THE U T I L I Z A T I O N OF ALDER SAWDUST BY SHEEP AND CATTLE

by

JAMES ARTHUR SHELFORD

B.S.A.y U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, 1 9 6 6

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in the D i v i s i o n

Of v

Animal Science

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o the
required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

March, 1 9 6 9
In presenting this thesis in p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t freely available for reference and Study.

I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department of ^n^J £C/i r> c/

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
V a n c o u v e r 8, Canada

Date 3 ^ /ftf^
 ABSTRACT

Twenty-eight beef-type animals were d i v i d e d into

four groups and f e d f o u r r a t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f equal amounts

o f b a s a l r a t i o n , t o which increments o f a l d e r sawdust (Alnus

r u b r a ) were added (0, 13$, 2 1 % , and 3 5 % ) (Experiment I). The

a d d i t i o n o f the sawdust had no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t o t a l

gain although the three groups o f animals r e c e i v i n g sawdust

in t h e i r d i e t had a h i g h e r r a t e o f gain than the group

r e c e i v i n g no sawdust. The e f f e c t s o f the r a t i o n on the carcass

grade and the a c c e p t a b i l i t y (tenderness and j u i c i n e s s ) o f the

meat as s t u d i e d by a t r a i n e d t a s t e panel, were non-significant.

When the r a t i o n s used i n the above t r i a l were sub-

jected t o a d i g e s t i o n t r i a l u s i n g mature wethers, the r e s u l t s

coincided w i t h the growth data c o l l e c t e d from the s t e e r s used

above. I f the d i g e s t i o n o f the b a s a l r a t i o n s were taken as

c o n s t a n t , the wood m a t e r i a l had a d i g e s t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t

r a n g i n g from 46.5$ t o 13.5%, depending on the l e v e l o f saw-

dust i n the d i e t . I t was f e l t that a f i g u r e o f 13$ d i g e s t i o n

for sawdust was c l o s e t o b e i n g c o r r e c t , and t h a t the v a r i a t i o n

i n measurement o f the d i g e s t i o n o f sawdust was due t o the

increased u t i l i z a t i o n o f the b a s a l r a t i o n when the sawdust

was p r e s e n t .
 Analysis o f t h e rumen f l u i d o f the s t e e r s i n the

growth t r i a l for total and individual volatile fatty acids

(VFA) showed a d e c r e a s e (p<.05) i n t h e m o l a r p e r c e n t o f

propionic acid as the l e v e l o f wood i n t h e d i e t i n c r e a s e d . ,

while the t o t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f VFA and the molar percent

acetic acid remained r e l a t i v e l y constant.

Thirty-six y e a r l i n g Hereford steers, assigned to

six treatments consisting o f a b a s a l r a t i o n and three roughage

sources (hay (H), a l d e r sawdust (w)., and extruded a l d e r saw-

dust (E)) 3 f e d a t two levels (15% and 2 0 % ) , were u s e d in a

study to determine the effect of heat and pressure treatment

o f wood on the utilization. The growth o f the animals on the

H rations was significantly ( p < .01) greater than those on

the other treatments. The effect of t r e a t i n g the sawdust by

e x t r u d i n g i t was non-significant although the animals on the

extruded wood d i e t had a slight i n c r e a s e i n g a i n over those

on the W r a t i o n . The effect of l e v e l o f r o u g h a g e was non-

significant.

The effects of l e v e l of p r o t e i n i n the d i e t and

the i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h r o u g h a g e s o u r c e were s t u d i e d . Protein

levels o f 1 3 % and 1 5 % were s t u d i e d , a l o n g w i t h two roughage

sources (hay ( H ) , and a l d e r sawdust (W)), f e d a t two levels

(15% and 2 0 % ) . The H rations a g a i n had a significantly

(p<.01) g r e a t e r g a i n . The effect of i n c r e a s i n g the protein

level i n t h e d i e t was found t o be non-significant.

 When t h e above r a t i o n s were s u b j e c t e d t o a n a l y s i s

u s i n g t h e i n v i t r o t e c h n i q u e , r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e H

r a t i o n s had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p < . 0 1 ) h i g h e r d i g e s t i o n than

e i t h e r the W or E r a t i o n s . I t was a l s o found t h a t t h e E

r a t i o n s had a h i g h e r d i g e s t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t than t h e W r a t i o n s

(p < « 0 5 ) . Increasing t h e roughage l e v e l from 1 5 $ t o 2 0 % caused

a s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 1 ) decrease i n d i g e s t i o n .

When t h e same r a t i o n s were s u b j e c t e d t o an j l n v i v o

d i g e s t i o n s t u d y u s i n g growing w e t h e r s , t h e r e s u l t s were s i m i l a r

t o t h e _in v i t r o s t u d y w i t h t h e H r a t i o n s h a v i n g a g r e a t e r dir-

gestion (p < . 0 1 ) t h a n t h e W o r E r a t i o n s . However t h e

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e W and E r a t i o n s was n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t .

An e q u a t i o n f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e _in v i v o d r y m a t t e r

digestion i s given: _In v i v o d r y m a t t e r d i g e s t i o n = 6 0 . 1 2 5 2

+ 0.0221 ( i n v i t r o d r y matter digestion) + 0 . 4 7 9 9 (acid

detergent f i b r e ) - 3 . 5 8 5 5 (lignin) - 0.8395 (cellulose).

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish t o express my g r a t i t u d e t o Dr. W. D.

K i t t s , P r o f e s s o r o f Animal Science and Chairman o f t h e

Department o f Animal S c i e n c e , f o r h i s encouragement and

guidance throughout my program.

I a l s o wish t o thank Dr. J . F. Richards and

Mrs. B. M o r r i s o n o f the P o u l t r y Science Department f o r

the t a s t e panel a n a l y s i s .

I am g r a t e f u l t o t h e many people who a s s i s t e d

me i n t h i s study, e s p e c i a l l y Mr. Ralph McQueen, Mr. J . C.

MacGregor, Miss L. Amundsen, Mrs. J . L i t s k y and Mrs. G.

Huchelega.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

A. Introduction 1

B. L i t e r a t u r e Review 2

1. E a r l y i n t e r e s t i n wood 2
2. L i g n i n - N u t r i t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e as a
plant constituent 2
3. Delignification of materials 3
4. The u s e o f wood as a f e e d s o u r c e 7
5. E f f e c t o f n u t r i t i o n a l and p h y s i c a l
f a c t o r s on c e l l u l o s e u t i l i z a t i o n 10
a} Protein 10
b) Particle size 10
c) Minerals 11
d ) Method and r a t e o f f e e d i n g 11
6. E f f e c t o f r o u g h a g e on a n i m a l
p e r f o r m a n c e and rumen m e t a b o l i s m 12
a) High concentrate feeding 12
b ) Roughage s o u r c e and rumen
metabolism 13

C. Experiment I. Utilization of untreated alder

sawdust 14

T r i a l 1. Feeding t r i a l with beef steers 14

a ) M a t e r i a l s and methods 14
b) Results 17
Feeding t r i a l 17
Carcass e v a l u a t i o n 18
Taste panel 18

T r i a l 2. In v i v o d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s
u s i n g sheep. 20
a} M a t e r i a l s and methods 20
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 22

T r i a l 3. A n a l y s i s o f v o l a t i l e f a t t y a c i d s 22
a ) M a t e r i a l s and methods 23
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 24
 Page

Experiment I I . E f f e c t o f heat and pressure

treatment on the u t i l i z a t i o n of a l d e r sawdust and
the use o f a l d e r sawdust as a roughage s u b s t i t u t e
i n high concentrate r a t i o n s 24

T r i a l 1A. E f f e c t o f heat and pressure

treatment on the use o f a l d e r sawdust by
growing s t e e r s 26
a) M a t e r i a l s and methods 26
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 28

T r i a l IB. E f f e c t o f l e v e l o f p r o t e i n i n the
d i e t on the u t i l i z a t i o n o f a l d e r sawdust
by growing c a t t l e 29
a T M a t e r i a l s and methods 29
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 32

T r i a l 2. In v i t r o d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s 32
a} M a t e r i a l s and methods 35
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 35

Trial 3. In v i v o d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s u s i n g sheep
a) M a t e r i a l s and methods 36
b) R e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n 37

D. Summary 41

E. Bibliography 43

F. Appendix 48
 L I S T OF TABLES

Table Page

1-1 Composition of basal ration 16

1-2 E f f e c t s of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of
u n t r e a t e d a l d e r sawdust t o s t e e r s 19

1-3 E f f e c t of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of
u n t r e a t e d a l d e r sawdust on t h e carcasses
of steers 21

1-4 Taste panel r e s u l t s . Table of dietary

means. 21

1-5 E f f e c t of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of
u n t r e a t e d a l d e r s a w d u s t on t h e d i g e s t -
i b i l i t y o f r a t i o n s by s h e e p 25

1-6 Summary o f r e s u l t s , T r i a l 3. VFA

determinations 25

II-l Composition of r a t i o n s fed to fattening

beef s t e e r s . T r i a l 1A. 30

II-2 E f f e c t s of feeding non-processed and

e x t r u d e d a l d e r s a w d u s t and hay to
fattening beef steers 31

II-3 Ration composition, Trial IB. 33

II-4 Results of T r i a l IB. 34

II-5 In v i t r o digestion data. Trial 2. 38

II-6 In v i v o d i g e s t i o n data. Trial 3. 39

 1.

