UrTiF - IIL c-.,il,n*.J.

Acell+rall r:,r lr::r.i. scini-pemeableprotectivelavcr i:r -i,rlir,.:i: types.Thisoutercoveri::g i:, i'rir'.;rir,;;iri trextto
ihe cell r,,. , ii':iusrna membrane) inmost piei:i -. , , ,,'.. !:ri'Lr:ria, aigae, and sotne;::.. i ::':l
celis horvcr ci. iL) ntrt iiave a cell wall. The ceil r,vall irir: r).ri].. inpofiant functions in a cell ittcltttirril i-'i()l.elioll,
stlucturc. illl(l )lli'lrt rl i

-
Cetl wall Lr()lni)(!siti()u varies depending on the organisnr lr: planls, the cell rvall is composed l.'turr;ti" rrl'stri.-rttg tibers
of the citr hr:l:. ,,, .r,{- p()lvnter cellulose. Cellulose is tirc rnli.jrrr cornponent of cotton fiber and $ r,t;rl- lritil it is used in
paper prorlucti()n. lJacterial cell walls are composed ol'a sugar and arnino acid polymer called pegrtidogll can. The
main conrponcnts *i'ilngal cell walls are chitin, glucarts. and proteins.
Plant Cell \&'aii Struciure

Middle
Lamella

Primary
CellWall

Plasma l- Hemrcellulose
MembranlL-
Soluble
Protein

The plant cell ri all is multi-layered and consists of up to tlrree sections. From ihe outermosl !a5'e r ol the ce l1 rval1,
these layers arc idcr:tified as the middle lamella" prir:ran' ccll u'all, and secondary cell wal1. \,Vh:1c all plant cells have
a middle lanrella and primary ce1l wa1l, not all have a secondary cell rvall.
. lHiddls lamella: This outer cell lvall layer contains polysaccharides called pectins. Peclins aid in cell
adhesion by heiping the cell wal1s of adjacent cells to bind to one another"
. Primary cell wall: This layer is formed betrveen the middle lamella and plasrra trtentbil::c in ggowing planr
cells. lt is primarily composed of cellulose rnicrohbrils contained within a gel-like matrix of hemicellulose
fibers and pectin polysaccharides. The primary cel1 wall provides the strength and flexibility needed to a1low
for cell growth-
r Secondary cell wall: This layer is formed betrveen the primary celi wall and plasma membrane ln some plant
cells. Once tire primary cell wall has stopped dividing and growing, it may thicken 1o lorm a secondary cell
wall. fhis rigid layer strengthens and supports the cell. In addition to cellulose and hemicellulose, some
secondary cell rnalis contain lignin. Lignin strengthens the cell wall and aids in water conductivity in plant
r,ascrl iar I i ssr..rt cells.
A major role ol'the cc1l wall is to form a frame'*,'ork for the cell to prevent over expansior-r. C-ellulose fibers. structural
proteins, and other polysaccharides help to maintain the shape and form of the cel1. AdditiorraI functions of the cell
wall include:
. Support: 'fhe cell 'uval1 provides mechanical strength and support. It also controis the direction of cell glowth.
r Withsta*d turgor pressure: Turgor pressure is the fbrce -fhis
exerted against the cel1 wall as the contenis of the
ceil pusir the plasma membrane against the celi r.vall. pressure helps a plant to reitrain rigid and erect, but
can also cause a cell to rupture.
Regulate grotvth: The cell wall sends signals fur the ceil to enter the cell l;re lc in r-rrCcl to divide and grow.
." Regulate diflusion: The cell wali is porous allowing some substances, includittg pt.i'ir r:a. to pass into the cell
lvhile kceping other substances out.
. Conrmunication: C-'ells communicate u,ith one another via plasrnodesrnata (pores ut ciriilrleis betrveen piant
cell u,alis that allow molecules and cornrnurnicatiorr srgnais 10 pass between ildividual plant cells).
r Protection: 'l'he ceil wall provides a barrier to protect against plani vimses and otlier pathogens. It also heips
to prevent waier 1oss.
. Storage : The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seerls.
l'hc Cell Walt of,Bacteria
-fhis
Unlike in plant cells. the cell wall in prokaryotic bacteria is composed of peptidogl,vcan. molecuie is unique to
bacterial cclI rvall composition.
Peptidogl-vcan is a polynner composed of double-sugars anil artrirro acids (prolein subuniis). [-his molecule gives the
cell rvall rigiditv and helps to give bacteda shli1"rc. Peptidoglycan moiecules form shee:s rvhich enclose and protect the
bacterial plasrna mernbrane.
'l'he cell rvail in gram-positive bacteria contains several layers of peptidoglycan. Thesc stackcd layers increase the
thickness of the ceil rvaii. In gran-negative bacteria. tlie celi rvall is not as thick beearrsc it contails a ntuch lowel
percentagc. of peptidoglycan. I'he gram-negative lracterial ce ll wal] also contains an outer 1a3..'er o1'lipopol.vsaccharides
{l"PS). The I-PS layer sunounds the peptidogl}'can layer and acts as ar:. endotoxin (poisorr) ir: ;::tl:r,geriir::
 bacter'ra (diseasc cuirsiir:' ltae teria). The LPS layer also prrile(t\ unint-negative bacteria against ccrtiittl such
as penicillins.

'l hc rcli nrcnrbrane (plasma mernbrane) is ;i tittrt

'cnii-
Cel.l Membrane Strsctsre pel t,t'it 'tll.
lts tiurction is to prolect the integrity of tltc irticrior ril'the
HydaoFhiLic ileads cell b;' allorving certain substances into the ccll u f iilc
keeping olher substances out. It also serves as a base ol
Choleg:e roa
attiichmcrt for the c1'toskeleton in some organisrtts atrd
the c,:li * iril in others. Thus the cell mernbratte i.:iso scn'es to
help support the cell and help maintain its shape .

