Technological University of the Philippines

COLLEGE OF INSUDTRIAL EDUCATION

Professional Industrial Education Department

RESEARCH WORK #2
Seminar in Technology and Livelihood Education

DRAFTING

1. What are the different drafting tools? Enumerate and differentiate from one another.
L-scale
It is also called a triscale or L-scale and is made of wood or steel. L-scale has one arm,
which measures 12″ and the other is 24″. Basically used for drafting on brown paper to
draw perpendicular lines. L – scale is one of the basic of the pattern drafting rulers. This
ruler helps to draw accurate 90° angles and straight edges. It measures, rules, and
squares jointly.
Leg shaper
It is made of wood or plastic. Either or 24″ or 36″ lengths are available. It’s used to
measure and shape the interior part of the leg.
Tailor’s art curve
Tailor’s art curve is used to draw curves in the drafting and is made of plastic or wood.
French curve
French curve is made of transparent plastic. It helps in marking shapes of the neck,
depth of sides and garments bottom. Essential tool for perfect shaping armholes,
necklines, and collars.
Compass
It is mostly used for making a curve for umbrella cloth.
Drafting table
It’s a wooden table of 3′ height, 4′ wide and 6′ long. The surface of table should be
smooth and firm.
Milton cloth
Milton is a thick, blue coloured woolen cloth used for drafting. It is mainly used for
practising drafts by fashion students. The surface can be brushed and reused until
correct drafting is got.
Brush
A brush is used on Milton cloth to rub the mistakes during drafting.
Brown paper
Paper is used for drafting by placing on the drafting table. While using brown paper, a
grain line should be tracked.
Pencil
Pencil is used to marking on brown paper
 Rubber
Good quality rubber, which does not leave black lines, should be used.
Red and blue pencils:
These pencils are used for marking on fold (red line) and grain line (blue arrow).
Awl
A handy tool and often neglected, the awl will pierce a small hole in your pattern to
indicate the end of a dart, pocket, trim, or button hole. The awl is also handy for scoring
paper to fold, and also “walking” your measuring tape around curves for accurate
measuring.
Tracing wheel
Pointed and very sharp tracing wheel transfers marking onto a clean sheet of paper.
Tool is often used when retracing patterns or when transfer draped muslin onto paper.

2. What is lettering? How it is done?

It is the process of forming letters, numerals, and other characters used in technical
drawing.
All figures and letters on a drawing should be UNIFORM, NEAT & CAREFULLY made.
• There are two types of lettering techniques — VERTICAL letters & INCLINED letters.
• (You will use VERTICAL – UPPERCASE letters for all your paper & pencil drawings.)
• Never mix vertical and lowercase letters.
• Poor lettering detracts from a drawing.
• Ability to write good letters may be developed by continual practice.
• SPELL words correctly.
• Make letters and figures proper SIZE. Don’t make letters too prominent, yet make
them
readable.
• Letters should be between 1/8” – 1/4” high. Provide sufficient space between words …
equal to about the width of a “W”.
• Keep your forearm on the table when lettering.
• Make the letters clean-cut and dark.
• Shift, or roll, the pencil frequently to prevent wearing down in one place of the pencil.
• Draw parallel light “GUIDELINES” to help with lettering.
3. What are the composition of lettering?
Once you have learned the proper shapes and strokes required to form each
letter and numeral, you should concentrate on practicing the composition of words and
sentences. Proper spacing of letters and words does more for the appearance of a block
of lettering than the forms of the letters themselves. But this does not mean that you
should discontinue further practice of correctly forming each letter.
4. What are the different kinds of lines (Alphabet of Lines). How are they being used or
drawn?
OBJECT OR VISIBLE LINES – Thick dark line use to show outline of object, visible edges
and surfaces.
CONSTRUCTION LINE – Very light and thin line use to construct layout work.

DIMENSION LINE – Thin and dark lines use to show the size (span) of an object with a
numeric value. Usually terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.

 HIDDEN LINE – Short dash lines use to show non visible surfaces. Usually shows as
medium thickness.

CENTER LINE – Long and short dash lines. Usually indicates center of holes, circles and
arcs. Line is thin and dark.

 EXTENSION LINE – Thin and dark line use to show the starting and ending of dimension.

CUTTING PLANE LINE – Extra thick lines use to show cutaway views or plane of
projection where a section view is taken. Arrow indicates the direction of view.

SHORT AND LONG BREAK LINES –Short and long medium line use to show cutaway view
of a long section.

LEADER LINE – Medium line with arrowhead to show notes or label for size or special
information about a feature.

PHANTOM LINE – Long line followed by two short dashes use to show alternate position
of a moving part.
 SECTION LINE – Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use to show interior view of solid
areas of cutting plane line.