INTRODUCTION

I n r e c e n t y e a r s much t i m e and e f f o r t has b e e n

devoted t o the study o f i n c r e a s i n g the e f f i c i e n c y o f feed

utilization by domestic animals. Often these animals are i n

direct c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h man f o r f e e d s w h i c h a r e a c c e p t a b l e

t o humans. More r e c e n t l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y with ruminants, the

practicality of feeding industrial "waste" m a t e r i a l s , i n d i g e s t -

ible b y humans, has b e e n s t u d i e d .

Cellulose i s d e s c r i b e d as a n e x c e l l e n t source o f

energy f o r ruminants (Nehring, 1 9 6 5 ) . Due t o t h e h i g h cellulose

content o f wood and t h e l a r g e amount o f wood w a s t e s i n B r i t i s h

C o l u m b i a , a s t u d y was o u t l i n e d t o determine the f e a s i b i l i t y

o f u t i l i z i n g w a s t e wood m a t e r i a l s as an e n e r g y source f o r

ruminants.

The s t u d y was d e s i g n e d t o analyze several points:

(1) To d e t e r m i n e i f ruminants c o u l d be i n d u c e d to ingest large

amounts o f a l d e r s a w d u s t (Alnus r u b r a ) ; (2) To f i n d t h e

effect of i n c l u s i o n of alder sawdust i n t h e d i e t on t h e a c c e p t -

ability o f the f i n i s h e d product, i . e . , t h e meat o f t h e a n i m a l ;

(3) To d e t e r m i n e the d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f t h e a l d e r s a w d u s t and

t o o b t a i n an e s t i m a t e o f the u t i l i z a t i o n o f wood; and ( 4 ) To

study several different treatments o f wood p r o d u c t s and

determine their effectiveness i n i n c r e a s i n g the u t i l i z a t i o n o f

t h e wood w a s t e .
 2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Early Interest I n Wood

Much i n t e r e s t i n the p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g wood as

a f e e d s o u r c e was shown b y w o r k e r s i n Germany i n t h e e a r l y

1900's. Haberlandt ( 1 9 1 5 ) d i s c u s s e d the use o f t h e s t a r c h ,

oil, and i n some c a s e s the glucose and p r o t e i n i n the storage

tissue o f sapwood f o r c a t t l e and h o r s e feed. He f o u n d t h e

sapwood t o be h i g h l y i n d i g e s t i b l e and o n l y a f t e r fine grinding

to " b r e a k t h e c e l l w a l l s " d i d he r e p o r t a p p r e c i a b l e d i g e s t i o n .

Beckman (1915) compared the food value of different types o f

wood and s t r a w b y c h e m i c a l means. The v a l u e s he f o u n d f o r

wood w e r e : protein, 1.15-2.04$; fat, 0.37-1.35$; starch,

0.95-5.90$; and a s h , 0 . 6 8 - 0 . 9 1 $ . The v a l u e s f o r s t r a w were

much h i g h e r w i t h s t a r c h , 2 6 . 1 2 $ ; fat, 3.6l$; and a s h , 9 . 8 $ .

Lignin - Nutritional I m p o r t a n c e As A P l a n t C o n s t i t u e n t

I t was n o t r e c o g n i z e d a t t h e t i m e (1915) that the

low digestion o f wood was due t o t h e complex cellulose-lignin

relationship. Crarapton and Maynard (1938) showed t h a t m a t e r i a l s

with high l i g n i n c o n t e n t had much l o w e r feed values and t h u s

they concluded that this phenomenon was due t o t h e t y i n g up

of the c e l l u l o s e by l i g n i n . The amount o f l i g n i n i n plants

was found t o v a r y from s p e c i e s t o s p e c i e s and a l s o as t h e p l a n t

matured. S e v e r a l workers (Tomlln, 1 9 6 5 ; S u l l i v a n , 1 9 5 5 ) ob-

served that l i g n i n c o n t e n t was n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d t o

 3.

cellulose digestion. The actual digestion of l i g n i n ranged

from 3.4$ to 16$ (Ely, 1953).

Due t o the complex s t r u c t u r e o f l i g n i n , the actual

relationship between l i g n i n and cellulose is difficult to

determine. I t has been suggested t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p i s

purely physical, with the l i g n i n e n c r u s t i n g the cellulose.

Bolker (1963) used infra-red spectroscopy to reveal a lignin-

carbohydrate bond. The possibility of other d i s t i n c t forms

o f bonds s t i l l exists. Physically lignin resembles a plastic.

At h i g h temperature and pressure ( 3 5 0 ° F and 1500-2500 p.s.i.)

lignin will flow (Stamm, 1 9 6 4 ) , similar to a liquid.

Delignification Of M a t e r i a l s

Attempts to d e l i g n i f y f o r a g e s were s t a r t e d before

it was realized t h a t l i g n i n was t i g h t l y associated with cell-

ulose, f o r example, i n c r e a s e s i n t h e feeding value of straw

and bamboo s h o o t s were s o u g h t by cooking under p r e s s u r e at

temperatures up to 160° C (Anonymous, 1 9 0 8 ) . The organic

a c i d s r e l e a s e d by c o o k i n g were t o d i s s o l v e the intracellular

substances, thus f r e e i n g the fibre. Small amounts o f alkali

were added b u t not enough t o n e u t r a l i z e the free acids. A

continuation of this line of thought, b u t much more e l a b o r a t e

was t h a t o f Lehman ( 1 9 1 5 ).> who suggested treatment of straw

with (NH4)2S04 and Na3P02j.. After h e a t i n g , the m a t e r i a l was

i n o c u l a t e d w i t h d e s i r a b l e molds which a f t e r cultivation would

fill t h e e n t i r e mass w i t h h i g h q u a l i t y protein. Unfortunately

this trial d i d n o t proceed beyond the t h e o r e t i c a l stage.

One o f t h e f i r s t successful attempts at delignifica-

t i o n was t h a t o f Beckman (1919)• Treatment o f one p a r t straw

with 8 parts 1 . 5 % NaOH f o r 3 t o 12 h o u r s , followed by f i l t r a t i o n

and w a s h i n g , y i e l d e d a product acceptable t o c a t t l e . He f o u n d

the crude fibre and o r g a n i c m a t t e r highly digestible. He a l s o

found that a t no c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f NaOH o r c o o k i n g t i m e d i d he

find a p o i n t where l i g n i n was d i s s o l v e d w i t h o u t a n e q u a l

amount o f t h e n u t r i t i o n a l l y significant pentosans and h e x o s a n s

being lost.

Hvidsten (19^7) compared t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f Beckman

treated straw and s e m i - p u r i f i e d cellulose i n a survey of dig-

estion experiments w i t h s h e e p and p i g s . The t r e a t e d straw

was found t o be s i m i l a r i n feed value t o the semi-purified

cellulose. U s i n g sheep, the d i g e s t i o n o f t h e c e l l u l o s e was

Q7% and o f t h e t r e a t e d straw 6 6 % . T h e protein s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n

n e c e s s a r y f o r d i g e s t i o n was 37 grams p e r k i l o g r a m d r y m a t t e r

and 9 grams p e r k i l o g r a m d r y m a t t e r f o r t h e c e l l u l o s e and

straw respectively.

Honcamp (1931) s t u d i e d t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f

straw without chemicals. By s t e a m i n g t h e s t r a w , he f o u n d

an i n c r e a s e i n starch v a l u e and a l o s s i n crude protein.

 Olsen (1937) s t u d i e d t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n o f wood and

wood p r o d u c t s w i t h v a r y i n g l e v e l s of l i g n i n . The wtood p r o d u c t s

were o b t a i n e d from the p u l p i n g process a t various stages of

treatment. Raw wood m a t e r i a l s , e v e n when f i n e l y g r o u n d were

resistant t o a t t a c k and he c o n c l u d e d that t h e wood either

contained a t o x i c substance of t h e c a r b o h y d r a t e existed in a

state resistant t o a t t a c k by micro-organisms. He d i s p r o v e d t h e

t o x i c substance t h e o r y by f i n d i n g t h a t pure cellulose was

degraded i n the presence o f wood. Isolated lignin added t o

pure cellulose d i d not a l t e r t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n a l t h o u g h he found

that none o f t h e l i g n i n was d e g r a d e d . He t h e n s t u d i e d t h e

wood p r o d u c t s from the p u l p i n g procedure and f o u n d that as t h e

lignin content decreased, the fermentation o f the m a t e r i a l

increased. He c o n c l u d e d that f o r a wood p r o d u c t t o be readily

fermentable, i t slignin c o n t e n t s h o u l d be l e s s than 1$.

Virtanen ( 1 9 4 6 ) found that the f e r m e n t a b i l i t y of

birchwood s a w d u s t i n c r e a s e d as t h e f i n e n e s s o f t h e d u s t i n -

creased. Different s p e c i e s o f wood were f o u n d to vary i n

their degree of fermentability, with birch f e r m e n t i n g more

than aspen or p i n e . I n r e p o r t i n g d e g r a d a t i o n o f wood up t o

60$, i t must be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t he u s e d incubation periods

o f up t o 4 0 d a y s , w h i c h were much l o n g e r t h a n t h o s e used by

Olsen (7 days). In a d d i t i o n to finding that cellulose fer-

mentation v a r i e d w i t h time, treatment o f wood, and degree

of l i g n i f i c a t i o n , a decrease in lignin content o f 1 1 . 4 $

during f e r m e n t a t i o n was noted.

 6.

