifting or tipping movement. As a result, it is necessary to lash these
Protection containers to the deck even when stowed one-high.
Figure 10-11, shows locking-type and single and double stacker-type cones.

Figure 10.13: Container Secured with Locking Device on Truck

(c) Lashing systems are constructed primarily of chain or steel rod; the latter
has become more prevalent. The steel rod system is a rigid lashing system
with no give way once it is set tight with a turnbuckle.
The rigidity permits installation by a person standing at deck level; there is
no need to climb a ladder to insert the securement hook or plug fittings, as is
the case with wire lashings. Chains are also used in container lashings, either
singly or in conjunction with wire lashings.
Tensioning devices include turnbuckles, wire tensioners, and chain
tensioners.
Figure 10.9 shows the rod lashing system for containers.
Bridge fittings are still used on some vessels, but their use has gradually
been eliminated. Bridge fittings are used on the top of the top tier of
containers to secure two adjacent containers to each other. Regardless of the
lashing system used, it is normally an integrated system designed for use on
a particular vessel and must be used in the manner prescribed.
(d) Unless other special arrangements are made, twist locks or similar devices
are used to secure all four bottom corner fittings. Figure 13-12 shows a
container secured to a truck and an example of a locking device.
(e) The proper securement of any cargo on a vessel is the responsibility of the
chief mate and the master and must be performed to their satisfaction.
However, the securement of containers has become an established procedure
on most container ships. The stress imposed on the containers, securement
points, and fittings has been calculated by engineers to ensure that all
components will withstand the loads imposed upon them under almost every
sea and weather condition encountered by the vessel. As a result, the ship's
officers need only to inspect the lashings to make certain they have been
installed properly.
(f) Container stowage follows a basic pattern. Except in the case of refrigerated
containers, the doors of containers stowed on deck should face aft.
This protects the doors from direct exposure to the weather and the sea.
While the direction of the door may be immaterial below deck, it is best to
follow a set pattern to prevent possible mistakes when on-deck loading
commences.

108
 Reefer containers usually must be stowed with the reefer unit facing aft and Container Handling - II
the doors forward, since the electrical power unit on the reefer container is
highly susceptible to water damage and short circuiting. The electrical
outlets on the vessel are usually located aft of the hatches to permit easy
access for plugging in the containers.
(g) The loading sequence code identifies the sequence in which the containers
were loaded. A most important principle for personnel to remember is first
on—last off.
Locking Arrangements, seals
When containers leave a location, their doors are sealed. The number on the seal is
a tracking mechanism for that particular container. If the seal is removed during
the container's voyage, it will be revealed when the container reaches its
destination.
CONTAINER SECURING EQUIPMENT

Figure 10.14: Stacker Cones

TWIST LOCK

Figure 10.15: Fixed Base Twist Lock Left Hand Locking

Figure 10.16: Fixed Base Twist Lock Right Hand

Locking

TWISTLOCK FOUNDATIONS

109
Environmental
Protection

Figure 10.17: Position: Preferably Located on Decks

LASHING EYES AND PROTECTION RINGS

Figure 10.18: Position: Preferably Located on Hatchcovers and Decks

INTERBRIDGE STACKING CONES

Figure 10.19: Connecting and centering between containers in athwartship direction

BRIDGE FITTINGS

Figure 10.20: Bridge Fittings

Remarks: The bridge

fittings are used for direct
connecting of
containers in transversal or
longitudinal
direction of the ship.

110
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.21: Bridge Fittings

Figure 10.22: For connecting of top and bottom corner castings at the same level, only in
transversal direction.

