A person is required before he holds himself out to the
Locks
public as criminologists to pass an examination given by
the Board of Examiners for Criminologists.
The examination shall cover the following
subjects:
1. Law Enforcement Administration
    a. Police Organization and Administration with Police
Planning
    b. Industrial Security Management
    c. Police Patrol Operations with Police
Communication System
    d. Police Intelligence
    e. Police Personnel and Record Management
    f. Comparative Police System
2. Criminalistics
    a. Personal Identification
    b. Police Photography
    c. Forensic Ballistics (Firearms and Ammunition)
    d. Questioned Documents Examinations
    e. Polygraph (Lie Detection)
    f. Legal Medicine
3. Criminal Jurisprudence,Procedure and Evidence
     a. Criminal Law Book 1
     b. Criminal Law Book II
     c. Criminal Procedure
     d. Evidence
     e. Court TestimonY
4. Crime Detection and Investigation
     a. Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation
     b. Traffic Management and Accident Investigation
     c. Special Crime Investigation
     d. Organized Crime Investigation
     e. Drug Education and Vice Control
     f. Fire Technology and Arson Investigation
    
5. Correctional Administration
    a. Institutional Correction
    b. Non-Institutional Correction
6. Sociology of Crimes and Ethics
   a. Introduction to Criminology
   b. Criminal Justice
   c. Ethics and Values
   d. Juvenile Delinquency
   e. Human Behavior and Crisis Management
   f. Criminological Research and Statistics
LAW ENFORCEMENT
ADMINISTRATION
Industrial Security Management
Reviewer
Industrial Security Management Reviewer
Active Security Measures        PSA/CGF/PDA may employ shall be one thousand (1000).
1. Physical Barriers
2. Security lighting
3. Vaults
1
4.
      Passive Security Measures
      1.Those that will deter man from committing such act for
fear of being caught charged in court or get dismissed
      2.Security education programs, investigation, fire
prevention seminars, personal security checks.
     Company Guard Force – (CGF) a security force
maintained and operated by any private company/corporation
utilizing any of its employees to watch, secure or guard its
business establishment premises, compound or properties.
Duty Detail Order - is a written order/schedule issued by a
superior officer usually the private security agency/branch
manager or operations officer assigning the performance of
private security/detective services duties.
Factors that Bring About Unsecured Conditions
1. Threats - an activity that could lead to a loss.
2. Hazards - a condition that could lead to a loss.
3. Vulnerability - a weakness that can be used to gain access to
an asset.
4. Risk - a potential loss or damage to an asset.
Government Guard Unit – (GGU) a security unit maintained
and operated by any government entity other than military or
police, which is established and maintained for the purpose of
securing the office or compound and/or extension of such
government entity.
Government Security Personnel – shall be natural persons
which include government security guards, detectives, security
consultants and security officers except those of the AFP,
PNP, or BJMP  rendering or performing security and/or
detective services as employed by government entities.
License to Exercise Profession – shall mean any document
issued by the Chief, PNP or his duly authorized epresentative
recognizing aperson to be qualified to perform his duties as
private security ortraining personnel.
License to Operate – (LTO) is a License Certificate
document, issued by the Chief, Philippine National Police or is
uly authorized representative, authorizing a person to engage
in employing securityguard or detective, or a juridical erson to
establish, engage, direct,manage or operate an individual or a
private detective agency orprivate security gency/company
security force after payment of theprescribed dues or fees.
      Note:New applicants for license to operate shall be
required
      to obtain a minimum capitalization of one million pesos
      (P1,000,000.00) with a minimum bank deposit of five
hundred
      thousand (P500, 000.00) pesos in order to start its business
      operation.
      No regular license shall be granted to any private security
      agency unless it has a minimum of two hundred (200)
licensed
      private security personnel under its employ.
      No regular license shall be granted to any company guard
force
      or private detective agency unless it has a minimum of
thirty
      (30) licensed private security personnel under its employ.
      The maximum number of private security personnel that a
PADPAO – Philippine Association of Detective and
Protective Agency Operators. Is an association of all licensed
ecurity agencies andcompany security forces in the
Philippines.