Hydrolytic treatments of regnous wood u s i n g alkali

were r e p o r t e d by Stewart (1954). He found that little lignin

is a t t a c k e d by d i l u t e alkali a t room t e m p e r a t u r e , but that a

considerable portion of the n o n - r e s i s t a n t (non-cellulosic) poly-

saccarides are d i s s o l v e d . He a l s o found the r e a c t i o n of mild

alkali a t these temperatures t o be much more r a p i d than the

reaction involving dilute acid.

An alkali s o l u t i o n was used by G o n z e l e z a (1959) t o

d e l i g n i f y straw. This t r e a t m e n t was f o l l o w e d by washing and

then d r y i n g , finally y i e l d i n g a p r o d u c t w h i c h was superior to

untreated straw and showed no a p p a r e n t ill-effects i n the

experimental animals. In a s i m i l a r trial, Lampila (1963)

t r e a t e d wheat s t r a w w i t h a l k a l i . In d i g e s t i o n trials, with

s h e e p and u s i n g u r e a as a p r o t e i n s o u r c e , he found the treated

straw t o be as good i f n o t b e t t e r t h a n good q u a l i t y hay f o r

the synthesis o f meat p r o t e i n in sheep.

Goering (1968) f o u n d c o n s i s t a n t i n c r e a s e s i n d i g e s t i o n

of lignified materials after treatment w i t h sodium chlorite.

The m a t e r i a l s were e n s i l e d w i t h 3% s o d i u m chlorite and left

for s e v e r a l weeks b e f o r e jLn v i t r o d i g e s t i b i l i t i e s were

determined. I t was found, r e g a r d l e s s of l i g n i n content, that

the digestion coefficient varied b e t w e e n 85$ and 94$ fora l l

materials studied. S i m i l a r l y Mellenberger (1968) u s e d t h e

in vitro technique t o demonstrate an i n c r e a s e i n the digest-

ibility o f ammoniated wood o v e r u n t r e a t e d wood.

 7.

O t h e r methods o f d e l i g n i f i c a t i o n have b e e n u s e d on

wood. Lawton (1951) used gamma i r r a d i a t i o n to i n c r e a s e the

utilization o f wood b y rumen m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s . He found an

optimum d o s a g e l e v e l where t h e d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f wood compared

f a v o r a b l y w i t h hay. Microbiological and chemical tests to

determine what f r a c t i o n was e f f e c t e d were made, b u t nothing

definite c o u l d be concluded. Reduction of the p a r t i c l e size

b y b a l l m i l l i n g d i d n o t enhance f e r m e n t a t i o n . Mater (1957)

reported that at 10^ roentgen, l i g n i n was degraded, but the

a l t e r a t i o n s were s l i g h t and were a l m o s t undetectable by

bacteriological and c h e m i c a l means. Becker (1962) also found

an increase i n u t i l i z a t i o n o f wood b y l a r v a e and termites at

d o s a g e above 6 x 1 0 ^ r.

The Use o f Wood As A F e e d Source

Limited studies done on t h e use <5f wood and wood

products as a n i m a l f e e d s have b e e n r e p o r t e d on recently.

Bissell (1957) conducted digestion studies on i n t e r i o r live

oak and c h a m i s e w i t h d e e r and sheep. Little difference was

found i n the d i g e s t i v e abilities of deer and sheep. High

Total Digestible N u t r i e n t s (TDN) v a l u e s were f o u n d with

alfalfa, l o w e r w i t h c h a m i s e and distinctly lower w i t h live

oak. Ammerman (1964), i n s t u d i e s w i t h sewage s l u d g e and

oakwood s a w d u s t , f o u n d that t h e wood was n o t as good nutrition-

ally as Bermuda g r a s s , b u t that t h e wood a p p e a r e d to serve as

a roughage s o u r c e i n the d i e t . Bhattacharya (1966) compared

 8.

peanut h u l l and wood s h a v i n g poultry l i t t e r i n digestion

trials and f o u n d l i t t l e difference i n digestibility between

the two r a t i o n s . Increasing the l e v e l of l i t t e r i n the

ration from 2 5 % t o 5 0 % decreased the d i g e s t i o n of d r y matter,

Nitrogen Free Extract ( N F E ) , and e n e r g y a l t h o u g h t h e amount

of f i b r e digested actually increased.

Cody (1968) evaluated t h e h e a l t h and p e r f o r m a n c e o f

cows f e d wood f i b r e as a r o u g h a g e s o u r c e . In a n a l y z i n g the

digestive tracts after t e n weeks on f e e d , no g r o s s lesions

could be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e wood f i b r e . I t was i n d i c a t e d t h a t

grain intake c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d b y i n c l u d i n g 2 5 t o 4 5 % wood

fibre with the g r a i n . At levels o f f i b r e below 2 5 % , t h e r e

were o c c a s i o n a l p r o b l e m s w i t h b l o a t and p a r a k e r a t o s i s .

Ground Mesquite wood (ad l i b i t u m ) p l u s 0.675 kilogram

milo and 0 . 4 5 k i l o g r a m m o l a s s e s was f e d t o a g r o u p o f p r e g n a n t

h e i f e r s by E l l i s (1968). He r e p o r t e d that intake o f t h e wood

was b e t w e e n 6 . 3 5 and 7 . 2 6 k i l o g r a m per animal per day. The

a n i m a l s were m a i n t a i n e d on t h i s ration f o r 1 2 5 days before

calving. I t was c o n c l u d e d that the h e i f e r s received suffic-

ient e n e r g y from t h e wood t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r weight before calving

but that t h e wood d i d n o t f u r n i s h enough a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y f o r

b o t h m a i n t e n a n c e and m i l k production without critical body

weight l o s s . Another f i b r o u s feed r e c e n t l y used i s c o t t o n

wood. Vara (1968) found that i tw i l l support growth near t h e

level obtained using corn cobs. Through e i t h e r e n s i l i n g o r

 9.

a sodium hydroxide treatment, the d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f t h e wood

was increased.

Use o f hardwood s a w d u s t i n c o n c e n t r a t e fattening

rations was r e p o r t e d by Anthony (1968). I n c o m p a r i n g no

roughage ( b a s a l ) , 2 . 5 $ sawdust, 2 . 5 $ o y s t e r s h e l l , and 1 0 $

sawdust t h e h i g h e s t g a i n was found i n t h e 2 . 5 $ sawdust ration.

The 1 0 $ sawdust r a t i o n supported gain equal t o the b a s a l

ration alone. The wood r a t i o n i n a l l cases gave b e t t e r per-

formance than d i d o y s t e r s h e l l rations. No d e l e t e r i o u s effects

resulting from t h e f e e d i n g o f hardwood w a s t e were found.

The very l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the types o f wood

s t u d i e d must be p o i n t e d out. A c o m p a r i s o n o f c o t t o n wood

with a l l i t s g r e e n l e a f y m a t e r i a l and k i l n d r i e d p i n e sawdust

is difficult. V a r i a t i o n s i n d i g e s t i o n among d i f f e r e n t types

o f wood have p r e v i o u s l y b e e n m e n t i o n e d (Virtanen). Many

researchers define t h e wood s o u r c e o n l y as hardwood - n o t

mentioning species, fineness of grind, lignin, and c e l l u l o s e

content. A n o t h e r f a c t o r w h i c h must a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d i s

the presence i n t h e wood o f v a r i o u s t o x i c a n t s which inhibit

micro-organisms. Oh ( 1 9 6 7 ) h a s i s o l a t e d s e v e r a l o f these

compounds f r o m D o u g l a s F i r . The l e v e l s o f these undesirable

compounds (terpenes, a l c o h o l s ) must be r e a l i z e d when consider-

ing t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s wood w a s t e s as f e e d sources.

 10.

Effect of N u t r i t i o n a l and P h y s i c a l F a c t o r s On Cellulose Utilization

A. Protein

I n s t u d y i n g u r e a as an i n e x p e n s i v e p r o t e i n supplement

for ruminants, Belasco (1956) determined that t o promote efficient

cellulose digestion and urea u t i l i z a t i o n , t h e r e was a need f o r

some r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e carbohydrate. Bell (1953) found that

u s i n g u r e a as a p r o t e i n s o u r c e had little effect on apparent

digestibility, other than p r o t e i n d i g e s t i b i l i t y . He found

cereal g r a i n s t o be a more d e s i r a b l e carbohydrate source than

sugar. Another energy s o u r c e which might be considered i s f a t .

Esplin (1963), studying finishing rations, found that f a t up

t o the K % l e v e l had no e f f e c t on t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of ration com-

ponents. However l e v e l s above k % were f o u n d to suppress steer

performance.

B. Particle Size

As about 70% o f the c e l l u l o s e digestion occurs i n

t h e rumen, (Barnett, 1961) i t i s important to maintain a slow

rate o f passage o f the i n g e s t a t o the lower gastro-intestinal

tract. Very fine materials w i l l not remain i n t h e rumen l o n g

enough f o r a d e q u a t e cellulose digestion to occur. The grind-

i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r p e l l e t i n g has been found t o i n c r e a s e the

consumption p a r t l y by i n c r e a s i n g t h e t u r n o v e r t i m e of feed-

stuffs due t o t h e more r a p i d escape from t h e rumen o f this

fine material. This rapid escape from t h e rumen has been

 11.

c o r r e l a t e d with decreased cellulose digestibility (Roderique,

i960). However i t has b e e n f o u n d u s i n g i n v i t r o s t u d i e s where

time o f passage i s not a f a c t o r , that fine comminution will

increase d i g e s t i b i l i t y (Dehority, 1961).