Anothcr tunction of the membrane is to regulale tcii growth

througli the balance of endocytosis and .\'.]r,'' l{,'r)" IIl
iiegrai
endocyiosis, lipids and proteins are removed thirn the cell
i

Pr otei.s

'Cetl:lrelnb.ane
B€c*ptor Proteins
P. ripheral
drophobic Taii
nrcnrbrane as substances are intemalized. ln ctL't'r1osis.
Proteing

@ vesiclcs containing lipids and proteins lusc u'itir ihe cell

mernbrane increasing cell size. Animal ccll:. ,-, ,r'i
ce1ls, prokaryclir: ccils. and lungal cells have plasma membranes. Intental organelles are also encased h1'nrcmbranes.

The cell membraae is pnmarily composed of a mix of pj:;;s:lii and 1ii:irls. Depending on the membratrc's iocation and
role in the body', lipids can make up anyrvhere from l0 to 80 perceat of the membrane, r.l'ith the reltairtder being
proteins. While lipids help to givc :rrcnrbraues their
ilexibility, proteins rnonitor and mainLai;r the cell's
chemical climate and assist in thtr tratisltr ol
molecules across the tnembrane.
Cell Membrane Lipicls
Phospholipids are a major component o1'cell
membranes. Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in
which their hydrophilic (attracled to water) head
areas spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous
cytosol and the extracellular fluid. while their
hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face
away from the cytosol and extmcellular fluid. The
lipid bilayer is semi-permeabie, allor.vi;rg only
certain molecules to diffuse across the n-rembrane.
Cholesterol is another lipid componeiti ol animal
cell membranes. Cholesterol molecules are
selectively dispersed betw'een membraue
phospholipids. This helps to keep cell I:renrbranes
from becoming stiff by preventing phospholipids from bei:rg too closely packed together. Cholesterol is not tound in
the membranes of plant cells.
Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohvdrate sugar chain attached to thetr:. 1'hey help
the cell to recognize other cel1s of the body.
Cell Membrane Proteins
The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins. Peripheral membrare proteins are extcrior to and
comected to the membrane by interactions with other proteins. Integral membrane proteits are inserterl into the
membrane and ntost pass through the mernbrane. Portions of these transmernbrane proteins are exposed ort br:th sides
of the membrane. Cell membrane proteins have a nlunber of different functions.
Structural proteirs help to give the cell support and shape.
Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communica:e with:heir extemal environment tlrough the use
of homcncs, neurotransmitters, and other signaling tloiecules.
Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecuies across cell membranes through lacilitated
diffusion.
Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. 'fhey are embedded in the cell membrane ard help
ia cell to cell communications aad molecule iransport iicross the membrane.
Fluid mosaic model
The currently accepted model far the structure ol ll-re plasma membrane, called the fluid mosaic modcl. was f-rrst
proposed tn 1912. This model has er.olved over time. but it still provides a good basic description ol the structure and
t
behavior of rnembranes in many cells.
AccorJing to the ilurd i)r(i>riic rnodei, the plasma membranel, ;., ',t,,.:,it o1-components-primarily, pilo.sl:i:,,1:irirls,
cholesterol, and protctns th{it rnove freely and fluidly in tite plrr:rc ..,i-iirc ntembrane. In other words, a iitlt!r-;trtt ol'l}re
membrane (like thc trnc he lrru') is just a snapshot of a dynamic pr()iLss irt u,hich phospholipids and prolcitis rri-c
continually sliding pa\t r)1lc atrtlther.
Interestingly erough. rhis iiuidity nleans that if you insert a rclr llne rtccdle into a cell, the membrane rvili stnrplr part
to flow around the necdlc: once the needle is removed, the melnirrrrrtc u iil flow back together seamlesslv.

The principal componenls ol'ihe plasma mernbrane are lipids ( plrt'spholipids and cholesterol), proteins. antl
carbohydrate groups that are attached to some of the lipids and protcitrs.
A phospholipiri is a lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails. and a phosphate-linked head group.
Biological membrancs usuall.v involve two layers of phospholiprdrr *'ith thcir tails poirxing inward, an arrailsctlcnt
called a phospholipid bilal'er.
Cholesterol, anrilher lipid composed of four fused cari'xrr'l nngs. is found alongside phospholipids itr tlie core
of the membrane.
Membrane proteins rnay extend partway into the plasura n:e nlbrane, cross the membrane entirely. tlr be
loosely attached to its inside or outside face.
Carboh.vdrate groups are present only on the outer surllcc ol'tire plasma membrane and are attachccl {tr
proteins, forming gly'coproteins, or lipids, forming glycolipids.
The proportions of prore ins, iipids, and carbohydrates in the plasnra rnembrane vary between different types ol'cells"
For a iypical human cell. horver.,er, proteins account for about 5{} i;crcent of the composition by mass" lipids (oi all
types) account for about 40 percent, and the remaining 10 perccnt cr)I'nes iiom carbohydrates"
Phospholipids
Phospholipids, arrangeti in a bilayer, make up the basic tabric ol'tirc plasma membrane. They are well-suited firr tl-ris
role because they are amphipathic, meaning that they have boili hy'drophilic and hydrophobic regions.

The hydrophilic, or "water-loving," portion of a phospholipid is its head, r.vhich contains a negatively charged
phosphate group as weli as an additional small group (of varying identit]', "R" in the diagram at left), which may also
or be charged or polar. I-he hydrophilic heads of phospholipids in a membrane bilayer face outward, contacting the
aqueous (watery) t'luid both inside and outside the cell. Since waler is a polar molecule, it readily forms electrostatic
(charge-based) interactions with the phospholipid heads.
The hydrophobic, or "rvater-fearing," part of a phospholipid consists of its long, nonpolar fatty acid tai1s. The fatty
acid tails can easily interact with other nonpolar molecules, but thef interact poorly with water. Because of this, it's
more energetically favorable for the phospholipids to tuck their fatty' acid tails away in the interior of the membrane,
where they are shielded from the surrounding rvater. The phospholipid bilayer formed by these interactions makes a
good barrier between the interior and exterior of the cell, because rvater and other polar or charged -substances cannot
easily cross the hydrophobic core of the membrane.