5. What are the methods of drawing lines?

Blind Contour Drawing
Definition: A blind contour drawing contains lines that are drawn without ever looking
at the piece of paper. This forces you to study a scene closely, observing every shape
and edge with your eyes, as your hand mimics these on paper. The aim is not to produce
a realistic artwork, but rather to strengthen the connection between eyes, hand and
brain: a reminder that, when drawing, you must first learn to see.
Blind Drawing Exercises: Blind drawing is an excellent way to start a high school Fine Art
programme. Drawing wobbly lines that bear little resemblance to the chosen object is
relaxing and stress-free. Often, a classroom bubbles with laughter at the unexpected
results. Blind drawing stretches the arms and soul; eases you into observational drawing
without fear.

A warm-up activity in which students were asked to create blind contour line drawings
of shell (teaching exemplar by the Student Art Guide). These blind drawings were
included in the first preparatory sheets submitted by CIE IGCSE Art and Design students.
Gesture Drawing / Timed Drawing / Movement Drawing
Definition: A gesture drawing is completed quickly – often in short timed durations,
such as 20, 30, 60 or 90 seconds – using fast, expressive lines. Gesture drawings capture
basic forms and proportions – the emotion and essence of a subject – without focusing
on detail. Due to their rapid completion, they are a great way to record movement and
action, as well as increase your drawing speed, confidence and intuitive mark-making
skill. Gesture drawings are best completed with smooth, easily applied mediums
(chunky graphite pencils, charcoal sticks, pastels, soft brushes dipped in Indian ink, for
example), without the use of an eraser. They are often completed on large, inexpensive
sheets of paper, where you can move your arm fluidly, be bold with mark-making, and
not worry about mistakes. As with blind drawings, gesture drawing is an ideal warm-up
activity.

Gesture Drawing Exercises: When you begin investigating your subject matter in the
initial phase of a high school Art programme, it can be helpful to make several first-hand
gestural drawings. The best of these can be selected for your final portfolio (taking
advantage of a photocopier or digital camera to reduce in size, if necessary). A small still
life scene can be depicted just as easily as a large moving form.
A gesture drawing by Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn:

This gestural drawing by Rembrandt is completed using red chalk on rough, textured
paper. With just a few expressive lines, we instantly recognise the scene: two women
teaching a child to walk.
A gestural figure drawing by Chelsea Stebar:

Completed while studying Animation, this gesture drawing captures a clothed figure.
Note the variation in line weight: light lines applied initially, with darker lines and hints
of detail all that are needed.
Continuous Line Drawing
Definition: A continuous line drawing is produced without ever lifting the drawing
instrument from the page. This means that, in addition to outlines and internal shapes,
the pencil must move back and forth across the surface of the paper, with lines doubling
back on each other, so that the drawing is one free-flowing, unbroken line. To avoid the
temptation to erase lines, it can be helpful to complete a continuous line drawing with
an ink pen, varying the line weight, as needed, to indicate perspective and areas of light
and shadow. Like the drawing methods described above, this drawing method develops
confidence and drawing speed, and encourages your eyes and hand and brain to work
together. Continuous line drawings work best with in-depth observation of your subject,
without interference from your thinking mind.
According to Smithsonian Studio Arts:
…continuous line drawing is actually a very powerful way to create a piece that is both
hard edged and fluid, representational and abstract, rational and emotional all in one.
Continuous Line Drawing Exercises: This drawing method is great for sketchbooks and
drawing from life. It can be an excellent starter activity, with drawings completed on
large, inexpensive paper that can be scanned / edited / cropped and used in other ways
within your projects.
An A Level Art sketchbook page by Lucy Feng from Hereford Sixth Form College,
Herefordshire, UK:

This beautiful sketchbook page contains several continuous line drawings, drawn from
first-hand observation.
Contour drawing
Definition: A contour drawing shows the outlines, shapes and edges of a scene, but
omits fine detail, surface texture, colour and tone (‘contour’ is French for ‘outline’).
The illusion of three-dimensional form, space and distance can be conveyed in a contour
drawing through the use of varied line-weight (darker lines in the foreground / paler
lines in the distance) and perspective.
Contour Drawing Exercises: Using line alone eliminates the challenge of applying tone,
colour and mediums; and instead focuses attention solely upon shape and proportion.
After completing warm-up activities such as blind and gesture drawings, slower, more
formal contour drawings can be an excellent way to begin more realistic representations
of your subject matter. Used intermittently throughout projects, contour drawings can
also be helpful for the student who needs to work faster.