The fine g r i n d i n g o f m a t e r i a l s a l s o h a s an e f f e c t on

regurgitation. This i n turn affects the flow o f s a l i v a and

t h e b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e rumen (Hungate, 1 9 6 6 ) . The

effect o f a d d i n g b u f f e r s t o ground h i g h c o n c e n t r a t e rations

has been found b e n e f i c i a l by Nicholson (1961). This i snot

surprising as many o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f rumen f e r m e n t a t i o n a r e

acidic, l o w e r i n g t h e pH o f t h e rumen b e l o w t h e optimum level.

The optimum l e v e l for cellulose d i g e s t i o n was r e p o r t e d b y

Johnson (1966) t o be pH 6 . 9 .

C. Minerals

Another f a c t o r necessary f o r optimal m i c r o b i a l

growth i s the l e v e l and b a l a n c e of minerals. Hungate (1966)

states that minerals a r e t h e f e e d a d d i t i v e most l i k e l y t o

improve u t i l i z a t i o n . As m i n e r a l s are r e l a t i v e l y inexpensive,

they should be f e d i n e x c e s s o f requirements with due r e g a r d

to the fact t h a t some t r a c e e l e m e n t s a r e t o x i c a t l o w

concentrations.

D. Method and R a t e Of F e e d i n g

The method and r a t e o f f e e d i n g w i l l have a n e f f e c t

on cellulose d i g e s t i o n e s p e c i a l l y when u r e a i s used as a p r o t e i n

 12.

source. Due t o t h e l a g p h a s e i n c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n ( 4 - 6

hours), most o f t h e u r e a w i l l have d i s a p p e a r e d from t h e rumen.

The urea i s r a p i d l y hydrolyzed t o ammonia, w h i c h i n t u r n i s

removed q u i t e r a p i d l y f r o m t h e rumen (Bloomfield, 1961), leaving

the cellulolytic micro-organisms d e f i c i e n t i n nitrogen. This

condition i s alleviated by a l l o w i n g animals t o feed con-

tinuously.

Effect o f Roughage On A n i m a l P e r f o r m a n c e and Rumen M e t a b o l i s m

A. High Concentrate Feeding

In the years prior t o 1955* i t was c o n s i d e r e d necess-

ary that fattening rations f o r ruminants should contain at least

30$ roughage. Following this period a t t e m p t s were made t o d e -

crease a n d i n some c a s e s d e l e t e the roughage p o r t i o n o f the

diet. I t was f e l t t h a t l a r g e amounts o f r o u g h a g e i n t h e d i e t

were l o w e r i n g the energy i n t a k e , a f f e c t i n g gain and f e e d

efficiency. More r e c e n t l y t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " A l l -

concentrate" feeding, v i z . , b l o a t , rumen p a r a k e r a t o s i s , abcessed

livers, difficulty i n g e t t i n g on f e e d , have c r e a t e d interest i n

low roughage fattening rations (Wise, 1967b).

I t was f o u n d that i n c l u s i o n of a small proportion

o f r o u g h a g e i n t h e d i e t w o u l d a l l e v i a t e many o f t h e p r o b l e m s .

The level and t y p e o f r o u g h a g e v a r i e d g r e a t l y . Along with the

usual r o u g h a g e s o u r c e s were i n c l u d e d a number o f n o n - n u t r i t i v e

or low f e e d value materials including; sand, polyethylene

fibres, oyster shell and c o r n cobs (Cooley, 1 9 6 2 ; Hughes, 1 9 6 4 ;

 13.

Wise, 1 9 6 7 a ) . These roughage sources have met with some success

although the rate of gain i s u s u a l l y s l i g h t l y depressed when

compared t o g a i n s made on c o n v e n t i o n a l roughage sources.

B. Roughage S o u r c e and Rumen M e t a b o l i s m

When hay i s added t o a h i g h concentrate ration and a

depression i n molar percent propionic acid i s observed, the

depression is attributed t o the increased cellulose i n the

ration forming acetic acid instead of propionic. Hungate (1966),

using purified c u l t u r e s o f rumen c e l l u l o l y t i c bacteria, found

that fermentation o f c e l l u l o s e _in v i t r o yielded high pro-

portions of propionic acid. He was unable to explain this in

terms of r e s u l t s from i n v i v o s t u d i e s . He postulated that acetic

a c i d was the main p r o d u c t formed from cellulose digestion i n

vivo. His r e a s o n i n g was t h a t the p e r c e n t methane p r o d u c e d i n -

creased over time after feeding, i n d i c a t i n g acetate production

from the s l o w e r cellulose digestion.

Larsen (1968) s t u d i e d the effect of a d d i t i o n of

oyster s h e l l to a basal r a t i o n on the metabolism i n the rumen.

Oyster shell added a t t h e 3% l e v e l had very little effect on

the total Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA),.molar percent acetic, pro-

pionic, and ammonia c o n c e n t r a t i o n when c o m p a r i s o n s were made

with t h e same r a t i o n minus t h e oyster s h e l l . Using 3% hay in

place of the oyster s h e l l found a decrease i n the t o t a l VjpA

and a lowering of molar percent propionic. At higher levels

 14.

o f h a y t h e e f f e c t became e v e n more p r o n o u n c e d w i t h total VFA

decreasing, molar percent a c e t i c a c i d i n c r e a s i n g s l i g h t l y and

the molar p e r c e n t propionic a c i d dropping noticeably. It

a p p e a r s , t h e n , as i f t h e i n e r t m a t e r i a l has l i t t l e effect on

the VFA p r o d u c t i o n within t h e rumen.

EXPERIMENT I

The first e x p e r i m e n t was d e s i g n e d t o determine the

extent of utilization of untreated a l d e r sawdust by sheep

and cattle. The e x p e r i m e n t was d i v i d e d i n t o three trials.

Trial 1. Feeding T r i a l With Beef Steers.

Alder s a w d u s t was added t o a c o n s t a n t amount o f

basal ration to yield complete r a t i o n s w i t h wood contents of

0$, 1 3 $ , 2 7 $ , and 3 5 $ . The r a t i o n s were s t u d i e d i n an i n

vivo feeding trial with beef s t e e r s . i s

Materials and Methods

Animals

Twenty-eight grade b e e f - t y p e s t e e r s were allotted

t o f o u r pens and a s s i g n e d treatments. Preliminary treatment

involved i n j e c t i o n s of 6 cc of a n t i b i o t i c ( D e r a f o r t ) and 2 c c

of a vitamin complex c o n t a i n i n g vitamins A, D, and E ( P r o - v i t e ) .

 15.

The animals were m a i n t a i n e d on l e g u m e - g r a s s mixture hay f o r

one week a f t e r w h i c h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r a t i o n s were added grad-

ually until full f e e d was r e a c h e d . The h a y was t h e n decreased

slowly u n t i l the desired l e v e l was r e a c h e d (1.5 lbs./animal/

day). T h i s adjustment period took about t h r e e weeks. As soon

as a l l t h e a n i m a l s had a d j u s t e d t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l rations,

the t r i a l began.

Feeding

The a n i m a l s were f e d t h e i r rations once a d a y i n t h e

m o r n i n g , and r e c e i v e d the a l l o t t e d amount o f h a y i n t h e a f t e r -

noon. D a i l y r e c o r d s o f f e e d consumption were kept.

Weighing

The a n i m a l s were w e i g h e d a t one week intervals.

Housing

The h o u s i n g was t h e same as t h a t d e s c r i b e d by

Ranta (1967).

Rations

This trial used one b a s a l r a t i o n (Table I - l ) , to

which v a r i o u s increments o f s a w d u s t were a d d e d , as f o l l o w s :

Group I 35% a l d e r sawdust r a t i o n . The a n i m a l s were

fed this ration to f u l l feed.

Group I I The a n i m a l s were f e d t h e same amount o f b a s a l

ration as t h e a n i m a l s i n group I, plus alder sawdust

 16.

Table I - l . Composition o f the b a s a l ration.

Ingredients Pounds

Steam r o l l e d barley 1,262

Soybean meal (44%) 66

Fishmeal, herring (71%) 86

Beet pulp 288

Molasses (wet) 44

Cane sugar 100

Stabilized fat 100

Urea 20

Rock p h o s p h a t e 5

Limestone 15

Iodized Salt 15

Trace Minerals^ 2

Vitamin A 6 x 10 6
IU

T.M. 50 25 grams

A P.I.L. Mineral Mix

 17.

t o make up 2 7 $ o f t h e r a t i o n .

Group I I I The a n i m a l s were f e d t h e same amount o f b a s a l

ration as g r o u p I (and I I ) , p l u s wood t o make up 13$

of the r a t i o n .

Group I V This g r o u p was f e d o n l y b a s a l r a t i o n , and

received t h e same amount as g r o u p I (and I I and I I I ) .

Results

(a) Feeding Trial

The results (Table 1 - 2 ) showed no s i g n i f i c a n t

difference i n gain (p<^ . 0 5 ) b e t w e e n a n y o f t h e g r o u p s . How-

ever t h e wood i n t h e r a t i o n d i d a p p e a r t o have a b e n e f i c i a l

effect. T h i s was shown b y t h e s m a l l increases i n gain the

a n i m a l s r e c e i v i n g wood had o v e r t h e a n i m a l s r e c e i v i n g only

the b a s a l r a t i o n . I f a n optimum l e v e l o f wood was t o be

d e t e r m i n e d , i t a p p e a r s i t w o u l d l i e between 1 3 $ and 2 7 $ o f

the ration.