Thanks to their amphipathic nature, phospholipids aren't just rvell-suited to form a membrane bilayer. lnstead, this is
something they'll do spontaneously under the right conditionsl In water rlr aqueous solution, phospholipids tend to
arrange themselves with:heir hydrophobic tails facing each other and their hydrophilic heads facing out. Il'the
phospholipids have small tails, they may form a micelle (a srnall. single-layered sphere), while if they have bulkier
tails, they may form a liposome (a ho1low droplet of bilayer rretnbrane).
Proteins
'l'here
Proteins are the second major component of plasma membranes. are two maia categories of membrane proteins:
integral and peripheral.
Integral membrane proteins are, as their name suggesls, integrated iuto the membrane: they have at least one
hydrophobic region that archors them to the hydrophobic core o1'thc phospholipid bilayer. Some stick oniy parli.vay
into the membrane, while others stretch from one side of the rnenibrane to the other and are exposed ol either
side"l lstart superscript, 1, end superscript. Proteins that extend all the way acrrss the membralle are
calied transmembrane proteins.
The porlions of an integral membrane protein found inside the mcrnbrane are hydrophobic, r.vhile ihose that are
exposed to the cytoplasm or extracellular fluid tend to be hydrophilic. Transmembrane proteins may cross the
membrane just once, or may have as many as twelve different nrembrane-spanning sections. A tlpical membrane-
sparuring segment consists of 20-25 hydrophobic amino acids arra:rged in an alpha helix, although not all
transmembrane proteins fit this model. Some integral membrane proteins form a channel that ailows ions or other
small molecules to pass, as shown below.

Peripheral membrane proteins are found on the outside and inside suri-aces of membranes, attaciled either 1o integral
proteins or to phospholipids. Unlike integral membrane proleins, peripherzrl membrane proteins do not stick into the
hydrophobic core of ll-ie mernbrane, and they tend to be more loosely attached.
Carbchydrates
Carbohydrates are the llririi rr::i,ir. crrluponenl of plasma membranct. !r-r g,:riclrrl. they are found on the outsidc sLilllte u
of cells and are bound e ithc:' :,' rr()icins (forming glycoproteins) or to lrFrtl: {liirrning glycolipids). These
carbohydrate chains ma\ cr)n\r\i ,rt'f -60 monosaccharide units and e lrr bc either straight or branched.
Along with membratle proluut5. rlrt-'se carbohydrates form distinctive ce lluia:' t.rtarkers, sort of like molecular Il)
badges, that allow celjs lo ygg,rsi:iz.c cach other. These markers are vcr! iittl;oftant in the immune system, allt,"i ttt-u
immune cells to difl'erentiatc bt: r\i esn body cells, which they should*'i altack. and lbreign cells or tissues, which thcl'
should.
Membrane fluidity
The structure of the fatty acrd raiis o1'the phospholipids is importanl in dctennining the properties of the memhrane"
and in particular, how lluicl it rs
Safurated fatty acids have ur, dor-rble bonds (are saturated with hydrogens). so they are relatively
straight. Unsaturated iatt3. ae ids. on the other hand, contain one or nlore double bonds, often resulting in a bend t':r
kink. (You can see an exar:rplc ot'a bent, unsaturated tail in the diagr-am ol'phospholipid structure that appears earlie r
in this article.) The saturatcrl and unsaturated fatty acid tails of phospholipids behave differently as temperature rlrr.lps:
At cooler temperarlrrcs, r hc straight tails of satr.rated fatty acids can pack tightly together, making a delse anci
fairly rigid membrane.
Phospholipids u.,ith unsaturated fatty acid tails cannot pack together as tightly because of the bent sttucture o1'
the tails. Because of this. a nrcr:rbrane containing unsaturated phospholipids rvill stay fluid at lower temperalures lltau
a membrane made of saturalr(l rlnrs.
Most cell membranes conlair : nrixture of phospholipids, some with tr.v,.'r saturated (straight) tails aad others w'ith ,.'rne
saturated and one unsaturatecl (bcnt) tail. Many organisms-fish are one example---can adjust physiologically to cold
environments by changing thc propor-tion of unsaturated fatty acids in their membranes. For more information aberut
saturated and unsaturated fattl' aciils. see the article on lipids.
In addition to phospholipids" aninrals have an additional membrane corrponent that heips to maintain
fluidity. Cholesterol, anuther t1.'pc of lipid that is embedded among:he phospholipids of the membrane, helps to
minimize the effects of temperature on fluidity.

At low temperatures, cholesterol increases fluidity by keeping phospholipids from packing tightly together, rvhile at
high temperatures, it actually reduces fluidity^{3,4}3,4start superscript, 3, comma, 4, end superscript. In this rvay,
cholesterol expands the ran-ee of ternperatures at which a mernbrane maintains a functional, healthy fluidity.
Endoolasmic Reticulum : Structure and Function
T[e ddo eukaryotic cells. It plays a major role in the production,
processing, and transport of proteins and lipids. The ER produces transmembrane proteins and lipids for its membrane
and for many other cell components including lysosomes, secretory vesicles, the Golgi appatatus, the cell membrane,
and plant cell vacuoles. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a variety of
functions in plant and animal cells. There are two regions of the ER that differ in both structure and function. One
region is called rough ER because it has ribosomes attached to the cl,toplasmic side of the membrane. The other
region is called smooth ER because it lacks attached ribosomes. Typically, the smooth ER is a tubuie network and the
rough ER is a series of flattened sacs. The space inside of the ER is called the lumen. The ER is very extensive
extending from the cell membrane through the cytoplasm and forming a continuous connection with the nuclear
envelope. Since the ER is connected with the nuclear envelope, the lumen of the ER and the space inside the nuclear
envelope are part of the same compartment.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures mernbranes and secretory proteins. The ribosomes attached to the
rough ER synthesize proteins by the process of translation. ln certain leukocytes (white blood cells), the rough ER
produces antibodies. In pancreatic cells, the rough ER produces insulin. The rough and smooth ER are usually
interconnected and the proteins and membranes made by the rough ER move into the smooth ER to be transferred to
other locations. Some proteins are sent to the Golgi apparatus by special transport vesicles. After the proteins have
been modified in the Golgi, they are transported to their proper destinations within the cell or exported from the cell
by exocytosis.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER, by contrast, is not associated with ribosomes, and its functions differ. The srnooth ER is involved in the
synthesis of lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids, which are used in the production of new cellular
membrane. In certain cell types, smooth ER plays an important role in the synthesis of steroid hormones from
cholesterol. ln cells of the liver, it contributes to the detoxification of drugs and harmful chemicals. The smooth ER
has a wide range of functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol
are necessary for the construction of cell membranes. Smooth ER also serves as a transitional area for vesicles that
transport ER products to various destinations. ln liver cells the smooth ER produces enzymes that help to detoxify
certailr compounds. Inmusclesthe smooth ER assists ii"tt" contraction of muscle cells, and inbraincells it
sl,nthesizes male and female hormttnes.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized type of smooth ER that regulates the ialcium ion concentration in rlie
cytoplasm of striated muscle cells.