TURNBUCKLES

Figure 10.23: Counter parts: Lashing Plates and Eyes Lashing Bars

QUICK RELEASE LASHING

Figure 10.24: Quick Release Lashing

SECURING PADS 111

Environmental
Protection

Figure 10.25: Securing Pads

(vi) Cargo Documentation

Stow Plan/Bay Plan
Stowage Plan
Plan indicating the locations on the vessel of all the consignments.
Bay
Vertical division of a container vessel from stem to stern, used to indicate stowage
places for containers. The numbers run from stem to stern; odd numbers indicate a
20-foot position, even numbers indicate a 40-foot position.
Bay Plan
Stowage plan which shows the locations of all the containers on the vessel.
Manifest
Document which lists the specifications of goods loaded in a means of transport or
equipment for transportation purposes. As a rule cargo manifests are drawn up by
the agents in the place of loading. (Note: For shipping, a manifest represents an
accumulation of Bills of Lading for official and administrative purposes. It could
be applicable to any cargo such as reefer cargo, dangerous cargo etc.)
Dangerous Cargo Manifest and Packing List
Dangerous Goods
Goods are to be considered dangerous if the transport of such goods might cause
harm, risk, peril, or other evil to people, environment, equipment or any property
whatsoever.
Dangerous Goods Declaration
Document issued by a shipper in accordance with applicable conventions or
regulations, describing hazardous goods or materials for transport purposes, and
stating that the latter have been packed and labeled in accordance with the
provisions of the relevant conventions or regulations.
Dangerous Goods Packing Certificate
Document as part of the dangerous goods declaration in which the
responsible party declares that the cargo has been stowed in accordance with
the rules in a clean container in compliance with the IMDG regulations and
has been properly secured.

112
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.26: Correct Marking on a Container Side

According to the regulations in force since 2002, both primary and subsidiary risk
placards must carry the class numbers:

Figure 10.27: New Regulation: Primary and Subsidiary Risk Placards Bear Class Number

Reefer Temperature Logs

Reefer Cargo
Cargo requiring temperature control.
Reefer Container
Thermal container with refrigerating appliances (mechanical compressor unit,
absorption unit, etc.) to control the temperature of cargo.
A reefer temperature log is one where daily temperatures are recorded of reefer
containers.

