CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Foreign Literature

According to Juniu (2006) argues that creating a learning environment that mimics real-

life conditions and settings is fundamental in assisting learners to integrate, analyse and apply

concepts of a discipline. Constructivist thinking is applied to classroom practice within a

synthesis of cognitive and social perspectives; and this serves as an intellectual anchor

(Windschitl 2002)

According to Overbay et al. (2010),Constructivism lays emphasis on the facilitation of

knowledge construction through connecting new concepts with prior belief.

According to Mayer (2003),Technology serves as a set of tools for knowledge

construction through such means as simulations, hypermedia and “problem-based learning

environments”.

According to Hattie (2009) posits that the effectiveness of engaging ICT depends on the

teaching modes, variety in classroom activities, student-centred learning, enhanced peer-learning

opportunities, teacher in-service training and teacher knowledge in ICT, teacher attitudes and

institutional factors.
 According to Uribe, Klein and Sullivan (2003), Computer‐supported and constructivist-

inclined collaborative learning has shown positive effects on students’ performance in solving

problem‐based tasks.

According to Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) state that students are not mere learners or

inquirers; they are members of knowledge building community. In social constructivists'

perspective, classroom teaching is supported and facilitated by technology especially the

telecommunication tools (Mumtaz, 2006). These tools provide student with opportunities for

interactivity, a process of social learning. In this regard, Vygotsky believes that, "the classroom

should provide variety of learning materials (including electronic) and experiences and the

classroom culture provides the child with cognitive tools such as language, cultural history, and

social context.

According to Reeves and Jonassen, (1996), The use of ICT in educational settings, by

itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. ICTs by their very nature are tools that

encourage and support independent learning. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become

immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information

sources and cognitive tools, the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn

will continue to increase.

According to Goktas et. al,(2008),The emergence of ICTs as learning technologies has coincided

with a growing awareness and recognition of alternative theories for learning. The theories of

learning that hold the greatest sway today are those based on constructivist principles.

According to Goktas et. al (2008),Existing studies indicate that traditional methods of

teaching ICT, such as lectures are not an effective way ocf learners to acquire ICT competencies
or to gain more positive ICT perception.Instead, learners should interact with new information in

ways that enable active inquiry to facilitate meaningful learning.

According to Bransford et al.(2002), several studies have reviewed the literature on ICT

and learning and have concluded that it has great potential to enhance student achievement and

teacher learning.

According to Becta (2003, p. 10), five factors influence the likelihood that good ICT

learning opportunities will develop in schools: ICT resourcing ICT leadership, ICT teaching

school leadership, and general teaching.

Additionally Gillespie (2006), new technologies can be used in primary science education

to enable students to collect science information and interact with resources, such as images and

videos, and to encourage communication and collaboration

According to Zorillo (2002).Constructivist learning explains what must be learned by

students through the lesson of social science in two terms of readiness. All students want to

connect new information with their knowledge and to use physical and technical competence in

all activities.

Similarly to Kim (2005)The difficulty and challenge confronting classroom

professsionals is that the reform strategies in curriculum, instruction and assessment organized

around the theory of “constructivism” are informed by different assumptions and beliefs about

the nature of knowledge and about the human capacity to learn than are traditional classroom

practices).

According to Pritchard and Woollard (2010),He further argued that learning is a social

construction which means we make meaning of knowledge only through interaction with others.
Moreover, constructivists believe that knowledge can be created and recreated which demands

active involvement of the learners to discover new knowledge.

According to Piaget, (1972)Personal constructivism is based on Piaget’s work that

emphasizes learning on individual basis depending upon individual needs. This is considered as

the expansion of Piaget’s model of cognitive structures.

 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

According to Driscoll (2000), constructivism learning theory is a philosophy which

enhances students’ logical and conceptual growth. The underlying concept within the

constructivism learning theory is the role which experiences-or connections with the adjoining

atmosphere-play in student education. The constructivism learning theory argues that people

produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences. Two of the key concepts

within the constructivism learning theory which create the construction of an individual's new

knowledge are accommodation and assimilation. Assimilating causes an individual to

incorporate new experiences into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new

outlooks, rethink what were once misunderstandings, and evaluate what is important, ultimately

altering their perceptions. Accommodation, on the other hand, is reframing the world and new

experiences into the mental capacity already present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in

which the world operates. When things do not operate within that context, they must

accommodate and reframing the expectations with the outcomes.