In regards to the feed efficiencies, the animals

on the basal ration a p p e a r much more e f f i c i e n t . However, b y

not i n c l u d i n g t h e wood i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s ( e f f i c i e n c y of feed

utilization on t h e b a s a l r a t i o n alone), the animals on t h e

rations with wood have b e t t e r c o n v e r s i o n ratios. This suggests

that e i t h e r t h e a n i m a l s a r e a c h i e v i n g some d e g r e e o f u t i l i z a t i o n

o f t h e wood, o r t h a t t h e wood, a c t i n g as a n i n e r t material,

is a i d i n g i n the d i g e s t i v e processes.
 18.

(b) Garcass Evaluation

The carcasses from these animals underwent Record of

Performance grading a f t e r slaughter (Table 1 - 3 ) • There was

no s i g n i f i c a n t difference between groups i n any of the para-

meters measured. Prom the mean values, i t i s seen that

generally the animals on the low wood or no wood rations had a

higher degree of f a t cover than those on the higher wood rations.

An attempt to explain this difference w i l l be given l a t e r i n

the discussion of the VFA analysis of the rumen contents of

these animals.

(c) Taste Panel

Two round steaks and two s i r l o i n steaks, each one

inch thick, were removed from the l e f t side of four of the

carcasses from each treatment. The steaks were frozen and

stored at - 2 0 F u n t i l analyzed.
G

The tenderness and juiciness of the steaks were

examined by f i v e trained panel members who had previous i n -

s t r u c t i o n and experience i n judging tenderness and j u i c i n e s s .

Each member rated the steaks f o r juiciness and tenderness on

an eight point scale (1-extremely tough and dry, 8-extremely

j u i c y and tender). The panelists were also asked to comment

on any o f f - f l a v o r s i f they were noted. (None were noted.)

The steaks were b r o i l e d for each panel session to

an i n t e r n a l temperature of 150°F, which was determined by

thermocouples.
 Table 1-2. E f f e c t s of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s
of u n t r e a t e d a l d e r sawdust t o s t e e r s .

Groups

A B G D

P e r c e n t wood i n d i e t 35 27.2 13-3 0

No. o f days on t r i a l 182 182 182 182

Av. initial body weight 544 550 534 536

Av. final body w e i g h t 1,012 1,033 1,020 996

Av. t o t a l gain 468 483 486 460

Av. d a i l y gain 2.57 2.65 2.67 2.53

Peed e f f i c i e n c y ( l b .
feed/lb. gain) 9.13 8.03 6.71 6.19

Dressing percentage 55.1 56.5 57.1 59.2

 20.

The results are given i n t a b l e 1-4. No consistant

difference i n t e n d e r n e s s and juiciness among t h e dietary

treatments c o u l d be d e t e c t e d . The only s i g n i f i c a n t differences

occurred i n the j u i c i n e s s o f the round steaks. The sample

from t h e 3 5 $ wood d i e t had a significantly lower average

juiciness s c o r e t h a n samples from other d i e t s .

Trial 2. In v i v o d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s using sheep.

An In v i v o d i g e s t i o n trial u s i n g sheep was used to

determine the d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f the r a t i o n s studied in Trial 1.

Materials and Methods

Animals

Two mature wethers were a s s i g n e d t o e a c h r a t i o n and

adapted f o r a period o f one month.

Rations

The r a t i o n s were t h e same as t h o s e i n T r i a l 1, with

t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t no h a y was fed.

Procedure

The r a t i o n s were f e d a t a l e v e l of 3 lb./sheep/day.

At t h e end o f the a d a p t a t i o n p e r i o d , t h e a n i m a l s were p u t i n

digestion cages (Thompson, 1 9 6 6 ) f o r a f o u r day adjustment.

Following this period, total dry matter coltotions were made

for three days. Dry m a t t e r c o n t e n t was determined each day

and a representative sample was k e p t and pooled f o r subsequent

analysis.
Table I-3. E f f e c t s of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of untreated
a l d e r s a w d u s t on t h e c a r c a s s e s o f s t e e r s .

Diet L o i n eye a r e a F a t cover over

% Wood Dressing % (inches)2 l o i n (inches)

0 59.2 10.5 0.71

13 57.1 11.0 O.56

27 56.5 10.0 0.61

35 55.1 9.6 0.66

A
Table 1-4. Taste panel r e s u l t s . Table o f d i e t a r y means .

Diet Round S t e a k s Sirloin Steaks

% Wood Tenderness Juiciness Tenderness Juiciness

0 3.8 5.0 6.2 5.1

13 3.8 5.0 6.1 4.8
27 4.5 5.4 6.3 5.3
35 4.0 4.5 6.4 5.1

k E a c h mean b a s e d on 40 j u d g e m e n t s .
 22.

Results and Discussion

The r e s u l t s are given i n Table 1-5. I t c a n be s e e n

that as t h e l e v e l o f wood i n t h e d i e t i n c r e a s e d , the d r y matter

i

and Acid Detergent Fibre (Van S o e s t , 1 9 6 3 ) d i g e s t i b i l i t y de-

creased. The d i g e s t i o n of l i g n i n remained r e l a t i v e l y constant.

Assuming the d i g e s t i o n o f the b a s a l r a t i o n t o be constant,

digestion c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r wood c a n be d e t e r m i n e d . These

values ranged f r o m 4 6 . 5 % f r o m t h e 1 3 % wood d i e t t o 1 3 . 5 %

f r o m t h e 3 5 % wood d i e t . The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s assumption i s

questionable, f o r i f c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e made a s s u m i n g t h e wood

t o be c o m p l e t e l y i n e r t , then the d i g e s t i o n o f the b a s a l ration

can be f o u n d . The m a g n i t u d e o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d i g e s t i o n

of the b a s a l r a t i o n i s much l e s s than the magnitude o f var-

iation i n wood d i g e s t i o n . From t h i s i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e

s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n i s more t r u e , although a small digestion

c o e f f i c i e n t was e x p e c t e d f r o m wood (Huffman, 1 9 6 8 ; Virtanen,

1946; Olsen, ( 1 9 3 7 ) .

Trial 3. Analysis of volatile fatty acids.

This trial involved the a n a l y s i s o f t h e VFA (volatile

fatty acids) present i n t h e rumens o f t h e s t e e r s used i n

Trial 1. I f appreciable microbial digestion o f the c e l l u l o s e

in t h e wood p o r t i o n o f the d i e t d i d occur, a d i f f e r e n c e would

be expected i n the products of digestion (VFA) ( H u n g a t e , 1966).

 23.

Materials and Methods

Treatment o f t h e Rumen Fluid

A four l i t e r s a m p l e o f rumen c o n t e n t s was obtained

from each animal a t the time o f s l a u g h t e r 5 + \ hours post

prandial. M i c r o b i a l a c t i v i t y was t e r m i n a t e d by a d d i t i o n of

100 ml. mercuric c h l o r i d e ( s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n ) p e r sample.

The rumen f l u i d was t h e n deproteinized according t o t h e method

o u t l i n e d by Packett (1965). The s a m p l e was s t o r e d a t 4 ° C

before a n a l y s i s .

T o t a l VFA A n a l y s i s

T o t a l VFA were d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e method o f 0 1 m s t e a d

(1930) as m o d i f i e d b y Ross (1967). F i v e ml samples o f rumen

fluid were s t e a m - d i s t i l l e d . One h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y - f i v e m l

of distillate was c o l l e c t e d and t i t r a t e d a g a i n s t NaOH t o t h e

phenolphthalein end p o i n t .

I n d i v i d u a l VFA A n a l y s i s

The distillate from t h e t o t a l VFA d e t e r m i n a t i o n s was

kept and made b a s i c w i t h 0 . 5 m l o f 1 . 0 N NaOH. T h e y were

then taken t o dryness i n an oven s e t a t 8 0 ° C . The VFA salts

were removed and t r e a t e d b y t h e method o f Bensadoun (i960)

as m o d i f i e d b y Ross (1967) i n p r e p a r a t i o n o f gas c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c

analysis. A Microtec ( M o d e l 2 0 0 0 MF) gas c h r o m a t o g r a p h fitted

with a h y d r o g e n f l a m e i o n i z a t i o n d e t e c t o r was u s e d . The

columns u s e d and t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e m a c h i n e i s d e s c r i b e d

by Ranta (1967). A 0.4 /il sample was i n j e c t e d with a Hamilton

syringe. The peak a r e a s and their relation t o the concentration

o f the individual a c i d s were a n a l y z e d by t h e method o f Baum-

gardt (1964).

Results and Discussion

A significant difference (p<.05) i n the acetate/

propionate r a t i o was found (Table 1-6) when a n a l y z i n g the

rumen f l u i d from the four different rations. As the level

o f wood i n t h e diet i n c r e a s e d , the amount and proportion

of propionate decreased, while the level of t o t a l VFA and

acetate remained r e l a t i v e l y constant. This decrease in pro-

p i o n a t e , was mentioned by Hungate as b e i n g indicative of

increased cellulose u t i l i z a t i o n by the rumen m i c r o f l o r a . As

wood was the o n l y major source of c e l l u l o s e present, this

indicates partial utilization o f t h e wood.