A contour drawing by Ultima Thule:

Modern line drawings by Ultima Thule: there is a slick contrast in this drawing between
the sharp black lines and the dripping green. The application of colour to one area
creates a dramatic focal point.
Cross contour drawing
Definition: A cross contour drawing contains parallel lines that run across the surface of
an object (or radiate from a central point), such as those that appear on a topographical
map or a digital wireframe. The lines can run at any appropriate angle (sometimes at
multiple angles) and may continue across objects and into the background. Cross
contour drawings typically follow the rules of perspective, with lines drawn closer
together in the distance and further apart in the foreground. In this type of drawing, the
illusion of three-dimensional volume is created entirely with line.
Cross Contour Drawing Exercises: This is an excellent way to gain familiarity with the
volumes and three-dimensional forms in your project, producing analytical cross
contour drawings that are suitable for sketchbooks or early preparatory sheets.
Cross contour drawing of a shell by Matt Louscher:

This delicate cross contour drawing helps to communicate the bumpy surface of the
shell. Note how the shell pieces that are furthest away from the viewer are thin and
light, whereas those that are closest are darker and thicker. Note also how the direction
of the contour lines relates to the shape of object that is drawn, with lines projecting
outwards from the centre of the shell.
Cross contour hand drawings by (from left) Mathew Young, Ryan Acks and Lea Dallaglio
while studying at the San Jose State University, Department of Art and Art History:

Hands are a great subject for a cross contour line drawing exercise. Hands can create
interesting, complex, curving shapes, as in the examples above, and are readily available
for first-hand observation. Note how the density and weight of the line also helps to
communicate areas of light and shadow.
Cross contour drawings by Daniel Servin (left) and Alfred Manzano, completed while
studying AP Studio Art at Mt Eden High School in Hayward, California, USA:
These cross contour drawings were completed as part of Breadth assignments for AP
Studio Art. These drawings show clever use of line thickness, with the line-weight varying
in order to create the illusion of tone and show three-dimensional form.
A wireframe contour drawing exercise by Year 9 student Seonmin Lee from ACG Parnell
College, Auckland, New Zealand:

Contour lines can also be a great way for students to design three-dimensional forms.
These drawings were completed as part of a papier mache sculpture project, with the
contour lines representing the supporting cane structure.
Planar analysis drawing
Definition: A planar analysis drawing simplifies complex curved surfaces into flat planes,
using straight lines. This process helps students to think about the underlying structure
of objects and results in an analytical drawing, that is rather mechanical in appearance.
Planar Analysis Drawing Activity: This can be a great introductory drawing exercise,
especially if you are moving towards Cubism or abstracting scenes into geometric form.
A planar analysis portrait completed by a student of Cat Normoyle:

The symmetry and familiarity of the human face makes portraiture a great subject for
planar analysis; the task of converting complex three-dimensional form into flat
surfaces. Note the careful attention given to the nose and lips in this example.
 Wire sculpture drawings
Definition: Wire can be cut and bent into shapes with pliers to create three-dimensional
‘drawings’, often resulting in a work filled with flowing, curved lines. These wire
sculptures can be attached to a two-dimensional frame or a flat surface, hung in the air,
or be left free-standing, changing in appearance as a viewer moves around the room.
Due to their flexible nature, wire sculptures often move slightly in the wind, adding an
extra interactive element to the work.
Wire Sculpture Line Drawing Exercise: This is an excellent activity for middle school
students and for high school students, if it relates specifically to your project (and does
not interfere with postage requirements, for those who need to post work away for
assessment). Small wire experiments, using light-weight wire, can also be mounted to
sketchbook pages.
Wire sculptures completed by the students of Amy Bonner Oliveri from Allendale
Columbia School, Rochester, New York, USA:

This wire drawing exercise ‘using line to create space’ is completed by students within a
3D Art class, working over photographic portraits. Having a base image to work from
(this could also be an earlier observational drawing) makes the process of transferring
from two-dimensional to three-dimensional much easier.
Hatching, cross hatching, and other line techniques
As well as representing contours, line can also be used to apply tone (light and shadow)
to a drawing. This can be done by altering the:
 Gap between the lines
 Lightness / darkness of the line
 Thickness of the line
There are many line techniques can be used to create tone, as illustrated in the
worksheet below. Common techniques include:
 Small dashes
 Hatching (long, parallel lines on an angle)
 Cross-hatching (parallel lines at right angles)
 Stippling (dots)
 Scribbles
 Small crosses
 Small circles
The angle that these techniques are applied may remain constant within a drawing, or it
may change in response to the angle and direction of the forms. For example, cross-
hatching may flow around the surface of an object in a similar direction as cross contour
lines. These techniques are also a great way to create the illusion of texture (see our
article about observational drawings).
6. What is a pictorial drawing?
Isometric drawing
Definition – An Isometric drawing is a pictorial representation of an object in which all
three dimensions are drawn at full scale. The term isometric means “equal
measurement”.