10.3 TECHNICAL ASPECTS: CONTAINER SAFETY

AND CONTAINER VESSEL DAMAGES
(I) Container Safety
(a) Excessive Wave Loads
Container ships are often built with considerable bow-flare to accommodate
as many containers on deck as possible. Some of the smaller and medium
sized container ships have a bow form comparable to that of a sleek cruise
liner. On the other hand, these ships are usually equipped with significant
reserve power in order to compensate for extra resistance in heavy seas and
remain within the generally tight schedule.
There have been many cases where the bow structure could not withstand
the heavy impact loads from the waves and suffered considerable damage. It
is often difficult for the officers to see that the ship is being overloaded, as
no green water comes on board and containers on deck block the view of the
bow. The damage is usually not dangerous to the overall safety of the ship 113
Environmental but this certainly needs attention when considering container transportation
Protection at sea.
(b) Safety of Containers on Deck
The safety of large container ships has recently been called into question in
connection with the large number of containers carried on deck. It is true
that present freeboard regulations, which go way back in history, do not
improve the safety of modern container ships. Ships with excess freeboard,
such as the hatch-coverless open top containership design, are actually being
penalised. It is necessary that this be re-analysed and corrected.
It is not true that present large container ships are basically unsafe. Each
ship is carefully checked for its stability and the limitations − both in weight
and number for containers loaded on deck are clearly defined. The accident
of the APL China, a Post-Panamax container ship which survived a 24 hour
hurricane for one hour, even with a total black-out on board, is often cited as
an indication that we are going too far with the design of these ships.
It is well known that container ships, with their usually fine lines, can
experience heavy rolling in following seas, depending on the wave
conditions in relation to the dimensions of the ship
(c) Container transportation at high speed
Between 25 and 27 knots is the speed generally expected from large
container ships today. There have been times when the design speed of large
container ships was higher and other times when it was significantly lower.
The container ships of the third generation designed and built in the early
70's had a speed of up to 36 knots (SL-7). When bunker rates went up
following the oil crisis in the late 70's, the US-Lines Eco-Liners were built
with a service speed of only 16 knots. Unfortunately for US-Lines, bunker
rates soon fell again and the ships, meant to have an economic advantage
compared to their competitors, were obsolete.
There are indications that speed is perhaps going up to 28 knots. Fuel
consumption, however, goes up exponentially with increased speed. A 10%
increase in speed results in about a 30% increase in fuel consumption. The
question is whether the market is prepared to pay a sufficiently high
premium to justify the faster trans-ocean shipment and the higher associated
fuel costs. There are, however, several projects for considerably faster trans-
ocean shipment under consideration, with speeds of 40 knots and beyond. In
the light of the increasing pressure for speedy on-time delivery of containers
the probability that these fast super container carriers will become reality is
high.
Fast craft will certainly need specialized terminal facilities to permit the
rapid loading and discharging of cargo. Turnaround time and reliability of
the entire system will become even more important than for conventional
container ships. Note that for the above-mentioned example, a one-hour time
loss in port would require a four-knot increase in transit speed to meet the
scheduled arrival time.
(d) Safety of Container Ships
Compared, to bulk carriers or general cargo ships, so far container ships
have a very good safety record. Apart from collisions or groundings caused
by operational errors, very few container ships have suffered serious damage
or have been lost at sea. Particularly for big vessels, very few cases of major
damage have been observed.
MS Carlo was, in fact, the first container vessel to break in two in the winter
storms of 1997/98. This unintended full-scale experiment demonstrated that
these ships with high freeboard and closely spaced watertight transverse
114
 bulkheads are intrinsically safe: both parts of the ship remained afloat and Container Handling - II
were salvaged after the storm. There are other risks for container ships such
as excessive wave loads, loss of containers at sea, a lack of dynamic stability
and the danger of fire in containers.
(e) Twistlocks − A Hurdle to Ship/Shore Interface
Container stowage on deck has come into focus worldwide regarding two
aspects. One is the fact that a number of ships have got into trouble in heavy
weather with extensive and costly damage to the containers carried on deck.
An increasing number of containers are lost and apart from the associated
material loss, floating containers pose a risk to small and medium-sized
vessels. Another aspect is the risk associated with container securing in port.
Containers are stacked on top of each other, up to 7 high on deck, connected
by twist-locks of differing designs. Securing and releasing the upper layers
in particular requires dockworkers to climb about at heights up to 15 metres
above deck. As loading and unloading takes place around the clock in
efficient ports this so-called coning and de-coning has to be done under all
circumstances.
There is no doubt that "container top safety" must be considered a very
important issue. The other aspect is that wherever there is a higher risk of an
accident occurring and particular care and preventive measures are taken,
the speed of the process will be decreased. A number of measures have been
proposed or introduced to reduce or eliminate the risk to dock workers
associated with securing of containers on deck. This includes a lifeline
connecting the dock worker to the spreader, the use of safety flats, where
dock workers are seated in the safety flat moved over the container stacks by
the gantry crane, semiautomatic or automatic twistlocks or, as mentioned
above, the design of hatch-coveriess container ships.
The use of lifelines or safety flats seriously hampers the loading/unloading
process and decreases productivity of the gantry cranes. Hatch-coverless
container vessels equipped with overhead cell guides, on the other hand, do
not require any lashing or securing devices at all. Such ships are, however,
punished severely by the load line conventions at present applicable. An
open top container ship needs extra freeboard and consequently gets a
significantly larger tonnage measurement than the comparable vessel
optimised for minimum tonnage. This is very unfortunate, as apart from
extra freeboard being connected with extra ship safety, this design would in
practice eliminate the problems of coning and de-coning just addressed.
(f) Fires in Containers
There is serious concern that incorrect safety advice from shippers to ship
owners and operators may be putting vessels at risk. Container ships have
been hit by a series of fires and several ships and their cargoes have been
seriously damaged. Most of the fires experienced in recent years have been
associated with the chemical calcium hypo chlorite in its hydrated form,
used amongst other things for the sterilisation of swimming pools. It was
known that this chemical is self-igniting when stored in large quantities and
exposed to high temperatures. Recent research suggests that the critical
temperature for a 20-foot container loaded with the typical 40 kg bags is
likely to be below 45 degrees Celsius, whereas the IMO recommendation
stipulates 55 degrees for longer than 24 hours. For larger quantities stored in
200 kg drums, the critical temperature is even lower.
There are several places on a containership where the temperature may go
up beyond 45 degrees, such as in holds near heated fuel tanks or adjacent to
the engine room. Containers on deck may simply be heated up by direct
sunlight or any other heat source. Warnings have been issued to shipowners
and operators. With the time pressure prevalent in container shipping today 115
Environmental it appears to be common practice that the ship operators when the ship is
Protection already back at sea and nothing only receive the information on the actual
contents of containers can be done by the crew.
Is the desire for bigger and faster container ships compromising cargo
safety? The past has shown that container ships are intrinsically very safe.
There is no indication that cargo safety is compromised with bigger ships.
Of course, if something goes wrong, which cannot be completely excluded,
damage may be more extensive with a larger ship. The probability of
something going wrong may be expected to decrease with the size of the
vessels rather than increase. There is no doubt that we need further
development regarding the stowage of containers on deck. Open top
container ships with extra freeboard are safer in this respect, but they are
being punished by present day tonnage measurement and port, pilot and
canal dues based on these antiquated measurements.