EXPERIMENT I I

The second e x p e r i m e n t was designed to study two

main a r e a s : 1) The effect of treatment with high temperature

and pressure on the utilization o f a l d e r s a w d u s t , and 2) The

use o f wood as a roughage s u b s t i t u t e i n h i g h concentrate

rations, i n c l u d i n g the effect o f added n i t r o g e n (as urea)

on the utilization o f the r a t i o n s .

 25.

Table 1-5. E f f e c t of feeding d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f untreated

a l d e r s a w d u s t t o sheep on t h e d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f
the r a t i o n .

Diet Dry matter ADF* Lignin

fo Wood digestion d i g e s t i o n ;% d ig e s t i o n fo

0 80.42 67.3^ 21.6

13 75.87 31.3 23.6

27 63-93 28.0 24.0

35 56.48 21.8 , 22.5

A Acid Detergent Fibre (Van S o e s t , 1963) •

Table 1-6. Summary o f r e s u l t s , T r i a l 3- VFA determinations.

D i e t \% Wood
0 13 27 35

T o t a l VFA m. equiv. 10.52 9.67 7.46 8.60

Acetic molar % 58.29 65.24 64.84 63.50

m. e q u i v . 6.19 6.34 4.81 5.46

Propionic molar % 27.64 22.05 19.94 18.20

m. e q u i v . 2.89 2.10 1.56 1.59
Isobutyric molar % 0.94 O.96 0.96 1.24
m. e q u i v . 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10
Butyric molar % 9.48 8.88 10.31 ll.4o
m. e q u i v . 0.99 0.86 0.76 0.98

Isovaleric molar % 0.68 2.87 1.30 3.03

m. e q u i v . 0.06 0.22 0.07 0.24

Valeric molar % 2.97 2.40 2.10 2.63

m. e q u i v . 0.30 0.23 0.17 0.22

A Milli-equivalents p e r 100 m l .
 26.

Trial LA. Effect o f h e a t and p r e s s u r e t r e a t m e n t on

the use o f a l d e r sawdust by growing steers.

The effect o f t h r e e roughage s o u r c e s (Hay ( H ) , raw

a l d e r sawdust (W), and e x t r u d e d a l d e r sawdust (E)), fed at

two l e v e l s (15% and 20%) was s t u d i e d i n a fattening trial.

Materials and Methods

Animals

T h i r t y - s i x y e a r l i n g Hereford-type steers were

randomly a s s i g n e d t o s i x pens. The p r e l i m i n a r y treatment

of t h e a n i m a l s was t h e same as t h a t i n Experiment I, T r i a l 1,

except that the f i n a l levels o f h a y were d i f f e r e n t . Hay was

decreased g r a d u a l l y t o z e r o i n t h e W and E t r e a t m e n t s . In

t h e two H t r e a t m e n t s , t h e h a y was g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e d t o 15%

and 20% o f t h e t o t a l ration.

Feeding

The a n i m a l s were f e d t o a p p e t i t e once d a i l y , i n

the morning. D a i l y r e c o r d s were k e p t of the feed intake.

Weighing

I n d i v i d u a l weights were r e c o r d e d a t 3-week intervals.

Housing

The housing i n this trial was s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d .

Feeder space p e r a n i m a l was i n c r e a s e d from 1.57 feet t o 2.0

feet. Area p e r a n i m a l was changed from 82 f t T t o 60 f t .

Each pen had a c c e s s t o a constant f l o w i n g water bowl.

 27.

Rations

One b a s a l r a t i o n was used t o which the two levels

o f the t h r e e r o u g h a g e s were a d d e d . The composition of the

rations i s given i n Table II-l. In the f o u r W and E rations,

the r o u g h a g e m a t e r i a l was i n c l u d e d i n the r a t i o n , (i.e.,

pelleted along with the r a t i o n ) . However, i n t h e two H

rations, t h e hay was f e d s e p a r a t e l y i n the l o n g form. This

explains the s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s i n the concentrations of the

various components o f the r a t i o n s , as o u t l i n e d i n Table II-1.

Except f o r the l o n g hay, a l l r a t i o n s were p e l l e t e d (11/64).

The extruded wood was obtained f r o m an "extruding"

machine developed by the B.C. Research C o u n c i l . 1

T h i s machine

was designed f o r the p r o d u c t i o n of fuel l o g s . High temperature

(300° F) and pressure (2000 p . s . i . ) are a t t a i n e d through a

grinding motion. T h e s e e x t r e m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure

are first used t o b r e a k down t h e fibres o f the sawdust to

f o r m a homogenous mass and secondly t o cause the lignin to

flow (Stamm, 1 9 6 4 ) . Lignin at this t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure

acts as a plastic and i n this case, after c o o l i n g , becomes

the b i n d e r n e c e s s a r y to hold the l o g t o g e t h e r . In this

movement o f l i g n i n i t was hoped t h a t a p o r t i o n o f the cellulose

w o u l d be f r e e d f o r m i c r o b i a l a t t a c k and use.

1
I w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f Mr. J . E . B r e e z e ,
Head, E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e B.C. R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l
and o f Mr. R. A. S a n d e r s , E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t , B.C.
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , V a n c o u v e r 8, B.C.
 28.

A moisture c o n t e n t o f 35$ t o 40$ was found necessary

for adequate b u i l d u p o f steam i n the e x t r u d i n g p r o c e s s . At

drier conditions, extreme temperatures were r e a c h e d which

caused c h a r c o a l t o be formed. In these s t u d i e s , the material

obtained from t h e m a c h i n e had a moisture c o n t e n t o f 18$ to 20$.

Due t o t h e warmth o f t h e m a t e r i a l , i t was found to dry to 12$

to 14$ m o i s t u r e when s p r e a d on a cement f l o o r f o r two to four

hours. The m a t e r i a l was then sacked up for transport to a

commercial feed mill.

The c a p a c i t y o f t h e m a c h i n e u n d e r our c o n d i t i o n s was

about 200 l b s . o f product per hour. However, i t must be

pointed out t h a t i t was felt that t h e m a c h i n e was never

operating at f u l l c a p a c i t y w i t h r e g a r d s t o b o t h q u a n t i t y and

extremes of temperature and pressure.

Results and D i s c u s s i o n

The g r o w t h and feed intake results a r e shown i n

Table II-2. As was expected, the animals receiving the H

rations had the g r e a t e s t gains (p<.01). Feed i n t a k e and

feed efficiency a l s o appeared better for this treatment. It

s h o u l d be noted that the animals on t h e W and E rations had

acceptable rates o f g a i n and feed conversion.

In comparing t h e W and E treatments, a slight

increase i n f a v o r o f t h e e x t r u d e d wood i s s e e n i n both feed

 29.

efficiencies and g a i n . T h i s m i g h t be a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t some

cellulose i s being f r e e d by the extruding process and t h a t

p e r h a p s u n d e r more s e v e r e conditions o f t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure

a more n o t i c e a b l e v a r i a t i o n w o u l d be experienced.

Trial IB. E f f e c t of l e v e l of p r o t e i n i n the d i e t

on t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f a l d e r s a w d u s t b y
growing c a t t l e .

This trial was run concurrently with Trial 1A. The

effects o f two r o u g h a g e s o u r c e s (wood (W) and h a y ( H ) ) , fed

at two l e v e l s ( 1 5 % and 2 0 % ) and two p r o t e i n l e v e l s ( 1 3 % and

15%) were s t u d i e d . Besides studying the e f f e c t o f the

various roughage s o u r c e s f e d a t two d i f f e r e n t levels i t was

hoped t h a t a b e n e f i c a l e f f e c t due t o i n c r e a s e d protein levels

w o u l d be d e t e c t e d i n animal performance.

Materials and Methods

Animals

For t h e 13% p r o t e i n l e v e l treatment, the animals

on t h e H and W t r e a t m e n t s outlined i n T r i a l 1A were used.

For t h e 15% p r o t e i n l e v e l t r e a t m e n t , 2 4 a n i m a l s were randomly

assigned t o 4 pens. These animals r e c e i v e d t h e same treatment

as those i n T r i a l 1A.

F e e d i n g , W e i g h i n g and H o u s i n g

All c o n d i t i o n s were t h e same as d e s c r i b e d under

Trial 1A.

Rations

The 13% p r o t e i n l e v e l r a t i o n s were t h o s e described

for t h e H and W t r e a t m e n t s in Trial 1A. F o r t h e 15% p r o t e i n

 Table II-l. Composition o f r a t i o n s fed t o f a t t e n i n g beef steers. Trial 1A.

Groups
X5^ ^5% 15^—
extruded extruded untreated untreated 15$ 20$
wood wood sawdust sawdust hay hay
E-l E-2 W-l W-2 H-l H-2

pounds p e r t o n

Ingredients

Barley 1427 1322 1427 1322 l44o 1338

Urea 35 38.5 35 38.5 22 22
Molasses 100 100 100 100 100 100
A l f a l f a Meal 100 100 100 100 100 100
Salt 15 15 15 15 15 15
Premix (Trace
Minerals) 5 5 5 5 5 5
Tricalcium
Phosphate 18 20 18 20 18 . 20
Limestone 0.5 - 0.5 - - -
E x t r u d e d Wood
(Alder) 300 4oo - - - -
U n t r e a t e d Sawdust
(Alder) - - 300 4oo - -
Hay - - - - 300 4oo
Table I I - 2 . E f f e c t s o f f e e d i n g n o n - p r o c e s s e d and e x t r u d e d a l d e r s a w d u s t and h a y
to f a t t e n i n g beef s t e e r s . T r i a l IB.