Isometric drawing is the most commonly used method of pictorial drawing. Isometric drawings
are built on three lines, called isometric axes. One is drawn vertically and the other two with the
30° set square either side of it. An Isometric drawing is a way of presenting designs in three
dimensions (3D). They can be completed using the 30/60 set square or freehand. An Isometric
drawing is one of a family of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric
drawing, the object’s vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and
depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the horizontal. The true dimension of the object is used to
construct the drawing. These dimension can be taken from either drawings completed in
orthographic or by measuring an object. Isometric drawings or images have become the industry
standard for parts manuals, technical proposals, patent illustrations and maintenance publications
due to their use of true length and the ability for untrained people to understand. An isometric
projection results if the plane is oriented so that it makes equal angles with the three principal
planes of the object. The representation of the object seen below is an isometric drawing of a
cube.
In this drawing the three visible faces appear as equilateral parallelograms; that is, while
all of the parallel edges of the cube are projected as parallel lines, the horizontal edges
are drawn at an angle (usually 30°) from the normal horizontal axes, and the vertical
edges, which are parallel to the principal axes, appear in their true proportions.
Oblique projection
Oblique projection is probably the simplest method of producing a pictorial drawing
because surfaces are directly in front of the viewer will look very similar to the front
view in an orthogonal drawing. It is a method of drawing objects in 3 dimensions and
may be drawn at any angle although 45⁰ is generally used. It is quite a simple technique
compared to isometric or even perspective drawing. However, to draw accurately in
oblique projection traditional drawing equipment is needed. Oblique projections
illustrate the general 3 dimensional shape of the object. However only faces of the
object parallel to the plane of projection are shown at there true size and shape. In fact,
the oblique projection of these faces is the same as an orthographic front view.
Cavalier and Cabinet Projection
There are two specific forms of Oblique drawings. (Diagram 1.1) These are Cavalier and
Cabinet projection. The difference between the two is how the depth of the object is
represented. A cavalier projection is obtained when the angle between oblique
projectors and the plane of projection is 45⁰ and the rear projections are true to size.
The resulting figure appears too thick and distorted. A cabinet projection is used to
correct this deficiency. Cabinet projection is an oblique projection where the length of
the lines projecting backwards are halved. Diagram 1.1 shows a drawing of a cube.
Diagram (a) has been drawn in Cavalier and diagram (b) is in Cabinet. Click here for
Oblique drawing worksheets for your classroom.

Perspective drawings
 A Perspective drawing is one of the best types of drawings to use to provide a pictorial
representation of an object. They produce an image of an object in three dimensions
that is very similar to what the human eye sees. Perspective drawings can be in one
point, two point or three point perspective. One of the most common uses of
perspective drawing is in architecture, where it is used to provide a client, or the public,
an image that gives a good representation of how the project will look when it is built.
One point perspective is often used to represent a room on paper. As well as
architecture, perspective drawing is often used in the furniture industry to show clients
the final appearance of a piece of furniture they might commission.
Axonometric and Planometric drawing
A method of projection in which a three-dimensional object is represented by a drawing
having all axes drawn to exact scale, resulting in the optical distortion of diagonals and
curves. Axonometric (45 degree angle) or planometric (60/30 degree angles) as it is
sometimes known is a method of drawing a plan view with a third dimension. It is used
by interior designers, architects and landscape gardeners. Axonometric works by
drawing a plan view at a 45 degree angle with the depth added vertically. All lengths are
drawn as their true lengths unlike when you use oblique. This gives the impression that
you are viewing the objects from above. One advantage of axonometric is that circles
drawn on the top faces of objects can be drawn as a normal Isometric and Axonometric
Projections are fairly simple ways to approach 3D drawing.
These can be used for sketches or to draw to a predetermined scale. If a scale is used,
every part of the drawing can be measured with accuracy. Unlike perspective drawing,
lines in Isometric or Axonometric drawings do not converge. In fact they only go in 3
different directions. Vertical and 30 degrees left and right in Isometric Projections,
vertical and 45 degrees left and right in Axonometric projections. Often, Axonometric
projections may appear to be distorted but they are very useful to show as much as
possible of, for example, the inside of a room.
The same scale is used on all three axes.

7. Differentiate each: isometric drawing, oblique drawing, perspective drawing. How are
they being drawn?
Isometric drawing is a form of 3D drawing, which is set out using 30-degree angles. It is
a type of axonometric drawing so the same scale is used for every axis, resulting in a
non-distorted image.
 Oblique drawing a projective drawing of which the frontal lines are given in true
proportions and relations and all others at suitable angles other than 90 degrees
without regard to the rules of linear perspective.

Perspective drawing is a technique to create the linear illusion of depth. As objects get
further away from the viewer they appear to decrease in size at a constant rate. The box
in the sketch below appears solid and three dimensional due to the use of perspective.

8. What is an orthographic drawing? How it is being projected?

Orthographic drawing represents a three-dimensional object using several two-
dimensional views of the object. It is also known as an orthographic projection. For
example, you can see in this image the front, top and side views of an aircraft.
9. What are the different kinds of angles?
Acute Angle

An acute angle lies between 0 degree and 90 degrees, or in other words; an acute angle
is one that is less than 90 degrees. The figure above illustrates an acute angle.
Obtuse Angle

An obtuse angle is the opposite of an acute angle. It is the angle which lies between 90
degrees and 180 degrees or in other words; an obtuse angle is greater than 90 degrees
and less than 180 degrees. The figure above illustrates an obtuse angle.
Right Angle

A right angle is always equal to 90 degrees. Any angle less than 90 degrees is an acute
angle whereas any angle greater than 90 degrees is an obtuse angle. The figure above
illustrates a right angle or a 90-degree angle.
Straight Angle

A straight angle is 180 degrees when measured. The figure above illustrates a straight
angle or a 180-degree angle. You can see that it is just a straight line because the angle
between its arms is 180 degrees.