..ffi'gIoupofcorrfieC1Cti'.c]irtiilrthaveasimi1arfurrctionrvilhirrlii:i,lgltt]isl]t.
]'here are fourbasic types ol'iir:lrri ir! tlre boily of al1 animals, including lilc ltLr:rtat.: body. These make up all the
L)rgans, slructures and other c<.rrrle nrs rri'tiic body. figure below shows a* e r;.lt;t1:lc t:i"each tissue type.
'i
he four basic types of ani*ial l issric rrc
. Ipithelial tissue is r:'r*Lic r.r1; ol'1ar crs of tightly packed cells that 1i::r tl'ic surfaces of the body for protc.lrl:ir.
secretion, and absi'rtprii,i-:. l:rrrr:ii'r1cs of epithelial tissue include tirc ski:-r^ the liting of the mouth and llt'.c. .,:i,i
the lining of the digcrsti.''c s-r.luttt.
. Muscle tissue is madc iilt .r! cel ir crlntain contractile filameuts llliil til()\'c pasi each other and changc th. ..;,r.:
of the cell. There arr tllr!:f i).i':cs ()1'ntuscle tissue: smooth musclt ir ltiih rs lirund in the inner linings ,.ri'
organs; skeleral muscir. rr lrir:ir is attached to bone and moves tltc trtrdy. artrl cardiac rnuscle which is fi,uri.i
olrly in the heart.
* Nerryous tissue is uradr Li1-i rri'il:e nerve cells (neurons) that togetlre t' lirt't-:r the nervous system, includirtg t::e
brain and spinal cord.
' Connectivetissue is:ria,,icLii){}i"lt.invdifferenttypesof ceilsl}tat arelli irlyolvedinstructure 31fl5slrirrrt i,,1'
the body. Bone. bloaii" lirr. :inil cnrtiiage are all connective tissues. ('rltllecli\re tissue can be densel.v i:ite !.i,.i
togelher, as botre cells alc. r'r:' lr'ri:;eiy packed, as adipose tissue {tat cells) are.

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Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover surfaces (e.9. skin) and line tubes and cavities (e.9. digestive organs,
blood vessels, kidney tubules and airways). Epithelial tissue usually consists of a single layer of cells, however In
certain cases there may be more than one layer. All epithelial tissues are free surfaces attached to the underlying
layers of a basement membrane. There are different types of epithelial tissue which are named according to the
number of layers they form and the shape of the individual cells that make up those layers. Simple epithelium refers
to a single layer of cells. Stratified epithelium refers to two or more layers of cells. Squamous epithelium refers to
flattened cells, cuboidal epithelium refers to cells that are cube-shaped and columnar epithelium refers to vertically
elongated cells. Ciliated epithelium refers to epithelial cells that contain many tiny hair-like projections. A sub-type
of columnar epithelium called ciliated columnar epithelium is found in some places in the body. Ciliated columnar
epithelium contain little finger-like projections called cilia. These cilia beat in a wave-like motion to move particles,
mucus or other substances around the body. Ciliated epithelium is found in the trachea and bronchi of the respiratory
system and in the fallopian tubes of the lemale reproductive tract.
Epithelial Function
Location in body Structure
tissue type

Main function is protective.

Digestive tract, Elongated cells, nuclei located at the base of the Prevents against bacterial
Columnar reproductive cell. Cells connected by tight junctions and receive infection. Can also secrete
orgarN their nutrients from the basement membrane. mucus to protect surface from
damage.

Epithelial Location in Structure Function

tissue type body
Responsible for
Simple:
Simple
capillaries,
Thin and flat cells that are elliptically shaped and lie on diffusion. Thin
squamous and basement membrane. Simple squamous epithelium is structure allows for
stratified
alveoli (in
one-cell thick" Stratified squamous epithelium consists movement of
lungs);
squamous of many layers. substances across the
stratified: skin
cells.

Epithelial
tissue Location in body Structure Function
type

Kidney tubules or Cube-like in structure; may Serve a

protective function against
Cuboidal
glands (regrons of the occasionally have structures bacteria and the wearing away of
body responsible for called microvilli on surface to aid certain organs by lining various
excretion). y.St^.o absorption. structures. Also prevent water loss.

Sirrrple squamous Simple cuboidal Simple columnsr

Stratified sq uamous Stratified cu bsrdal

ffi
Pseu dostratified columnar

General functions of epithelial tissue

. Provides a barrier between the extemal environment and the organ it covers.
. Specialised to function in secretion and absorption.
. Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
. Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.
Muscle tissuc
There are three types of muscle tissue:
l. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac
Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Striated muscle cells are striped, with regular patterns of proteins responsible
for contraction. Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short bursts, whereas smooth muscle contracts for longer.
1. Sketetal muscle is a voluntary muscle. It is striated in appearance. Skeletal muscle tissue has regularly arranged
bundles. It is anchored by tendons and is used to effect skeletal muscle movement, such as locomotion, and maintain
posture. The muscles have a reflex action but can also respond to conscious control.
2. Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle with tapered ends. It is found within the walls of blood
vessels such as arteries and veins. Smooth muscle is also found in the digestive system, urinary tract and in the
trachea" It is responsible for involuntary rhythmic contractions of peristalsis, required for moving food down the
alimentary canal, and for the dilation and construction of blood vessels to control blood pressure.
 {-'
3. Cardiac muscle is the major tissue making up the heart. It is an inr.olutrtary muscle that is striated in appearance"
However, unlike skeletal rnuscle. cardiac muscle connects at branching. irregular angles. The connected branches help
with coordinated contractions ot'the heart.

