L-2

THE FUNDAMENTALS
OF
AIR POLLUTION
Source and Sink
• Source : Process or location in the environment that
adds a contaminant from a medium or compartment
Ex: vehicles release gases; and volcanoes
release particulates and gases.
• Sink: Process or location in the environment that
removes a contaminant from a medium or
compartment
Ex: Trees can be a sink to carbon dioxide and
soils with certain levels of moisture can be a
sink for sulphur dioxide.
How contaminants Move in the Environment
• The motion, dissemination, movement and equilibrium in the
environment fall in category of fluid mechanics

• What is mechanics ?
It is a field of physics concerned with motion and equilibrium
 Scale of Motion
Molecular scale
The motion is called Molecular Diffusion
Ex- Diffusion within sediments
Global scale
The motion is called Dispersion
Ex- Transport of gases and aerosols by
large air masses
Diffusion in Air Diffusion in water
Advection, Diffusion and Dispersion
Advection x

z
y
Turbulent Diffusion

Turbulent Eddies b
z
y
Dispersion x

c
Fick’s Law
• 1855 Fick published first law of diffusion.
• It describes movement of chemicals through fluids
in quiescent conditions (Steady State).

a b t= 0

Conc. vs Distance (L) at

C1 C2
various times
L

a b t=∞

L
 Dispersion analysis method
Deterministic approach
We follow mass-balance approach in a differential control volume
in Eulerian frame of reference

Mass-balance approach
It follows conservation of mass principle

=0
sys
 Deterministic approach
Control volume
• An arbitrary volume in space through which fluid flow
• The geometric boundary of CV= control surface
• Hence the rate of change of any “property” with in CV is evaluated by an
observer fixed in CV.
Assumptions
• Fluid is incompressible (Density is constant)
• Uniform mixing of “property” of contaminant in CV.

With the above assumptions, the continuity equation for conservation

of mass is
=0
Eulerian frame of reference
• Eulerian specification of flow field : a way of looking at
fluid motion
• It focuses on specific location in space and time through
which fluid flows.
Example
Sitting on bank of river- watching water to pass
Webcam- background hill, moving person on road
Horse racing ground
Flow velocity = u(x,t)
u= velocity as a function of fixed ‘x’ and time ‘t’
observer
Lagrangian frame of approach
• It includes ‘probability’ and ‘random’ distribution
• It assumes the turbulent dispersion is random process described by
distribution function.
• Here the observer is following the contaminant or fluid parcel as it
moves through space and time
We follow movement of fluid parcel or contaminant through ‘space’ and ‘time’
Example: Camera on the top of a race car

Flow velocity , v(a,t)

a= position of fluid parcel at time t=t 0 (time dependent)

Position X(a,t)

a= position of fluid parcel at any time ‘t’.

If initial velocity = u at position, X(a, t)

Then
(a,t)
ū[x(a,t),t] =
 What is Random and Turbulent motion
Random Motion
• It causes “irregularity” but does not spread the fluctuations in the fluid property (velocity) to surrounding fluid.
Example: contrail from jet air craft

Turbulent Motion
It causes irregularity and does spread the fluctuation in fluid property (velocity) to surroundings fluid
• It is a function of dissipation , dispersion and random fluctuation
• All turbulent flows are random
• But, all random flows need not be turbulent
Turbulent flow
• In turbulent flow, due to dissipation of kinetic energy, flow becomes
laminar unless some external forces provide kinetic energy
continuously to maintain turbulence.
• Fluid particle size may range from very small (molecular level) to very
large (atmospheric gust).
• Turbulence sets up shear stresses causing loss of energy
How the velocity gradient is produced?

Velocity gradient is introduced due to shear stresses at

the boundaries of the system in which the flow is taking
place
Wind shear

Ground shear

In river/canal – Concentration/Velocity distribution is

Parabolic.
In air – Concentration/Velocity distribution is Gaussian.
Diffusion
• Fick’s law describes the diffusion at microscopic scale (First law)
• The second law also describe diffusion but when concentration is
changing with time (unsteady state)

• The right side represents the second derivative of the concentration

gradient
 Types of diffusion
1-D/2-D/3-D Diffusion
The diffusion occurs in respective axis domains.

Z
2 – D Diffusion
3 – D Diffusion
x

x
Y

Y 1-D diffusion
x
 Turbulent diffusion
• Characterized by the formation of eddies
• Eddies enhance fast mixing, increases rate of momentum,
heat transfer and mass transfer
• Large eddies are broken to smaller eddies transforming
the kinetic energy to other eddies.
• Turbulent diffusion can be modeled in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D
• In atmosphere and river water (surface water ): turbulent
diffusion is an important transport mechanism.
• It is “anisotropic”(Turbulent diffusion is in the direction of
turbulent shear stress and having same magnitude)
Dispersion Diffusion Remarks

It is due to interaction It is due to interaction Mixing scales vary within a

between diffusion and between molecules flow. Large eddies and
differential advection (whether in laminar or smallest eddies (vortices).
turbulent conditions)
Large eddies correspond to
Dispersion models flow Diffusion models local ‘DISPERSION’ while small
properties at spatial (larger) properties of fluid (if it is eddies correspond to
scale laminar) or flow (if it is ‘DIFFUSION’.
turbulent).
There should be a ‘MIXING
Proportionality constants (E) Proportionality constants ‘D’
LENGTH’ in a fluid where
is having much larger values (if it is laminar) or Km (if it
these MIXING processes are
turbulent) are having much
taking place (Prandtl Mixing
smaller values.
Length ).
Example: Large current in Example: Smallest ‘eddy’ of
an ocean such as Gulf the microscopic size of the
Stream is one large ‘Eddy’ order of micrometers
dispersing the flow. (turbulent vortices)
What is diffusivity?
It is always used for turbulent flow.
What it causes?
Rapid mixing, increased rate of momentum, heat, and mass transfer.
What are the characteristics?
• It is a property of flow and NOT fluid.
• It quantifies effect of turbulence on fluid properties.
• It has three major components in x, y z Cartesian coordinates, Kx, Ky, Kz.
How it is represented mathematically?
By Fick’s second law (Unsteady state condition)

∂C/ ∂t = K {∂/∂x(∂C/ ∂x)}

∂C ∂2C
or ----- = K ---------

∂t ∂x2
 Forms of Eddy Diffusivity

Horizontal Eddy Diffusivity: Kxx (Negligible compared to advection).

Lateral Eddy Diffusivity: Kyy (Experimental values and Formulae available for large
rivers and also in atmosphere)

Vertical Eddy Diffusivity: Kzz (Experimental values and Formulae available for
large rivers and also in atmosphere)
 σ vs K
σ= Dispersion coefficient: It is plume dispersion
variance (Standard deviation from the mean)
Its unit is ‘m’.
K = Eddy diffusivity: It quantifies the turbulence
Its unit is m2/sec.