Reflex Angle
 Since this measurement is less than 90 degrees, the arms form an acute angle. But what
about the angle on the other side? What is the larger angle that is complementary to
the acute angle called? It is called a reflex angle. The image below illustrates a reflex
angle.

Any angle that has a measure which is greater than 180 degrees but less than 360
degrees (which coincides with 0 degrees) is a reflex angle.
Full Rotation
An angle equal to 360 degrees is called full rotation or full angle. It is formed when one
of the arms takes a complete rotation to form an angle.

10. What are the different kinds of triangles?

Equilateral Triangle

An equilateral triangle consists of three equal sides which means they have identical
sides as well as angles. Regardless of the length of their sides, all the angles in
equilateral triangles have a total angle of 60 degrees.
Since the angles of each side are equal, the internal angles of any triangle add up to 180
degrees and therefore, each angle is 60 degrees.
As the equilateral triangle has three equal angles, the total degrees can easily be divided
by 3. Hence, each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60 degrees, making it an acute
triangle.
In an equilateral triangle, every altitude is also a median and a bisector, every median an
altitude and a bisector, and every bisector an altitude and a median. Those who don’t
know what median, altitude, and bisector mean, here’s a concise explanation:
An altitude of a triangle is a line that passes through a vertex and meets the opposite
side making a right angle. A median in a triangle is a line segment that starts from a
vertex (a corner point of a triangle) to the center point of the opposite side.
Isosceles Triangle
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and this is why two of its angles are equal as
well. The base of the isosceles triangle is shorter in length and the other two sides are
similar in length.
By measuring either of the two angles, the third angle can be measured. It must be
noted that isosceles triangles are acute triangles as the largest angle it can have is less
than 90 degrees.
In an isosceles triangle, the altitude to the base is the perpendicular bisector of the
base; it is also the angle bisector of the vertex angle, line of symmetry of the triangle,
and the median from the apex to the base as well.
This means that the circumcenter, incenter, centroid, and orthocenter all fall on the
altitude to the base. This property makes the altitude to the base an Euler line of the
triangle as it passes through several significant triangle centers (incenter, centroid,
circumcenter, and orthocenter).
Scalene Triangle

A scalene triangle has a completely different side length with different measurements.
In other words, none of the sides of the scalene triangle are identical.
Generally, other types of triangles add up to 180 degrees but the interior angles of a
scalene triangle are different. For instance, a triangle with 40 degrees, 50 degrees, and
90 degrees angles is a scalene triangle as each angle is different from one another.
However, a triangle with 40 degrees, 40 degrees, and 90 degrees cannot be considered
as a scalene triangle since two out of the three angles are same. Due to this main
property, scalene triangles are different from the above two types of triangles.

Right Triangle
 Also known as the right-angled triangle, this type of triangle has one of its interior
angles at 90 degrees. It is a common type of triangle that appears prominently in various
branches of math such as trigonometry as it includes the study of the properties of right
triangles and the Pythagoras theorem which deals with the relationship between all the
three sides of a right triangle.
One of the constant attributes of a right triangle is that the opposite side of the right
angle is always the longest side; this longest side is called “hypotenuse”. The other two
sides, that aren’t hypotenuse, make up the right angle.
A right triangle can also be an isosceles if two of the three angles are identical in length.
However, a right triangle can never be equilateral since the opposite side of the right
angle is longer than the other two sides.
Oblique Triangle
Oblique triangles are further divided into two types:
Acute Triangle

As an acute angle is an angle that is less than 90 degrees; similarly, an acute triangle is a
triangle that has three angles that are smaller than 90 degrees. The question that arises
is how can one tell if a triangle is an acute triangle? Measure all the three angles and if
they are less than the right angle i.e., 90 degrees, then it is an acute triangle.
There are other types of triangles that can also come under the acute triangle. You can
find that out by reading the definition of the acute triangle. However, there are other
ways to find out whether a triangle is an acute triangle or not.
As we all know that the sum of a triangle is 180 degree. Therefore, two angles of an
acute triangle have to be identical while the third angle is different. For instance, if the
two angles of an acute angle are 50 degrees each and the third degree is an 80. This
way, the total angle of the triangle is 180 degrees.

Obtuse Triangle
 An obtuse triangle is the type of triangle that has an angle greater than 90 degrees. This
means that the other two angles have to be less than 90 degrees so that they add up to
180 degrees in total.
The longest side of an obtuse triangle is always opposite the obtuse angle vertex. An
obtuse triangle can either be an isosceles or scalene. To find an area of a triangle, ½ the
length of the base is multiplied by its height. In order to find out the height of an obtuse
triangle, you will need to draw a line from the outside of a triangle all the way to its
base.

11. What are the other geometric figures?

Square
A square is a four-sided figure which is created by connecting 4 line segments. The line
segments in the square are all of the equal lengths and they come together to form 4
right angles.