15% 20% 15% 20%

extruded extruded untreated untreated 15% 20%
wood wood sawdust sawdust hay hay
E-l E-2 W-l W-2 H-l H-2

trial 63 63 63 63 63 63
Average i n i t i a l
body w e i g h t ( l b s . ) 700 702 720 713 712 721
Average f i n a l
body weight 870 .. 881 8 7 7 ... 886 965 961
Average t o t a l 1
gain 170 179 157 173 253 + 240 +

Average d a i l y
gain 2.70 2.84 2.48 2.74 4.01 3.81
Average feed
intake 1124 1165 1138 1201 1340 1342
Feed
efficiency 6.61 6.64 6.67 - 6.94 5.29 5.58

+ p < .01
 32.

level r a t i o n s the p r o t e i n (Nitrogen x 6 . 2 5 ) was i n c r e a s e d by-

adding urea and s u b t r a c t i n g a n e q u a l w e i g h t of barley. Other

than p r o t e i n l e v e l s , the r a t i o n composition was changed very

little. (Table II-3).

Results and D i s c u s s i o n

The results are given i n Table II-4. As i n T r i a l

1A t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t increase (p < .01) i n t h e g a i n o f

the a n i m a l s r e c e i v i n g h a y as a r o u g h a g e source.

The increased level o f p r o t e i n d i d n o t show a n y

beneficial effects.

I n g e n e r a l , when t h e l e v e l o f wood (W o r E treat-

m e n t ) i n t h e d i e t was i n c r e a s e d f r o m 15% t o 20%, a s l i g h t i n -

crease i n g a i n was n o t e d . However, when t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e

f r o m 15% t o 2 0 % i n h a y a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n g a i n was observed.

The d e c r e a s e i n g a i n when t h e h a y c o n t e n t o f the r a t i o n was

increased c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f d i l u t i o n o f the energy

content o f the r a t i o n . As t h e l e v e l o f a v a i l a b l e energy i n

wood i s much l o w e r t h a n i n h a y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to explain

the i n c r e a s e i n g a i n when t h e l e v e l o f wood i n t h e d i e t i s

increased. I t might prove e n l i g h t e n i n g t o observe the e f f e c t

of the s i z e o f t h e wood p a r t i c l e used i n the d i e t on a n i m a l

performance.

Trial 2. In v i t r o digestion studies.

In t h i s trial, the d i g e s t i b i l i t y o f the r a t i o n s

used in Trial 1A and I B was d e t e r m i n e d using the i n v i t r o

 Table I I - 3 . Ration composition, T r i a l IB.

Diets
15% 2 0 %

Alder Alder 15$ 2 0 %

Sawdust Sawdust Hay Hay

W-3 w-4 H-3 H-4

Ingredients pounds p e r t o n

Barley- 1412 1306 1425 1324

Urea 50 54 37 . 36

Molasses (dry) 100 100 100 100

Alfalfa leaf meal 100 100 100 100

A l d e r sawdust
(untreated) 300 400 - -
Hay (legume grass
mix) - - 300 400

Salt 15 15 15 15

Premix 5 5 5 5

T r i c a l c i u m phosphate 18 20 18 20

Limestone 0.5 - — -

A Trace minerals ( P I L m i n e r a l m i x ) and V i t a m i n A.

 Table II-4. Results of T r i a l IB.

Initial^ Final* " ~ " "

On Body Body Total* Daily* Feed* Feed i n t a k e *
Diet Trial Weight Weight Gain Gain Intake per l b . gain
lbs. lbs. lbs. lb./day lbs.

W-l 63 720 877 157 2.48 1138 6.67

W-2 63 713 886 173 2.74 1201 6.94

W-3 63 726 886 160 2.54 1235 7.72

W-4 63 715 860 145 2.30 1266 8.73

H-l 63 712 965 253 4.01 1340 5.29

H-2 63 721 961 240 3.81 1342 5.58

H-3 63 722 934 212 3.36 1286 6.07

H-4 63 721 967 246 3.90 1391 5.66

A Refers t o average values f o r the pen.

 35.

technique. The only m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o the r a t i o n s were that

i n the H l a b e l l e d r a t i o n s , no hay was i n c l u d e d i n t h i s study.

The purpose o f t h i s t r i a l was t o o b t a i n p r e l i m i n a r y observations

on the u t i l i z a t i o n o f the various r a t i o n s and e v e n t u a l l y com-

pare t h i s method o f r a t i o n e v a l u a t i o n with jLn v i v o d i g e s t i o n

studies.

M a t e r i a l s and Methods

The _in v i t r o technique i s given i n Appendix I .

Rumen inoculum was obtained from a f i s t u l a t e d s t e e r maintained

on a d i e t o f a l f a l f a hay. Dry matter and c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n s

were determined.

Results and D i s c u s s i o n

The r e s u l t s are given i n Table I I - 5 . I t can be seen

t h a t the concentrate r a t i o n (H) had a much h i g h e r digestion

c o e f f i c i e n t than the r a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g e i t h e r wood (¥) or

extruded wood (E) ( p { . 0 1 ) . Comparison of the W and E r a t i o n s

showed a higher d i g e s t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( p < . 0 5 ) f o r the E

rations. T h i s i n d i c a t e s an i n c r e a s e d d i g e s t i o n o f the extruded

wood p o r t i o n o f the d i e t . When the c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n s were

s t u d i e d , there was a n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n c e l l u l o s e

d i g e s t i o n o f the E r a t i o n s over the W r a t i o n s . The l a r g e

v a r i a t i o n from run t o run i n the c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n determin-

a t i o n s can p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n the n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t value f o r the

d i f f e r e n c e between W and E treatments.

 36.

The effect of l e v e l o f roughage i n c l u d e d i n the

d i e t was p r o n o u n c e d . In a l l determinations the 15% l e v e l o f

r o u g h a g e had a h i g h e r dry matter d i g e s t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (p<.01)

than the 2 0 % roughage level.

Trial 3. In vivo d i g e s t i o n studies using sheep.

D i g e s t i b i l i t y studies o f the r a t i o n s defined i n

Trial I I were c o n d u c t e d u s i n g t h e jLn v i v o t e c h n i q u e . The ob-

ject was t o d e t e r m i n e d r y m a t t e r d i g e s t i o n of. t h e r a t i o n s and

a l s o determine the d i g e s t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f the various

fibrous components i n t h e r a t i o n ( c e l l u l o s e , acid detergent

fibre, and a c i d d e t e r g e n t lignin).

Methods and M a t e r i a l s

Animals

G r o w i n g w e t h e r s were u s e d . Digestion studies were

initiated when t h e w e t h e r s had r e a c h e d a body w e i g h t o f 8 0

pounds.

Procedure

The method was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same as o u t l i n e d i n

Experiment I , T r i a l 2, e x c e p t that c o l l e c t i o n s were made over

a 5-day p e r i o d . Also, a l l t h e f e c e s were c o l l e c t e d and s t o r e d

at 4°C, i n the presence o f phenol c r y s t a l s , f o r the e n t i r e

collection interval. The m a t e r i a l was m i x e d w e l l , and t h e n

three 5 0 0 gram s a m p l e s were u s e d f o r d r y matter determinations.

Cellulose content o f the feed and f e c e s was d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e

 37.

method o f Crampton and Maynard (1938). Acid detergent fibre,

acid detergent l i g n i n , and a c i d detergent c e l l u l o s e were

determined b y t h e method o f Van S o e s t (19^3).

Results and D i s c u s s i o n

The r e s u l t s are given i n Table II-6. When t h e d r y

matter digestions o f t h e r a t i o n s were compared, t h e H rations

had a significantly ( p < . O l ) higher percentage digestion than

either the W or E r a t i o n s . The v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e W and

E r a t i o n s was not s i g n i f i c a n t , although the E r a t i o n s con-

sistently had a s l i g h t l y higher dry matter digestion than the

W,rations.

The l e v e l o f roughage (15$ o r 20$) i n the d i e t had

no e f f e c t on t h e p e r c e n t a g e dry matter digestion.

The e f f e c t of i n c r e a s i n g the p r o t e i n level i n the

d i e t was shown o n l y i n t h e d i g e s t i o n of cellulose. The i n -

c r e a s e from 13$ t o 15$ protein caused a significant (p< .05)

decrease i n cellulose digestion.

As the l i g n i n and c e l l u l o s e content o f the feed i n -

creased, the degree o f d r y matter digestion decreased. In

contrast, as t h e d r y m a t t e r digestion decreased, t h e grams of

cellulose and a c i d detergent f i b r e digested increased. From

the increase i n disappearance of cellulose and a c i d detergent

fibre, i t c a n be c o n c l u d e d that this i n c r e a s e c o u l d be due

to decomposition o f wood. That the degree o f u t i l i z a t i o n of

wood i s low was p o i n t e d o u t b y t h e low p e r c e n t a g e digestion of

 38.

Table II-5. In v i t r o digestion, Trial 2

Dry Matter Cellulose

Ration Digestion - % Digestion - %

R-l 81.6 31.0

H-2 73.7 48.3

H-3 79.8 49.3

H-4 79.4 55.3

W-l 66.5 31.8

W-2 50.7 28.3

W-3 • 53.5 15.1

W-4 59.7 18.9

E-l 59.9 32.9

E-2 62.6 43.4

& For a description o f the r a t i o n s , see T a b l e s I I - l and II-3.