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

recel;lrlr cell

*- Dendrites

Cell body neuofibril

(node of Ranvieri
myelin sheath

myelin sheath

*-Axon

bi Sensorv neuron a) Motof neuron

(multipolar)
{unipolar)

Sensory neurons are responsible for Ivlotor neurons carry impulses

sending information about the
environment (called stimuli) to the
central nervous system. They are
activated by touch, light, temperature,
pressure, hearing etc. Sensory nerve
cells (or sensory neurons) carry
impulses (electrical signals) from a
receptor to the central nervous system
(cNS).
These neurons are very short
compared to the sensory and
motor neurons. The connectors or
interneurons connect a sensory
neuron with a motor neuron. The
impulse travels from the cell body
at the head end along the short
axon to the dendrites.
from the CNS to muscles or
glands. In most cases the motor
neuron causes muscle contraction
(movement), but motor neurons
can also cause secretion of
substances by glands. The motor
neuron causes a response via
chemicals known as
neurotransmitters.

Nervous tissue
Cells making up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue. In the
central nervous system, nervous tissue forms the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system the nervous
tissue forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, which include the sensory and motor neurons.
The function of nerve tissue is to transmit nerve impulses around the body. Nerves cotrsist of a cell
body (soma), dendrites, which receive impulses, and axons which send impulses. The axons of neurons are
surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath consists of layers of myelin, a white fatty substance" The myelin
sheath's main function is to insulate nerve fibres and it also increases the speed of the impulses transmitted by the
nerve cell. There are three types ofnerve cells: sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons.
Connective tissue
Conlective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting, connecting or separating different types of
tissues and organs in the body. All connective tissue is made up of cells, fibres (such as collagen) and extracellular
matrix. The type of intercellular matrix differs in dillerent connective tissues. There are different types of connective
tissues with different functions. The following table lists some of the different types of connective tissue.
 LUrrltEttlvE flJstllt
Structu r c Function I - rlcat ion
t y'pe

jelly matrix. has

holds the organs in place, surrounds blood vessels and
Areolar (loose network o1'elastic nerves found in the mesentry
cushions and protects organs
connective) fibres which attacl-r which surrounds the intestine
(acts as a packing material)
together

in tendons, ligaments and many

consists ofnon- acts as a shock absorber,
White fibrous tough membrane sheaths that
elastic fibres transfers or absorbs forces
surround organs

gives structure, shape and

rubbery matrix. can joints, nose, sternum, trachea
Cartilage strength; reduces friction;
be flexible or rigid
provides support

made up of collagen
fibres; mineralised provides strength and support;
Bone tissue with calcium and creates red blood cells and bones found all over the body
phosphates to make white blood cells
it solid