10.4 LEGAL ASPECT: CSC PLATE AND CSC CODE

Every container must have a Container Safety Certificate (CSC) issued by the
manufacturer and this must be renewed every 30 months after inspection by a competent
inspector. An approved continuous examination programme (ACEP) can be agreed as
substitute for this procedure and the ACEP number is stamped on the CSC plate.
The technical requirements placed on containers are enshrined in the respective standards
and in the "International Convention for Safe Containers" or CSC.
The aim of the Convention is to achieve the highest possible level of safety of human life
in the handling, stacking and transporting of containers. The Convention applies to all
containers used for international transport, except containers developed especially for air
travel.
The Convention specifies precise requirements which individual components must meet.
Annex II of the CSC gives examples of structural safety requirements and tests.
Every contracting state must ensure that effective procedures are put in place to enforce
the regulations in Annex I of the Convention. This Annex sets out regulations for the
testing, inspection, approval and maintenance of containers. However, the text of the
Convention does allow duly authorized organizations to be entrusted with all these tasks,
other than maintenance. In many countries, the national classification societies are
entrusted with these tasks, e.g. Germanischer Lloyd in Germany.
A Safety Approval Plate must be permanently affixed to every container at a readily
visible place, where it cannot be easily damaged.
Annex I to the International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) sets out regulations
for the testing, inspection, approval and maintenance of containers. Regulation 1 deals
with the Safety Approval Plate. Point 1 makes the following statements:
The Plate shall contain the following information in at least the English or French
language:
• "CSC SAFETY APPROVAL"
• Country of approval and approval reference
• Date (month and year) of manufacture
• Manufacturer's identification number of the container or, in the case of
existing containers for which that number is unknown, the number allotted
by the Administration
• Maximum operating gross weight (kilograms and lbs)
• Allowable stacking weight for 1.8 g (kilograms and lbs)

116 • Transverse racking test load value

The Safety Approval Plate ... shall take the form of a permanent, non-corrosive, fire- Container Handling - II
proof rectangular plate measuring not less than 200 mm by 100 mm. The words "CSC
Safety Approval" of a minimum letter height of 8 mm and all other words and numbers
of a minimum height of 5 mm shall be stamped into, embossed on or indicated on its
surface in any other permanent and legible way.

Figure 10.28 : In the Case of Box Containers, the Test Plate is Generally Affixed to The
Left Door Leaf

Figure 10.29: CSC plate

Figure 10.30: A Plate Showing approval for Transport under Customs Seal

10.5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH

CONTAINERS: DAMAGES, SECURITY, JO-JO
WEIGHTS AND STABILITY ISSUES
General Container Problems
It can no doubt be appreciated that most containers come in for some fairly rough
117
treatment and this can lead to metal fatigue. This exacerbated of maximum gross
Environmental weights are exceeded or loads inadequately distributed lead to dents scrapes and
Protection even punctures. With extensive exposure to the elements in a salty environment
such weakening can be accelerated by corrosion.
Most damage is caused during handling. Using cranes in excessive wind
conditions or with too great a speed of operation often leads to contact with other
objects.
Many containers are fitted with forklift truck pockets, and such forks have a nasty
habit of causing damage.
Improper stowage and securing (of the container and its contents) can also cause
damage, as can a wave impact and the leakage of corrosive contents.
The integrity of the space within the container may be compromised by structural
weakening, and this may be particularly critical for tank and reefer containers. As
with ships holds, weather tightness is a common problem, and doors, hatches and
other openings have been known to permit ingress because seals/gaskets are in
poor condition, or are not giving a good seal because of the presence of dirt or
distortion of the door/hatch. Securing levers, which act to keep the door/hatch
pressed against the seals, are also frequently found to be defective
(i) Container Damage
Common types of container damage are listed below.
Racking
Is the twisting of the structural shell of the container due to static or
dynamic forces and is commonly associated with movements in a
seaway. The standard ISO container-racking limit is nominally 15
tonnes. To counter these forces, diagonal lashings may be applied in
accordance with the vessel's lashing system. In high stacks, the lower
container is subject to the greatest racking forces and the lashing
systems must be designed to take this into account.

Figure 10.31: Below an Example of Wave Damage

Toppling
Can occur when containers are subjected to extreme rolling motions
aboard ship or standing in a stack, exposed to high winds. Counter
measures are twist locks and lashings.