 Table II-6. In vivo d i g e s t i o n , T r i a l 3 .

Dry M a t t e r ADF Lignin Cellulose

Diet Digestion Digestion Digestion Digestion

% gm. f gm. gm. %

H-l 77.8 146.0 3 2 . 8 8 0 . 5 5 7 . 5 142.9 3 5 . 4

H-2 7 8 . 6 1 8 7 . 8 3 7 . 9 7 3 . 4 4 9 . 8 1 1 8 . 4 3 1 . 5

H-3 7 4 . 8 9 0 . 2 2 0 . 1 6 6 . 2 4 7 . 0 7 0 . 2 2 1 . 2

H-4 7 6 . 9 7 1 . 3 1 7 . 3 4 9 . 2 4 3 . 7 5 3 . 5 1 6 . 8

W-l 6 6 . 9 2 0 4 . 3 2 2 . 3 5 0 . 8 2 5 . 3 2 3 2 . 0 3 0 . 3

W-2 64.4 3 4 7 . 5 2 9 . 3 3 1 . 7 1 3 . 3 8 6 . 3 1 3 . 0

W-3 6 5 . 3 3 2 9 . 3 2 9 . 9 6 5 . 2 2 6 . 7 8 1 . 8 1 2 . 2

w-4 6 7 . 2 3 2 4 . 9 2 9 . 1 6 3 . 2 24.1 7 7 . 9 1 1 . 4

E-l 6 9 . 0 3 1 2 . 8 3 2 . 2 2 4 . 8 1 3 . 0 8 3 . 1 14.4

E-2 6 7 . 2 211.4 2 2 . 1 3 1 . 2 1 6 . 0 142.1 2 0 . 1

 40.

o f t h e c e l l u l o s e and a c i d d e t e r g e n t fibre.

A m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n program p r o v i d e d by t h e U.B.C.

Computing Centre was used i n a t t e m p t i n g t o p r e d i c t in v i v o

d i g e s t i o n v a l u e s from t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from the _in v i t r o

t r i a l and r a t i o n c o m p o s i t i o n .

When a l l these f a c t o r s ( i n v i t r o d r y matter digest-

i o n , i n v i t r o c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n , acid detergent f i b r e content,

acid detergent l i g n i n , acid detergent c e l l u l o s e , cellulose,

and p r o t e i n ) were used, an R v a l u e o f O . 9 8 8 was o b t a i n e d

(98.8% o f t h e v a r i a t i o n i n _in v i v o d i g e s t i o n coefficients

can be e x p l a i n e d u s i n g t h e s e t e r m s ) . I t was found t h a t s e v e r a l

of the f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d very l i t t l e t o the equation ( i n

v i t r o c e l l u l o s e d i g e s t i o n , a c i d d e t e r g e n t c e l l u l o s e and p r o t e i n ) .

By d r o p p i n g them from t h e e q u a t i o n , the amount o f l a b o r a t o r y

p
work was d e c r e a s e d and s t i l l a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t R value
c o u l d be o b t a i n e d . I t was found f o r t h e r a t i o n s i n t h i s
2

study that a s i g n i f i c a n t R v a l u e c o u l d be o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t

i n c l u d i n g t h e l a b o r i o u s _in v i t r o d a t a . However t h e in v i t r o

data d i d increase the value o f R 2

so both equations are given.

In v i v o d r y matter d i g e s t i o n = 60.1252 + 0.0221 (in vitro

dry matter d i g e s t i o n ) + 0 . 4 7 9 9 ( a c i d detergent f i b r e ) -

3.5855(lignin) - O.8395(cellulose).
R 2
= 0.8877
 41.

The equation n o t i n c l u d i n g t h e _in v i t r o d a t a i s :

In v i v o d r y m a t t e r d i g e s t i o n = 9 5 . 2 3 9 3 + 0 . 4 l 2 0 ( a c i d detergent

fibre) - 4.698(lignin) - 0.9526(cellulose).

R 2
= O.8657

SUMMARY

No a p p a r e n t h a r m f u l e f f e c t s c o u l d be d e t e c t e d when

a l d e r wood was i n c l u d e d i n the diet up t o a 3 5 % l e v e l . Tender-

n e s s and j u i c i n e s s o f r o u n d and s i r l o i n steaks were unaffected

by i n c l u s i o n or l e v e l o f wood i n t h e d i e t .

The degree o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e wood was difficult

to determine. From t h e d i g e s t i o n s t u d i e s i t a p p e a r s as i f

the wood was d i g e s t e d t o the extent o f 10% t o 15%. T h a t some

o f t h e wood was d i g e s t e d was c o n f i r m e d b y t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e

rumen v o l a t i l e fatty acids (VFA) f r o m t h e v a r i o u s treatments.

At high l e v e l s o f wood i n t h e d i e t (35%), the p r o p o r t i o n o f

propionic a c i d p r o d u c e d was d e c r e a s e d (p<.05), while the

amounts o f a c e t i c and t o t a l VFA r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y constant.

This i s i n d i c a t i v e of increased c e l l u l o s e catabolism, which

could o n l y have come f r o m t h e wood.

The effect o f treatment o f a l d e r wood w i t h high

t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e (the extruding p r o c e s s ) d i d not pro-

duce any s i g n i f i c a n t results, a l t h o u g h i t d i d a p p e a r as i f

extruding t h e wood e n h a n c e d t h e m i c r o b i a l breakdown o f t h e

 42.

alder sawdust.

Effect of level o f roughage f e d d i d n o t g i v e consist-

ent results. By i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f h a y i n t h e d i e t ,

the g a i n s made b y t h e a n i m a l s were d e c r e a s e d . However, when

the l e v e l o f wood ( e x t r u d e d and n o n - e x t r u d e d ) was i n c r e a s e d

t h e r e was u s u a l l y a s l i g h t increase i n animal performance.

Increasing the protein l e v e l o f the d i e t by adding

urea d i d not i n c r e a s e animal gain or r a t i o n digestibility.

Analysis o f the d i g e s t i o n o f the f i b r o u s components

of the feed (acid detergent fibre, acid detergent l i g n i n , and

c e l l u l o s e ) helped t o c o n f i r m t h e p a r t i a l breakdown o f t h e

cellulose i n wood.

Correlation o f JLn v i t r o d i g e s t i o n r e s u l t s and i n

vivo digestion v a l u e s was h i g h . When t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f

the r a t i o n s s t u d i e d was i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e _in v i t r o d a t a , 8 9 %

of the v a r i a t i o n i n _in v i v o d r y m a t t e r digestion (DMD) c o u l d

be explained. (DMD = 6 0 . 1 2 5 2 + 0.0221 ( i n v i t r o d r y matter

digestion) + 0.4799 (acid detergent fibre) - 3.5855 (lignin)

- 0.8395 (cellulose)).

Wood a p p e a r s t o be a s u i t a b l e roughage replacement

in high concentrate diets f o r ruminants, but with the techniques

used i n this study, appears t o be o n l y a m i n o r s u p p l y o f

energy t o the animal.

 43.

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 48.

APPENDIX I

In vitro technique

Fermentation v e s s e l s and c o n d i t i o n s

125 ml. erlenmeyer f l a s k s with rubber stoppers,

fitted w i t h b u n s e n v a l v e s were u s e d . The d i g e s t i o n took

place in a 39.5° C water bath f o r 48 h o u r s . T h i s was followed

by a 2 0 hour p e p s i n d i g e s t i o n i n an oven s e t a t 3 9 ° C.

B u f f e r s , M i n e r a l M i x and S u b s t r a t e

The b u f f e r s and m i n e r a l m i x u s e d were t h o s e described

by Donefer (i960). A 1-gram sample o f s u b s t r a t e was added

t h a t had p a s s e d through a 4 0 mesh screen.

Procedure

The b u f f e r and m i n e r a l m i x were added a l o n g with.the

substrate t o the fermentation f l a s k and a l l o w e d to equilibrate

in the water bath after s a t u r a t i o n with COg. T e n m l . o f rumen

fluid was then added t o e a c h f l a s k , w h i l e t h e f l a s k was being

gassed with C0 .2 The f l a s k was sealed t i g h t l y and f e r m e n t a t i o n ,

allowed t o continue f o r 48 h o u r s . The f e r m e n t a t i o n was term-

inated with 2 ml. of saturated mercuric chloride solution.

 49.

Contents o f t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n f l a s k were q u a n t i t a t i v e l y

removed and added t o a p r e v i o u s l y t a r r e d ( w i t h a s b e s t o s ) tall

(50 ml. capacity) s u c t i o n f i l t e r c r u c i b l e (coarse p o r o s i t y ) .

The s u p e r n a t a n t was d i s c a r d e d and the p e p s i n (Thompson, 1 9 6 6 )

d i g e s t i o n was c a r r i e d out i n the s u c t i o n f l a s k f o r 2 0 h o u r s .

The f l a s k s were then f i l t e r e d under s u c t i o n and t a k e n

to dryness i n an oven ( 8 0 ° C) f o r d r y m a t t e r determination.

The c e l l u l o s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s were a l s o done i n the s u c t i o n

f l a s k s u s i n g t h e method o f Crampton and Maynard ( 1 9 3 8 ) as

m o d i f i e d by Donefer (i960).

The s u c t i o n f l a s k s were f i r s t c l e a n e d w i t h d e t e r g e n t

and then w i t h a 3 0 % s o l u t i o n o f H C 1 .