Blood
Blood is regarded as a specialised fbrm of connectivetissue because it originates in the bones and has some fibres.
Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. These components are suspended in a yellow
fluid known as plasma.
Red blood cells: called erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow. They do not have a nucleus and are biconcave
in shape. Their biconcave shape makes them flexible so that they can squeeze through nalTow capillaries. It also gives
them a bigger surface to volume ratio, so that they absorb and release gases faster. Red blood cells have a short life
span of approximately 120 days. Red blood cells contain the protein known as haemoglobin. Haernoglobin contains
the pigment known as heme that has an iron (Fe) at its centre that combines with oxygen. Haemoglobin releases
oxygen as required and takes up carbon dioxide. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
retums carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
White blood cells: Are commonly known as leukocytes and are produced in the yellow bone marrow and lymph
nodes. The cells have one or more nuclei. White blood cells are slightly larger than red blood cells and are more
irregular in shape. Their main function is to protect the body from diseases- There are several types of white blood
cells.
Platelets: Also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are fragments of bone marrow cells.
They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in the clotting of blood and prevent excessive bleeding.
Plasma: Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the components of blood to float in
suspension. It makes up about 55a/o55o/, of total blood volume. It contains dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and
carbon dioxide. Its main functions are to transport nutrients, cells and metabolic waste products and maintain blood
volume.
I\,letabolism: Metabolic processcs are corlstantly taking place in the hody. Metabslism is the sum of ail of the
chemical reactions that are involved in cataboiis:n and anabolism. The reaclions goveming the breakdown o1'fbod to
obtain energy are called catabolie rr:actions. Conversely, anabolic reactious use the energy produced by catabolic
reactions io synthesize larger rrol*cules liom smaller or:es, such as u'hen the body forms proteins b,"" stringrng
together amino acids. Both sets ol'rcactions are critical to maintaining lile.
Because catabolic reactioris produee cllergy and anabolic reactions use cllergy, ideally, etergy usage rvould balauce
- the energy produced. If :tre net erlergv change is positive (catabolic reactir.:ns release more energy tl:ar: the anabolic
reac{ions use), then the bod1,' stores the excess cnergy by building fht rnolecules for lo:rg-term storage- On the other
l-:and, if the net energy chauge is r.icsative {calabolic reaclions release less energy than anabolic reactions r-ise}. tlie
body uses stored energy to c():npcrlsate 1or the deficiency of energy releascd by catabolism.
Catabolic Reactions
Catabolic reactions break clorvn large organic molecules into smaller rtrolecules, releasing the energv cor:lained in lhc
chemical bonds. These euersy releases {eouversions) are not 100 percent eificient. Ihe amount of energy't'cleaseii is
less than the total amount contaired in the molecule. Approximately 40 percent of energ,v yielded fror:: tatabolic
reactior"rs is directly transterretl to the high-energy rnolecule adenosi;tc triplrosphate (ATP). A'fP. the ent:rg) cuffensy
ol cells, can be used iml:ediatelv to po\yer molecular maciriues that su1-:port cell, tissue, and orga* iunc:ioti. 'l'hrs
includes building nerv tissue iiud rcpairing dainaged tissue. ATP can alsti be storecl to fulEil future ene:'g)' dcr-rtartds.
'l'he rernainilg 60 perct:nt olthe encrgy relcased liom catabolic re:ctiorts is given olTas heat. rarhich tissucs attd b,rdy'
lluids absorb.
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Of the four major macromolecular groups (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) that are processed by
digestion, carbohydrates are considered the most cornmon source of energy to fuel the body. They take the form of
either complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, or simple sugars (monosaccharides) like
glucose and fructose. Sugar catabolism breaks polysaccharides down into their individual monosaccharides. Among
the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP production in cells, and as such, there are a number of
endocrine control mechanisms to regulate glucose concentration in the bloodstream. Excess glucose is either stored as
an energy reserve in the liver and skeletal muscles as the complex polymer glycogen, or it is converted into fat
(triglyceride) in adipose cells (adipocytes).
Among the lipids (fats), triglycerides are most often used for energy via a metabolic process called B-oxidation. About
one-half of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue under the skin, whereas the
rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs.
Proteins, which are polymers, can be broken down into their monomers, individual amino acids. Amino acids can be
used as building blocks of new proteins or broken down further for the production of ATP. When one is chronically
starving, this use of amino acids for energy production can lead to a wasting away of the body, as more and more
proteins are broken down.
Nucleic acids are present in most of the foods you eat. During digestion, nucleic acids including DNA and various
RNAs are broken down into their constituent nucleotides. These nucleotides are readily absorbed and transpofied
throughout the body to be used by individual cells during nucleic acid metabolism.
Anabolic Reactions
In contrast to catabolic reactions, anabolic reactions involve the joining of smaller molecules into larger ones.
Anabolic reactions combine monosaccharides to form polysaccharides, fatty acids to form triglycerides, amino acids
to fbrm proteins, and nucleotides to form nucleic acids. These processes require energy in the form of AT? molecules
generated by catabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions, also called biosynthesis reactions, create new molecules that
lbrm new cells and tissues, andrevitalize organs.
l. Carbohydrates
In addition to being obtained directly from food or generated by photosynthesis, glucose can be synthesized from
other organic molecules. In animal cells, glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis) usually starts with lactate (produced
by anaerobic glycolysis), amino acids (derived from the breakdown of proteins), or glycerol (produced by the
breakdown of lipids). Plants (but not animals) are also able to synthesize glucose from fatty acids-a process that is
particularly important during the germination of seeds, when energy stored as fats must be converted to carbohydrates
to support growth of the plant. ln both animal and plant cells, simple sugars are polymerized and stored as
polysaccharides. Gluconeogenesis involves the conversion of pymvate to glucose-€ssentially the reverse of glycolysis
(Figure 3.19). However, as discussed earlier, the glycolytic conversion of glucose to pyruvate is an energ-v-yielding
pathway, generating two molecules each of ATP and NADH. Although some reactions of glycolysis are readily
reversible, others will proceed only in the d irection of glucose breakdown, because they are associated with a large
decrease in free energy. These energetically favorable reactions ofglycolysis are blpassed during gluconeogenesis by
other reactions (catalyzed by different enzymes) that are coupled to the expenditure of ATP and NADH in order to
drive them in the direction of glucose synthesis. Overall, the generation of glucose from two molecules of pyruvate
requires four molecules of ATP, two molecules of GTP, and two molecules of NADH.
 in holh plant and animal cells, glucose is storecl in the fofrr of polysaccharides (starch and glycogen, respectively).
Tiie s1,'nthesis of polysaccharides, like that of a ll other macromolecules, is an energy reqr"riring reaction.
2. I-iprds
l-ipids are important energy storage molecules and the major constituent of cell nrenrbranes. They are synthesized
liom acetyl CoA, which is formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates, in a series ol reactions that resemble the
reverse of fatty acid oxidation. Fatty acids are synthesized by the stepwise addition trl'two-carbon units derived from
acetyl CoA to a growing chain. The addition of each of these two-carbon units requires the expenditure of one
molecule of ATP and two molecules of NADPH. The major product of fatty acid biosynthesis, which occurs in the
cytosol of eukaryotic cells, is the 16-carbon fatty acid palmitate. The principal constituents of cell membranes
(phospholipids, sphingomyelin, and glycolipids) are then synthesized from free {atty acids in the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
3'Proteins
In contrast to carbohydrates and lipids, proteins (as well as nucleic acids) contain nitrogen in addition to carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Nitrogen is incorporated into organic compounds from different sources in different organisms.
Some bacteria can use atmospheric N2 by a process called nitrogen fixation in which N2 is reduced to NH3 at the
expense of energy in the form of ATP. Although relatively few species of bacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation,
most bacteria, fungi, and plants can use nitrate (N03- ), which is a common constituent of soil, by reducing it to NH3
via electrons derived from NADH or NADPH. Finally, all organisps are able to incorporate ammonia (NH3) into
organic compounds. NH3 is incorporated into organic molecules primarily during the synthesis of the amino acids
glutamate and glutamine, which are derived from the citric acid cycle intermediate a-ketoglutarate. These amino acids
then serve as donors of amino groups during the synthesis of the other amino acids, which are also derived from
central metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. fuIan-v" bacteria and plants can syllthesize
all :0 anrino acids. Humans and cther mamrnals, holvever, can synthesizt-: onlr about half of the required
amino acids; the remainder must be obtained trom dietary sources. The pclvrlerization of amino acids to
fom.r proteins also requires energy. Like rhe sy:rthesis of polysaccharides, the ti::r:ration of the peptide bond
can be conside red a dehydration reaction, which must be driven in the direction ol protein synthesis by being coupled
to another source of metabolic energy. A critical difference between the s.vnthesis of- proteins and that of
pol-vsaccharides is that the amino acids are incorporated into proteins in a unique order, specified by a gene. The order
of nucleotides in a gene specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein via translation in which messenger RNA
{u:RNA) acts as a template for protein synthesis.
{ . Nucleig Acids
The precursors of nucleic acids, the nucleotides, are composed of phosphorylated fir'e-carbon sugars joined to nucleic