Circle
On the other hand, a circle which is another shape of geometry has no straight lines. It is
rather a combination of curves that are all connected. In a circle, there are no angles to
be found.

Rectangle
Similar to a square, a rectangle is also created by connecting four line segments.
However, the only difference between a square and a rectangle is that in a rectangle,
there are two line segments which are longer than the other two line segments.

Triangle
Triangle comprises three connected line segments. Unlike, a rectangle or a square, in a
triangle, the angles can be of distinct measurements. They aren’t always the right
angles. Triangles are named, depending upon the type of angles which is found within
the triangle itself. For instance, if a triangle has one right angle, it will be known as a
right-angled triangle.

Polygon
Another in the geometric shapes that you need to know about is a polygon. A polygon is
made up of only lines and has no curves. It may not have any open parts. In this case, a
polygon is basically a broader term to several shapes such as a square, triangle, and a
rectangle.

Parallelogram
 A parallelogram is another in the geometric shapes in which the opposite side of the
shape are parallel. To be able to examine, if the sides are parallel or not, you’ll have to
closely examine the shape. The key property of a parallelogram is that parallel lines
never cross or intersect each other, no matter how long you extend them. So, if you go
on extending the lines through eternity and they never intersect each other, then they
can be called a parallelogram.

12. What are the classification of polygon according to the number of sides?

Internal
Angle
Number of Number of (regular
Name Image sides diagonals polygon)

Triangle 3 0 60º

Quadrilateral 4 2 90º

Pentagon 5 5 108º
 Internal
Angle
Number of Number of (regular
Name Image sides diagonals polygon)

Hexagon 6 9 120º

Septagon 7 14 128,6º

Octagon 8 20 135º

Nonagon 9 27 140º
 Internal
Angle
Number of Number of (regular
Name Image sides diagonals polygon)

Decagon 10 35 144º

Hendecagon 11 44 147,3º

Dodecagon 12 54 150º

Tridecagon 13 65 152,3º
 Internal
Angle
Number of Number of (regular
Name Image sides diagonals polygon)

Tetradecago
14 77 154,3º
n

13. What are the different kinds of graphs? When/where they are used?
Line Graphs
A line chart graphically displays data that changes continuously over time. Each line
graph consists of points that connect data to show a trend (continuous change). Line
graphs have an x-axis and a y-axis. In the most cases, time is distributed on the
horizontal axis.
Uses of line graphs:
When you want to show trends. For example, how house prices have increased over
time.
When you want to make predictions based on a data history over time.
When comparing two or more different variables, situations, and information over a
given period of time.
Bar Charts

Bar charts represent categorical data with rectangular bars (to understand what is
categorical data see categorical data examples). Bar graphs are among the most popular
types of graphs and charts in economics, statistics, marketing, and visualization in digital
customer experience. They are commonly used to compare several categories of data.

Each rectangular bar has length and height proportional to the values that they
represent.

One axis of the bar chart presents the categories being compared. The other axis shows
a measured value.

Bar Charts Uses:

When you want to display data that are grouped into nominal or ordinal categories (see
nominal vs ordinal data).
To compare data among different categories.
Bar charts can also show large data changes over time.
Bar charts are ideal for visualizing the distribution of data when we have more than
three categories.

Pie Charts

When it comes to statistical types of graphs and charts, the pie chart (or the circle chart)
has a crucial place and meaning. It displays data and statistics in an easy-to-understand
‘pie-slice’ format and illustrates numerical proportion.

Each pie slice is relative to the size of a particular category in a given group as a whole.
To say it in another way, the pie chart brakes down a group into smaller pieces. It shows
part-whole relationships.

To make a pie chart, you need a list of categorical variables and numerical variables.
Pie Chart Uses:

When you want to create and represent the composition of something.

It is very useful for displaying nominal or ordinal categories of data.
To show percentage or proportional data.
When comparing areas of growth within a business such as profit.
Pie charts work best for displaying data for 3 to 7 categories.

Histogram

A histogram shows continuous data in ordered rectangular columns (to understand

what is continuous data see our post discrete vs continuous data). Usually, there are no
gaps between the columns.

The histogram displays a frequency distribution (shape) of a data set. At first glance,
histograms look alike to bar graphs. However, there is a key difference between them.
Bar Chart represents categorical data and histogram represent continuous data.

Histogram Uses:

When the data is continuous.

When you want to represent the shape of the data’s distribution.
When you want to see whether the outputs of two or more processes are different.
To summarize large data sets graphically.
To communicate the data distribution quickly to others.
Scatter plot

The scatter plot is an X-Y diagram that shows a relationship between two variables. It is
used to plot data points on a vertical and a horizontal axis. The purpose is to show how
much one variable affects another.

Usually, when there is a relationship between 2 variables, the first one is called
independent. The second variable is called dependent because its values depend on the
first variable.

Scatter plots also help you predict the behavior of one variable (dependent) based on
the measure of the other variable (independent).