Another study of Chaudhary (2018) that contemporary settings are now favouring

curricula that promote competency and performance. The moves to competency and

performance-based curricula are well supported and encouraged by emerging instructional

technologies. For many years, teachers wishing to adopt such curricula have been limited by

their resources and tools but with the proliferation and widespread availability of contemporary

ICTs, many restrictions and impediments of the past have been removed. And new technologies

will continue to drive these forms of learning further. As students and teachers gain access to

higher bandwidths, more direct forms of communication and access to sharable resources, the

capability to support these quality learning settings will continue to grow. Another way in which
emerging ICTs are impacting on the content of education curricula stems from the ways in which

ICTs are dominating so much of contemporary life and work. Already there has emerged a need

for educational institutions to ensure that graduates are able to display appropriate levels of

information literacy, “the capacity to identify and issue and then to identify, locate and evaluate

relevant information in order to engage with it or to solve a problem arising from it”

(McCausland, Wache & Berk, 1999, p.2). The drive to promote such developments stems from

general moves among institutions to ensure their graduates demonstrate not only skills and

knowledge in their subject domains but also general attributes and generic skills.

In addition Jong (2015) stated that the effects of a constructivist approach on academic

achievement, self-concept and learning strategies, and student preference were investigated. The

76 six graders were divided into two groups. The experimental group was taught using the

constructivist approach while the control group was taught using the traditional approach. A total

of 40 hours over nine weeks was used to implement the experiment. The instruments used were

as follows; mathematics tests administered by the teacher, self-concept inventory, learning

strategies inventory, and a classroom environment survey. The results are 1) constructivist

teaching is more effective than traditional teaching in terms of academic achievement; 2)

constructivist teaching is not effective in relation to self-concept and learning strategy, but had

some effect upon motivation, anxiety towards learning and self-monitoring; 3) a constructivist

environment was preferred to a traditional classroom.

In the other hand, without both good technical support in the classroom and whole-school

resources, teachers cannot be expected to overcome the barriers preventing them from using ICT

(Lewis, 2003). Pelgrum (2001) found that in the view of primary and secondary teachers, one of

the top barriers to ICT use in education was lack of technical assistance.
 In Sicilia’s study (2005), technical problems were found to be a major barrier for

teachers. These technical barriers included waiting for websites to open, failing to connect to the

Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and teachers having to work on old

computers. “Technical barriers impeded the smooth delivery of the lesson or the natural flow of

the classroom activity” (Sicilia, 2005, p. 43).

Korte and Hüsing (2007) argued that ICT support or maintenance contracts in schools

help teachers to use ICT in teaching without losing time through having to fix software and

hardware problems. The Becta (2004) report stated that “if there is a lack of technical support

available in a school, then it is likely that technical maintenance will not be carried out regularly,

resulting in a higher risk of technical breakdowns” (p. 16). Many of the respondents to Becta’s

survey (2004) indicated that technical faults might discourage them from using ICT in their

teaching because of the fear of equipment breaking down during a lesson.

Research (e.g.Caprico, 1994) indicates that better exam grades were obtained by students

taught using constructivist methodology. Supporting this finding, Saigo (1999), White (1999)

concluded that “the constructivist model has been found to slightly influence students’

achievement in a positive way”. The constructivist model is capable of getting students more

involved in learning. Kurt and Somchai (2004) in their own research study on constructivism

also found that students used for their study participated more in the classroom activities and

gained in content knowledge when a constructivist approach was used. Brad (2000), in his study,

found that students in the constructivist instruction showed higher degree of academic

achievement than students in the traditional (lecture) instruction in all conditions. In a research

study by Gatlin (1992) he found that there was no significant difference in students’ scores at the

posttest between students of the constructivist group and traditional (lecture) group. He reported
that students’ scores of those who received the constructivist approach showed a slight decrease

on the delayed posttests, while students taught using the traditional (lecture) approach showed a

greater decrease over time. Students who received the constructivist instructional approach have

a higher relation over time. It can be said that students taught by traditional (lecture) means, who

rely on memorization to pass tests, over time often do not remember much of the information

learned.
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The Figure 1 shows the Independent and Dependent Variables

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLES

 Technical Tools

 Constructivist Based-
 Technical Competence
Teaching strategy for ICT

Major Subjects
 Age

Figure 1: Research Paradigm

Figure 1 shows the Independent and Dependent Variables. The Independent variables

includes the technical tools, technical competence and age. Dependent Variables include the

constructivist based-teaching strategy for ICT Major Subjects.

Research Hypothesis

H1: The insufficiency of technical tools has an effect to the students' performance of the

constructivist-based strategy

H2: The insufficiency of technical tools has an effect to the efficiency of the constructivist-based

teaching

H3: There is a relationship between constructivist-based teaching strategy and technical

competences of selected ICT students in LU

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