Person - shall include not only natural persons but also
juridical persons such as corporation, partnership, company or
association duly registered with the Securities and Exchange
Commission.
Physical Barrier -  any structure or physical device capable
of restricting, deterring, delaying, illegal access to an
installation.
PNP - Philippine National Police, under the DILG, organized
pursuant
to the provision of RA 6975 otherwise known as the National
Police
Act of 1991. The PNP shall exercise general supervision over
the operators of all security agencies and guards.
Powers and Duties of a Security Guard
1. To watch and secure the property of the client. Service shall
   not extend beyond the property or compound of client.
         Exception:
         1. Escort duties
         2. Hot pursuit of criminal offenders
2. Security Guard and Private Detective have no police
authority.
Private Detective - is any person who does detective work for
hire,
reward or commission, other than members of the Armed
Forces of the
Philippines, guards of the Bureau of Jail Management and
Penology,
municipal or city jail guards, and members of the Philippine
National
Police or of any other law enforcement agency of the
government.
      Qualifications of a Private Detective
      1. Must be a Filipino citizen
      2. Must be a high school graduate
      3. Must be physically and mentally fit
      4. Must not be less than 21 nor more than 50 years of age
      5. Must be at least 5 feet and 4 inches in height
      6. Must not be suffering from any of the ff:
disqualifications
               a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the
AFP
               b. Mental incompetent
               c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
               d. Habitual drunkard
      7. Must not be convicted of any crime involving moral
turpitude
 
Private Detective Agency - is any person, who, for hire or
reward or
on commission, conducts or carries on or holds himself or
itself out
as conducting or carrying on a detective agency, or detective
service.
      Notes:
      1. All person used in a private detective work must be
licensed
      2. All person employed solely for clerical or manual work
need
         no private detective license.
      3. License (LTO) shall be displayed at all times in a
conspicuous
         and suitable place in the agency office or headquarters of
         the agency and shall be exhibited at the request of any
2
person
         whose jurisdiction is in relation with the business of the
         agency or the employees thereof, or of the Chief of the
PNP
         or his duly authorized representative or any peace
officer.
      4. The PNP shall exercise general supervision over the
operation
         of all private detective and privated detective agency.
         The rules above applies to a Private Security Agency.
Private Security Guard - (watchman) shall include any
person who
offers or renders personal service to watch or secure either a
residence, business establishment, or buildings, compounds,
areas,
or property, inspects/monitors bodily checks/searches
individuals
and/or baggage and other forms of security inspection,
physically/
manually or scientifically electronic, including but not limited
to,
logging concessions and agricultural, mining or pasture lands,
transportation, for hire or compensation , or as an employee
thereof,
including any employee of the national or local governments
or
agencies or instrumentality’s thereof and or government
owned or
controlled firm or corporations who is employed to watch or
secure
government buildings, compounds, premises and other
properties, other
than members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, guards
of the
Bureau of Jail management and Penology, Municipal or City
jail
guards, and members of the Philippine National Police or of
any other
law enforcement agency of the Government.
      Qualifications of a Security Guard
      1. Must be a Filipino citizen
      2. Must be a high school graduate
      3. Must be physically and mentally fit
      4. Must not be less than 21 nor more than 50 years of age
      5. Must be at least 5 feet and 4 inches in height (RA 5487)
      6. Must not be suffering from any of the ff:
disqualifications
               a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the
AFP
               b. Mental incompetent
               c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
               d. Habitual drunkard
      7. Must have undergone a pre-licensing training course
      8. Must not be convicted of any crime involving moral
turpitude
               Moral Turpitude - A phrase used in Criminal Law
to
               describe conduct that is considered contrary to
               community standards of justice, honesty, or good
morals.
               Crimes involving moral turpitude have an inherent
quality
               of baseness, vileness, or depravity with respect to a
               person's duty to another or to society in general.
               Examples of Crime Involving Moral Turpitude
               1. Rape
               2. Forgery
               3. Robbery
               4. Prostitution
Private Security Guard Agency - any person, association,
partnership, or corporation, who recruits, trains, muster,
furnishes,
solicits individuals or business firms, private or government-
owned
or controlled corporations to engage his service or those of its
watchmen.