acid bases. Nucleotides can be synthesized from carbohydrates and amino acids: they can also be obtained from
dietary sources or reused following nucleic acid breakdown. The starting point lbr nucleotide biosynthesis is the
phosphorylated sugar ribose-5-phosphate, which is derived from glucose-6-phospiuric. Divergent pathways then lead
to the syl-rthesis of purine and pyrimidine ribonucleotides, which are the imn-rcdiatc prcclrrsors for RNA synthesis.
These ribonucleotides are converted to deox.,-ribonucleotides, which serve as the nitrnoi:reric bullding blocks of DNA.
RNA and DNA are polymers of nucleoside inonophosphates. A nucleoside 5'-triphr:spl-iate is added to the 3'hydroxyl
group of a growing polynucleotide chain. u.ith the release and subsequent hy.iiill;'sis ol pyrophosphate sening lo
drive the reaction in the direction of polyr-rucleotide synthesis.
Basic Genetics
Genetics is a field of biology that studies horv traits are passed &om parents tr: tl':cir-ofl'spring. The passing of traits
fror.n parenis to offspring is known as heredity, therefore, genetics is the s1ud3,' r,rl- heredit-v. This iatroduction 1o
genetics takes you through the trasic coa:ponents of genetics such as llhiA. grcnes, chromoson:es aad genetic
inhe*aace..
DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Ilercdltf ir wliat makes children look like
- of
G$ur"r"r1s. During reproduction, DNA is replicated ancl passed i.o* u parerll f.o lheir olfspring. This inheritance
geneiic n-ralerial by offspring iafluences the appearance and behavior of the iill.rpring. The environment thal an
organism iivcs in can also influence horv genes are expressed.
Most DNA is located in the cell nucleqs (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be
found in the mitochondria (where it is liieO mitochondrial DNA). Cenetics is bLrilt around molecules called DNA.
ilNA r-lolecules hold all the genetic infbmation tbr an organism. It provides ceils n,ith the information they need ao
pertbnri tasks that aliow an organism {o grow. sunrive and reproduce. DNA contains the code for building and
maintaining an organism. The code is spelled out in the order, or sequence, ol four chemical bases-adenine (A),
cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)-in the same way that letters of the alphabet come together to form words,
sentences, and paragraphs. Human DNA consists of about three billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases
are the same in all people.
DNA bases pair with each other-A with T, C with G-to form units called base pairs. Each base is attached to a
sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide" Nucleotides
are ananged in two long strands that form a spiral called itaouUte helix. The structure oi-thc double helix is like a
lacider, n,ith base pairs running through the middle like mgs and sugar and phosphate molccules along the outside.
Genes are small sections of the long chain of DNA. They are the basic physical and lunclional units of heredity. In
humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than two million bases. The Human Genome
Projecr has estimated that humans have between 2S000 and !e,000 genes. Every person has two copies of each gene,
one inherited from each parent. Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number ol genes (less than one
percenr of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene w'ith small differences in
their sequence of DNA bases. These small difl'erences contribute to each person's unique features.
GENES .
T-g.n. is or:c pa(icular section of a DNA mr;ice ulc lirat tells a cellto perfotm one specil:c task. DNA molecules have
a unique code for each gene which codes for their specific protein. Some organisms can have more than 100,000
different genes so they will have 100,000 unique sequences of DNA'code'. Genes are the basic unit of heredity. The
genes of an individual are determined by their parent or parents. A bacteria that is bom by one parent cell splitting into
two cells and has the exact same genes as their one parent cell. A human, on the other hand. has two copies of each
gene - one set from their mother and a second set from their father. Different forms ol the same gene are called
alleles. For each gene, a human can have two different alleies or two of the same alleles - one from each parent.
Physical traits such as eye color or height are often determined by the combination of multiple genes. The
environment an individual lives in also impacts how genes are expressed"
Genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. To function correctly, each cell depends on thousands of
proteins to do their jobs in the right places at the right times. Sometimes changes in a gene, called mutations, prevent
or" o. more of these proteins from working properly. This may cause cells or organs to change or lose their function,
which can lead to a disease. Mutations, rather than genes themselves, cause disease. For example, when people say
that someone has "the cystic fibrosis gene," they are usually referring to a mutated version of the CFTR gene, which
causes the disease. All people, including those without cystic fibrosis, have a version of the CFTR gene.
CHROMOSOMES
@turemadefromtightlypackedstrandsofDNAandproteinscalledhistones.StrandsofDNA
"chromatids'-
are tightly wrapped around the histone proteins and fbrm into long worm-shaped structures c*lled Two
chromatids join together to form a chrornosorne. Chromosomes are formed in the nucleus o1'a cell when a cell is
dividing. lt is possible to see chromosomes uncler an ordinary ligtrt microscope if the cell is in the right stage of cell
division. The number of chromosomes varies between species. Humans have 46 chromosones. Sou:e species can have
many more than 100 chromosomes while others calt hat'e as little as two.
GENETIC INHERITANCE
i:rheritance is the backbone of genetics and is an irnpoflant topic to cover in an introductiou to genetics. Long before
DNA had been discovered and the word 'genelics' had been invented, people were studvirts the inher':lance of traits
trom one generation to the next.
Cenetic ilheritalce occtrrs both in sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, two
organisms contribute DNA to produce a ne\r' organism. In asexual reproduction, one crganistrr p:-ovides all the DNA
and procluces a clone of themselves. In either. geretic material is passed from one generali<rtt to the next.
Experiments performed by a monk named Gregor Mendel provided the foundations of our current understanding of
how genetic material is passed from parents to their offspring.
Mendel's Law of Segregation: The principles that govern heredity were discovered by a monk named Gregor Mendel
in the 1860s. One of these principles is now called Mendel's law of segregation.
. Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment: This principle of heredity formulated by Gregor Mendel states that
traits are transmitted to offspring independently of one another.
. Polygenic Inheritance: Polygenic inheritance is the inheritance of traits such as skin color, eye color, and hair
color that are determined by more than one gene.
. Sexlinked Traits: Hemophilia is an example of a common sex-linked disorder that is an X linked recessive
trait.
Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders can happen for many reasons. Genetic disorders often are described in terms of the chromosome that
contains the gene. If the gene is on one of the lirst 22pairs of chromosomes, called the autosomes, the genetic disorder
is called an autosomal condition. If the gene is on the X chromosome, the disorder is called X-linked.
Genetic disorders also are grouped by how they run in families" Disorders can be dominant or recessive, depending on
how they cause conditions and how they run in families.
Dominant
Dominant diseases can be caused by only one copy of a gene with a DNA mtttation If one parent has the disease, each
child has a 50Yo chance of ir.Jreriting the mutated gene.
Recessive
Fo1recessirc tliseases, both copies of a gene must hir\. r, IiNA mutation in order to get one tlt'these diseases. If both
parents harc one copy of the mutated gene, each cliilrl has a 25o/o chance of having the diseasc. crcn though neither
parent has rt ht such cases, each parent is called a canr cr ot' the disease. They can pass the diseasc orl to their children,
but do not have the disease themselves.
Single Gene Disorders
Some ger-retic diseases are caused by a DNA mutatiorr in one of a person's genes. For example, suppose part of a gene
'l'his change in sequence
usually has the sequence TAC. A mutation can changc the seciuence to TTC in some people.
can change the w,ay that the gene works, for example b1' changing the protein that is made. Mutations can be passed
down to a child fiom his or her parents" Or, they can happen fbr the first time in the sperm or egg. so that the child will
have the mutatiorr but the parents will not. Single gene disorders can be autosomal or X-linked.
For example,:iakle !!]l_dlqga_q9is an autosomal single gene disorder. It is caused by a mutatiou in a gene found on
chromosome I 1. Sickle cell disease causes anemia and other complications. Fragile X s,vrldryqir:, on the other hand, is
an X-linked single gene disorder. It is caused by a change in a gene on the X chromosome. It is the most common
known cause ol intellectual disability and developmental disability that can be inherited (passed from one generation
to the next)"
ChromosomaI Abnormalities
Dffirent liumher of Chromosomes
People usually have 23 pairs of chromosomes. But, sonretimes a person is born with a different number. If a person
has an extra chromosome it is called trisomy. If a persorr has a missing chromosome it is called monosomy.
For example, people with Down syndrome have an extra copy of chromosome 2l . This extra copy changes the body's
and brain's normal development ald causes intellectual and physical problems for the person. Some disorders are
caused by having a different number of sex chromosonres. For example, people with Turner syndrome usually have
only one sex chromosome, an X. Women with Tumer syndrome can have problems with growth and heart defects.
Changes in Chromosomes
Sometimes chromosomes are incomplete or shaped ditterently than usual. When a small part of a chromosome is
missing, it is called a deletion. If it has moved to another chromosome, it is called a translocation. If it has been
flipped over, it is called an inversion.
For example, people with Williams syndrome are missing a small part of chromosome 7. This deletion can result in
intellectual disability and a distinctive facial appearance and personality.
Complex Conditions
A complex disease is caused by both genes and entirutnuwtkll/4g!o6. Complex diseases also are called multifactorial.
Many binh defects and developmental disabilities are complex conditions. For example, while some orofacial clefts
are associated with single gene disorders, the majority most likely are caused by changes in several genes acting
together with environment4lg4pglqlgs.