Scatter plot uses:

When trying to find out whether there is a relationship between 2 variables.

To predict the behavior of dependent variable based on the measure of the
independent variable.
When having paired numerical data.
When working with root cause analysis tools to identify the potential for problems.
When you just want to visualize the correlation between 2 large datasets without regard
to time.

Venn Chart
Venn Diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagrams) uses
overlapping circles to visualize the logical relationships between two or more group of
items.

Venn Diagram is one of the types of graphs and charts used in scientific and engineering
presentations, in computer applications, in math’s, and in statistics.

The basic structure of the Venn diagram is usually overlapping circles. The items in the
overlapping section have specific common characteristics. Items in the outer portions of
the circles do not have common traits.

Venn Chart Uses:

When you want to compare and contrast groups of things.

To categorize or group items.
To illustrate logical relationships from various datasets.
To identify all the possible relationships between collections of datasets.

Spline Chart

The Spline Chart is one of the most widespread types of graphs and charts used in
statistics. It is a form of the line chart that represent smooth curves through the
different data points.

Spline charts possess all the characteristics of a line chart except that spline charts have
a fitted curved line to join the data points. In comparison, line charts connect data
points with straight lines.

Spline Chart Uses:

When you want to plot data that requires the usage of curve-fitting such as a product
lifecycle chart or an impulse-response chart.
Spline charts are often used in designing Pareto charts.
Spline chart also is often used for data modeling by when you have limited number of
data points and estimating the intervening values.

Box and Whisker Chart

A box and whisker chart is a statistical graph for displaying sets of numerical data
through their quartiles. It displays a frequency distribution of the data.

The box and whisker chart helps you to display the spread and skewness for a given set
of data using the five number summary principle: minimum, maximum, median, lower
and upper quartiles. The ‘five-number summary’ principle allows providing a statistical
summary for a particular set of numbers. It shows you the range (minimum and
maximum numbers), the spread (upper and lower quartiles), and the center (median)
for the set of data numbers.
Box and Whisker Chart Uses:
When you want to observe the upper, lower quartiles, mean, median, deviations, etc.
for a large set of data.
When you want to see a quick view of the dataset distribution.
When you have multiple data sets that come from independent sources and relate to
each other in some way.
Bubble Chart

Bubble charts are super useful types of graphs for making a comparison of the
relationships between data in 3 numeric-data dimensions: the Y-axis data, the X-axis
data, and data depicting the bubble size.

Bubble charts are very similar to XY Scatter plots but the bubble chart adds more
functionality – a third dimension of data that can be extremely valuable.

Both axes (X and Y) of a bubble chart are numeric.

Bubble Chart Uses:

When you have to display three or four dimensions of data.

When you want to compare and display the relationships between categorized circles,
by the use of proportions.

Pictographs

The pictograph or a pictogram is one of the more visually appealing types of graphs and
charts that display numerical information with the use of icons or picture symbols to
represent data sets.

They are very easy to read statistical way of data visualization. A pictogram shows the
frequency of data as images or symbols. Each image/symbol may represent one or more
units of a given dataset.

Pictograph Uses:

When your audience prefers and understands better displays that include icons and
illustrations. Fun can promote learning.
It’s habitual for infographics to use of a pictogram.
When you want to compare two points in an emotionally powerful way.
When you need to compare data from different categories

Dot Plot

Dot plot or dot graph is just one of the many types of graphs and charts to organize
statistical data. It uses dots to represent data. A Dot Plot is used for relatively small sets
of data and the values fall into a number of discrete categories.

If a value appears more than one time, the dots are ordered one above the other. That
way the column height of dots shows the frequency for that value.

Dot Plot Uses:

To plot frequency counts when you have a small number of categories.

Dot plots are very useful when the variable is quantitative or categorical.
Dot graphs are also used for univariate data (data with only one variable that you can
measure).

Radar Chart

A radar chart is one of the most modern types of graphs and charts – ideal for multiple
comparisons. Radar charts use a circular display with several different quantitative axes
looking like spokes on a wheel. Each axis shows a quantity for a different categorical
value.
Radar charts are also known as spider charts, web charts, star plots, irregular polygons,
polar charts, cobweb charts or Kiviat diagram.

Radar Chart has many applications nowadays in statistics, maths, business, sports
analysis, data intelligence, and etc.

Radar Chart Uses:

When you want to observe which variables have similar values or whether there are any
outliers amongst each variable.
To represent multiple comparisons.
When you want to see which variables are scoring low or high within a dataset. This
makes radar chart ideal for displaying performance.

Pyramid Graph

When it comes to easy to understand and good looking types of graphs and charts,
pyramid graph has a top place.

A pyramid graph is a chart in a pyramid shape or triangle shape. These types of charts
are best for data that is organized in some kind of hierarchy. The levels show a
progressive order.

Pyramid Graph Uses:

When you want to indicate a hierarchy level among the topics or other types of data.
 Pyramid graph is often used to represent progressive orders such as: “older to newer”,
“more important to least important”, “specific to least specific”‘ and etc.
When you have a proportional or interconnected relationship between data sets.