118
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.32: Containers Falling Overboard from a Container Ship

Container Collapse (Corner-Post Compression)

Results from exceeding allowable loads on the container corner posts
and can be avoided by staying within weights limits of the container.
Where lashings are applied aboard ship, avoid over tensioning of
lashings.

Figure 10.33: above an Extreme Example of Container damage

Local Structural Failure

Is the separation of structural components of a container such as side-
wall separation from top and bottom rails and separation of the corner
castings from
the side rails?

119
Environmental
Protection

Figure 10.34: Damaged End Wall, Caused by a Badly Packed and Unsecured Cargo

Holes in Containers
Holes in containers are the most common kinds of damage. Lifting
spreaders indenting the roof when locating corner castings and
twistlocks and lashing gear being thrown down on top often causes
roof damage. Holes in container walls can be caused by fork-lift
trucks, collision with other containers or lifting devices. Holes in
containers can be easily detected by interior inspection with the doors
closed and noting any light entering the container. This can also
reveal faulty door seal gaskets and is extremely important check to be
made.
Interior Contamination
Container floors become seriously contaminated by cargoes such as
wet hides which can cause tainting to future cargoes. Cargoes such as
naphthalene and cloves can also strip interior paintwork.
It is clear from the above that a sound system of container inspection
and maintenance is essential. Hand in hand with such a system is
proper documentation.
(ii) Container Security
Pilferage and stowaways may compromise integrity and this is where proper
sealing comes to the fore. Seals should be checked when a container is received
into and from the carriers care and at intervals in between. If seals are found
broken an interior inspection should be conducted, and if all appears in order, re-
sealing will be necessary. If contents appear to be missing or damaged, this should
be reported, as it may be necessary to appoint a surveyor. Sealing is also important
in terms of fraud, which is becoming an increasing problem for containers.
However, more than 99% of the estimated 15-million containers in use today have
a built-in design defect that will allow a thief, smuggler, or terrorist to breach the
container without ever even touching the seal. Therefore, through no fault of their
own, most conventional seals cannot prevent such a covert method of break-in.
With new seals that are both a container seal and lock, if the lock is broken, the
seal will be removed. At the next stop, the container will be checked, and the
break-in will be detected.

120
 Container Handling - II

Figure 10.35: Sea lock

A new type of seal called Sealock, guarantees the reliability of their product.
There is an International Seal Manufacturers Association (ISMA) to which many
members are affiliated. ISMA is a non-profit, independent association of the most
prominent security seal manufacturers whose members provide over 80% of the
world's supply of high security freight container barrier seals.
The Sealock is both a container seal and lock. By affixing to the container's keeper
bars, the Sealock prevents the doors from swinging open and can only be removed
using an angle grinder, reciprocal saw, acetylene torch, or other similarly strong
power tool. Moreover, because it is a complete sealing and locking system,
removing the Sealock means that the container's all-important seal must also be
removed during an attempted break-in. The payoff: making containers tamper-
proof.
Theft
Security companies may be used to avoid theft. An appropriate security
company should be selected depending on whether the transport operations
are national or international. Well-known security service providers carry
out a pre-transport analysis to identify and eliminate any organizational
weaknesses. Particularly valuable cargoes, such as IT products, computers,
computer chips etc. are additionally guarded or accompanied.
Particular attention must be paid to how the container doors are secured, for
example with locks and seals; e.g. seals may in the shipping company's
colors or high security locks may be used.
There is only very limited scope for the use of container locks due to the
customs issues which arise when crossing borders. Container locks are used
for domestic transport operations and for the transport of customs-cleared
containers within and outside Europe.
“Heavy duty” seals are disposable seals which are recommended for
maritime transport.
Bar locks, which lock the container door locking bars together, are also used
for valuable cargoes.
Devices are also welded onto the container doors for locking the container's
locking bolts or bars.
Other professionals use wire cable clamps instead of a lock. Once the wire
cable clamp has been fastened to the door bolts, the threads or bolts are
damaged in such a way that they can only be removed with a heavy duty
cutter/angle grinder.
Padlocks may be more successfully used if they are enclosed in narrow
metal tubes shrouding the locks. In this way, neither bolt cutters nor angle
grinders can be used to attack the lock without first destroying the metal
tubes.
To summarize: As levels of criminality rise, it may be assumed that there
will be ever increasing demand for appropriate solutions for securing
valuable container cargoes. Selecting a properly qualified logistics service
provider is essential to ensuring secure transport.
(iii) Jo-Jo Weights and Stability Issues
A final problem worth mentioning is the shipper’s declaration of contents and
weight. 121
Environmental The description of contents can cause problems, particularly if the cargo is
Protection dangerous or a threat to the environment. In cases of fire or loss overboard or
salvage, the timely availability of correct and sufficiently detailed information is
essential.
As to weight it has been noted that shippers may occasionally declare lower
figures, presumably as a means of minimising taxes and dues. This may create
problems in terms of vessel stability and container stowage and securing, and may
result in transport weight restrictions. Moreover the stability of the vessel is
compromised due to carrying excessive weights leading to a reduced stability (loss
of GM).
To sum up, it can be seen that, whilst containers have revolutionised shipping and
brought several benefits they have also created a fair share of problems.