Chromosomes S*vre rl,,{ rc

ffistructuresirrwhichDNAistightlypackagedwithinthenuc1eus.DNAiscoiledaround
proteins called histones, which provide the structural supporl. Chromosomes help ensure that DNA is replicated and
distributed appropriately during cell division. Each chromosome has a centromere, which divides the chromosome
into two sections - the p (short) arm and the q (long) arm. The centromere is located at the cell's constriction point.
 whicir may or uta), nr)t be the center of the chromosome. Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the
nucleus of aninral and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule ot- deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Passed liom parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living
'l'he term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). Scientists
creature unique.
gave this name to chromosomes because they are cell structures, or bodies, that are strongly stained by some colorful
dyes used in research. The constricted region of linear chromosomes is known as the centromere. Although this
constriction is called the centromere, it usually is not localed exactly in the center of the chromosome and, in some
cases, is located almost at the chromosome's end. The regions on either side of the centromere are referred to as the
chromosome's arnls. Centromeres help to keep chromosomes properly aligned during the complex process of cell
division. As chromosomes are copied in preparation for production of a new cell, the centromere serves as an
attachment site fbr the two halves of each replicated chromosome, known as sister chromatids.
At the end of each chromosome is a repetitive nucleotide sequence cap called a telomere. In vertebrates, the telomere
is a TTAGGG sequence repeated to approximately 15,000 base pairs. These DNA regions serye a critical role of
preserving the genomic sequence by protecting the genome from degradation, and inhibiting chromosomal fusion and
recombination. These regions are also involved in chromosome organization within the nucleus-
In humans, 46 chromosomes are arranged in 23 pairs, including 22 pai:"s of chromosomes called autosomes.
Autosomes are labeled l-22 for reference. Each chromosome pair consists of one chromosome inherited from the
mother and one from the father.
In addition to the 22 numbered autosomes, humans also have one pair of sex chromosomes called an allosome. Instead
of labeling these chromosome pairs with numbers, allosomes are labeled with letters such as XX and XY. Females
have two copies of the X chromosome (one inherited from the mother and one from the father). Males have one copy
of the X chromosome (inherited from the mother) and one copy of the Y chromosome (inherited from the father).
Arranged on the chromosomes are genes. Genes are made of DNA and contain the instructions for building proteins
and are integral in making and maintaining the human body.
Functions
The unique structure of chromosomes keeps DNA tightly wrapped around spool-like proteins, called histones.
Without such packaging, DNA molecules would be too long to fit inside cells. For example, if all of the DNA
molecules in a single human cell were unwound from their histones and placed end-to-end, they would stretch 6 feet.
For an organism to grow and function properly, cells must constantly divide to produce new cells to replace old, wom-
out cells. During cell division, it is essential that DNA remains intact and evenly distributed among cells.
Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is accurately copied and distributed in the vast majority
of cell divisions. Still, mistakes do occur on rare occasions. Changes in the nurnber or structure of chromosomes in
new cells may lead to serious problems. For example, in humans, one type of leukemia and some other cancers are
caused by defective chromosomes made up of joined pieces of broken chromosomes. It is also crucial that
reproductive cells, such as eggs and sperrn, contain the right number of chromosomes and that those chromosomes
have the correct structure. If not, the resulting offspring may fail to develop properly. For example, people with Down
syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21 , instead of the two copies found in other people.

The cell cvcle

l

Actively dividing eukaryote cel1s pass through a series of stages known collectivel-v as the cell cyclc: two gap phases
I

i
i (G1 and G2); an S (fbr synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis
partitions the genetic r:raterial and the cell divides.

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