14. What is a map? What are the different kinds of maps?

A map is a drawing of a particular area such as a city, a country, or a continent, showing
its main features as they would appear if you looked at them from above.

Political Maps show boundaries between countries, states, counties, and other political
units. The most commonly used political map in the United States is a map like the one
above that illustrates the 50 states. Many people find this type of map by going to a
search engine and making a query for "us map" or "united states map". Geology.com
has some of the most frequently viewed political maps of the United States and world
countries on the internet.
Physical Map: This physical map of Eurasia shows the topography of the land in a color-
gradient relief. Dark greens are used for near-sea-level elevations, and the green grades
to tan and brown as elevation increases. The highest elevations are shown in shades of
gray. If you are familiar with the physical features of Eurasia, you can probably recognize
the Himalaya Mountain Range, the Tibetan Plateau, the Alps, and the more subtle Ural
Mountains. Lake Baikal, the world's largest freshwater lake by volume, can be seen in
central Asia.

Digital Road, Street and Highway Maps

Google Map of Washington, D.C.: Google Maps has become the most commonly used
online mapping service in the world. It superbly presents road and street maps. It is also
the world's favorite route planning and street view service. The service has been
specifically designed for those tasks.

Google Maps also has special tools that enable you to query "nearby" restaurants,
hotels, bars and pubs, museums, pizza, bike shops, schools, attorneys, etc., and the map
will populate itself with icons showing their location. If you allow Google Maps to use
your current GPS location, you can use the "add destination" tool to plot a car, walking,
bike, or public transportation route. Google Maps will even estimate the amount of time
required for your trip. The author uses this feature of Google Maps more than any other
mapping tool.
Topographic Map of an area within Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky. This map
shows Earth's topography using brown contour lines with a contour interval of 20 feet.
Roads, place names, streams and other features are also shown. Areas on the map
where the brown contour lines are close together have steep slopes. Areas where the
contour lines are spaced far apart have gentler slopes

World Time Zone Map: On this map, the world's 24 time zones are shown as colored
bands. By looking at the numbers along the top and bottom of the map, you can
determine the time difference between two locations. Time zones do not follow lines of
longitude. Instead they mostly follow political boundaries, with many variations made
for social and commercial convenience.
Geologic Map of an area near Richmond, California where the Eastshore Freeway makes
an overpass above San Pablo Avenue. The roads and city streets can faintly be seen
through the translucent colors of the geologic units. The western portion of the map is
underlain by Quaternary sediments, while the eastern portion is underlain by folded and
intensely faulted bedrock. Dotted lines show the probable traces of faults buried below
the Quaternary sediments. Geologic maps of this area can be important first tools in
conducting an earthquake hazard assessment.

Weather Map showing projected high temperatures for Sunday, July 29, 2018. This is
one of the many types of weather maps prepared by the National Weather Service of
the United States and published online for anyone to use.
Species Distribution Maps show where certain plant or animal species can be found.
This map shows where different types of bears live in North America.

Income Map: Map showing the median household income of the United States using
individual counties as enumeration units. Map by the United States Census Bureau.

Resource Map: Map illustrating the the photovoltaic solar resource of the United States.
It is clear from this map that the solar resource of the United States is greatest in the
southwestern part of the country. Citizens, companies and governments can use this
map to make decisions about investing in a solar power solution.
Intensity Map for the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906: This is the most
devastating earthquake in California history. The earthquake was felt throughout most
of California and into Nevada and Oregon. The earthquake and resulting fires caused an
estimated 3000 deaths and $524 million in property loss. The map above shows the
intensity of ground shaking across the felt area of the earthquake. Intensity levels are
shown as a color sequence where red areas experienced the strongest ground shaking
and green areas experienced ground shaking that was much less severe.

Plate Tectonics Map: A portion of a map showing the geographic extent and boundaries
of Earth's lithospheric plates by the United States Geological Survey.

A bathymetric map, sometimes called a bathymetric chart, is a map that shows the
depth of a body of water, such as a lake, a part of the ocean, a river, or a reservoir.
Depths can be shown using contour lines, shaded relief, colors, or a combination of
these methods.
Volcanic Hazard Maps
People need to know which volcanoes present a danger, the types of volcanic hazards
that can be expected, and the geographic area that will be dangerous if an eruption
occurs. For that reason, geologists have prepared geologic hazard maps for the
volcanoes that present the greatest risk to people and are working to complete maps
for other volcanoes.

Hurricane Track Maps

Hurricanes and tropical storms can cause enormous amounts of damage. When one of
these storms is detected, the National Hurricane Center starts monitoring it and
determining its anticipated path.
Map Drawn on a Clay Tablet: Photograph of a map on a clay tablet, drawn by an ancient
mapmaker in about 1400 BC. It is believed to be a map of the city of Nippur, located in
the area that is now known as Iraq. Image from Explorations in Bible Lands During the
19th Century by Hermann Volrat Hilprecht