Selection in Plants

The crop plants that we are familiar with have been selectively bred over many
years to develop favorable characteristics, such as larger yields or juicier fruits.
Farmers have traditionally saved seed from the best crops to sow the next year
and in this way, over a long period, crops have been improved. A good example for
this type of artificial selection is shown by different members of the cabbage
family, the Brassicas (family name). A wide range of vegetables have been
selectively bred over many years.

Brassica vegetables and their special characteristics which have been selectively
bred.

Vegetables (cabbage family) Special characteristic

Broccoli Thick stem and green flower head
Brussels sprouts Many small lateral buds
Cauliflower Large white flower head
Cabbage Large terminal bud
Kale Many large leaves
Kohlrabi Thick edible stem

Broccoli
Brussels sprouts Cauliflower

Cabbage Kale
kohlrabi

The staple diets of most countries involve members of the grass family, or the
Graminae. This family includes rice, maize, wheat, oats, barley, rye and millet.
These cereal crops have been cultivated for thousands of years and the varieties
available today are the result of selection and hybridization.

What is a Hybrid?
A hybrid is formed when two different varieties are crossed. The two varieties are
chosen for their desirable characteristics, which it is hoped will be combined in the
offspring. For example, if a variety of wheat with short stems is crossed with a
variety resistant to drought, the hybrid might
have short stems (making it easier to harvest
with less wasted as straw) and also be able to
survive dry conditions. It is not easy to predict
the outcomes of such crosses and plant
breeders are continuously developing new
varieties.

What is an advantage?

By carefully selecting varieties, plant breeders

are able to improve crop plants. The biggest
benefit has been an increase in yields of grain in cereal crops. This is of enormous
importance in feeding the increasing world population. There is now much interest
in developing disease-resistance and drought tolerance in crop plants.

What is a disadvantage?

The major disadvantage to selective breeding is that it reduces variation so there

are fewer varieties of crop plants. If environmental circumstances change, such as
a change in climate, some of our present varieties might not thrive and it would be
difficult to selectively breed new ones. For this reason, it is important to keep
seeds of older varieties so that these genetic resources are available for breeding
new varieties.

Seeds are kept in seed banks, where conditions are controlled to maintain their
viability.

Biotechnology in plant improvement

Biotechnology involves using plant and animal cells and micro-organisms to produce
useful substances. People have used yeast to
make beer, wine and bread for thousands of
years and we also use fungi to make cheese and
bacteria to make yoghurt.

Using bacteria to make disease-resistant

plants

Recent knowledge of the structure of DNA has

enabled scientists to alter the genes in the cells
of living organisms and to introduce
characteristics from another living organism,
this is known as genetic engineering. A gene for
a particular characteristic in one organism can
be introduced into another organism, called the
host. For example, a gene for the resistance to
a certain disease can be introduced into a host
crop plant. When the crop plant is grown, it will not be damaged should there be an
outbreak of the disease.

Scientists can use bacteria to introduce new genetic material into the host cells.
Bacteria are easy to work with and it is possible to insert pieces of DNA carrying
disease resistance into them. When these bacteria enter the host plant they cause
it to produce cells which contain the new DNA. These cells are then used to
produce tiny plants which can be transplanted which will grow into mature, disease-
resistant plants. The tiny plants will be genetically identical and they will all have
the gene for disease-resistance.

There are techniques other than using bacteria that can be used to insert new
genetic material into plants.

There are also other examples of genetic modification (GM) which are used to
improve crops:

Herbicide-resistance can be bred into crop plants: the crop is then sprayed
with herbicide to get rid of the weeds and only the
weeds will be destroyed, not the crop (this has been
done with soya)

Resistance to insect pests-a gene is introduced into the

crop plant which enables it to make a lethal protein which
when attacked by pests; the protein is toxic to the
insect but not to humans or other animals (this has been done with maize)

Virus-resistance: a gene is introduced into rice plants which shows

increased resistance to the rice stripe virus.

Improved flavor and keeping qualities: genetic modification of tomatoes

prevents the softening of tomatoes as they ripen without altering the flavor
and the colour.

Controversy about GM

Research into GM crops continues and the possibilities are huge, with apparent
benefits of growers and for food production. However, not everyone believes that
genetic modification is a good thing. Some of the objections are:

It is a new technology and long term effects are not known

The effects of eating GM products on human health cause particular concern
The modified genes from one species might get into other species
GM technology is an expensive process; often the technology has been
developed by a big corporation who charges money for the GM seeds

Genetically modified crops are not grown for public consumption until they have
been thoroughly tested. Any research involved in their production is controlled and
the crops undergo extensive field trials. In some countries, food prepared from
GM crops has been labelled so that the public have a choice as to whether or not
they buy it.
Other uses of GM technology

Genetic engineering is used in medicine to produce human hormones, such as insulin

and growth hormone. It is also used to produce the enzyme (rennin) used in cheese
making. Traditionally, this enzyme was extracted from the stomachs of young
calves, kids or lambs, but now it can be produced from genetically modified yeasts.

Questions:

1. What is a hybrid?
2. Why is it important to keep examples of older varieties of crop
plants?
3. What is genetic engineering?
4. Give three examples of genetically modified crops