10.6 FUTURE ISSUES IN CONTAINER HANDLING

The container shipping market is increasing at 8 per cent per annum and this is expected
to continue, at least for the next decade. As a result, anyone who has goods to be shipped
tries to send them by container.
The development of container ships is progressing steadily, always close to the limits of
the technically feasible. An extensive 8,000 TEU container ship design project by a
German consortium under the leadership of HDW was completed at the end of 1997. The
results showed that it is indeed possible to cope with the structural problems of a ship of
that size or even beyond. On the basis of the strong interest from container ship operators
in Europe Asia for large ships, a conceptual design for a single-engined 9,200 TEU
containership has been prepared by Germanischer Lloyd.
The trend towards larger ships has accelerated in recent years and can be observed in the
increasing size of line haul as well as feeder vessels. Post-Panamax ships today have a
carrying capacity of up to and above 7,000 TEU and ships with over 9,000 TEU are on
the drawing board. This tendency towards larger ships is supported by a continuing
healthy growth in container volume on practically all major trade routes of the world. It
has even been predicted that at some point, container ships will be constrained in size
only by the Straits of Malacca, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. Such a ship
would be as long as one-quarter of a mile, and 190 feet wide.
One of the main aspects of container shipping is just-in-time delivery. This is the
background for the continuing trend towards higher speed and more reserve power to
maintain speed even in rough weather. The employment of fast container ships for short
sea container transport and for special services across the oceans is gaining acceptance.
The world container fleet shows the fastest growth of any ship type. Today, the fleet of
2,600 fully cellular container ships with a total of 53 million GT accounts for nearly 10%
of the world merchant fleet tonnage. Only five years ago this share was at around 5%.
Today, roughly 70% of general cargo is already containerized. It is expected that this
figure will continue to grow to more than 90% by 2010.
Today, approximately 90% of cargo moves by containers stacked on transport ships. 26%
of all containers originate from China. As of 2005 some 18 million containers make over
200 million trips per year, there are ships that can carry over 6,000 TEU, and designers
are working on freighters capable of 13,000 TEU.
The standard box has proven itself an unbeatable system for fast and cost-efficient
transportation.
SAQ 1
(a) How are containers stowed? What precautions are required to be taken for
stowage?
(b) Describe the method of container identification on board a ship.
122
 (c) What are container markings and how are they helpful? Container Handling - II

(d) What all precautions are required for container securing?

(e) What are the various types of lashing equipment?
(f) How is security of high value goods ensured in containers? Name the recent
advance in the area of container sealing?
(g) Name any one type of container problem and state remedial measure that
can be adopted to prevent its occurrence?
(h) What are Jo-Jo weights? How does this affect the container vessels?
(i) How are dangerous goods transported by containers? What are the
precautions that need to be followed?
(j) What information is contained on the CSC plate?

10.7 SUMMARY
Container stowage plan, container marking, and regulatory CSC certificate help us in
handling, loading and unloading of containers in an efficient and secure way. Containers
are identified for their country of origin and destination, their size and type. Various
computer softwares are also available that help in calculation of loads and distribution of
cargo in various cargo hold areas considering ship stability issues. Cargo Securing
Manual prescribes cargo securing devices on board a ship. Various cargo documents
include stowage plan, manifests declaring dangerous goods etc. Various problems
associated with containers that you may face while handling containers have been briefly
explained in this Unit.

Note: Some of the pictures/images used in this Unit have been sourced from the internet.
We wish to thank the creators/publishers for the usage of their material.

123