      Who May Organize a Security Agency
      1. Any Filipino citizen
      2. Corporation
      3. Partnership
      4. Association
      Limitations/Disqualification/Prohibitions In
Organizing A  combination
      Security Agency
      1. Security Agency must be 100% Filipino owned
      2. No person shall organize or have an interest in, more
than
         security agency
      3. No agency shall offer, render or accept services in
gambling
         dens or other illegal business establishments or
enterprises.
      4. Must not be an elective or appointive government
employees
         who may be called upon on account of the functions of
their
         respective offices in the implementation and
enforcement of
         the Private Security Agency Law and any person related
to
         such government employees by affinity or consanguinity
in
         the third civil degree shall not hold any interest, directly
         or indirectly in any security guard or watchman agency.
      5. The extent of the security guard service being furnished
by
         the security agency shall not go beyond the compound
and/or
         property of the person or establishment contracting the
         security service except when the security guards is
         escorting big amount of money or valuables.
      6. Main Office - All agencies shall maintain a main office
in
         their registered addresses.
               Branch offices - may be established and maintained
in
               other provinces/ cities where the security agency has
               deployed security guards.
      7. Rules - Authority to operate outside principal offices.
               1. No new or moribund but previously licensed
private
                  security agency shall be granted license to operate
                  unless its business viability is supported by
                  evidence of assured clientele, adequate
                  capitalization and the like.
                  Moribund - (dying)(stagnant)(obsolescent) in
                  terminal decline; lacking vitality or vigour.
        
               2. Private Security Agency operating at regions
                  outside its main office shall be required to
                  register with the nearest Police Provincial Office
                  and shall submit an authenticated machine copy of
                  the following documents:
                     a) License to Operate
                     b) License of the FA’s to be issued
                     c) List of the officers and security guards
3
                     d) Appointment Order of Branch/Detachment
                        Manager (if any)
      8. All applicants for license to operate shall be required to
         attend a private security agency/company guard force
         operators and management seminar/workshop.
      9. Prohibition on “KABIT SYSTEM” operators
               1. No licensed security agency shall operate, promote
                  and enter into an agreement of “merger“
                  (kabit system) with any person or a group of
persons
                  for the purpose of organizing a branch unit or
                  subsidiary under separate control and ownership.
                  Merger of security and detective agencies shall not
                  be recognized without prior approval from the SEC
                  with respect to their Articles of Incorporation and
                  the DTI, with regards their business name.
               2. Any of the following circumstances or a
                  thereof shall be considered prima-facie evidence
                  of the existence of “Kabit System”.
                     a) Maintaining a separate branch, unit or
                        subsidiary office aside from the main office
                        of the agency situated within the same locality
                     b) Receiving direct payments from the agency’s
                        clientele and issuing officials receipt of
                        their own distinct from that issued by the
                        agency concerned
                     c) Remitting directly Social Security System
                        premiums, Medicare contributions and other
                        premium for other policy insurance benefits
                     d) Existence of an agreement between the
licensee
                        and a branch manager thereof, whereby the
                        latter obligates himself to pay a certain
                        percentage of his income to the former on the
                        condition that the control and supervision of
                        the guards posted by said branch shall course
                        on the manager thereof and that the licensee
                        shall be exempt from liabilities/ obligations
                        attendant to the operation of said branch.
                     e) Keeping/maintaining separate payrolls for the
                        branch employees signed and/or approved by
                        the branch manager only
                     f) Absence of record of monthly income
remittances
                        to the main office when said branch is
                        authorized to make collections from the clients
                        of the licensee
                     g) All other similar acts tending to show separate
                        and distinct relationship/personality/
                        ownership/ management.
      Qualifications of the Operator/Manager of a Security
Agency
      1. Must be at least 25 years of age
      2. Must be a College Graduate and/or No.3 below.
      3. Must be a commissioned officer in the inactive service
of
         the Armed Forces of the Philippines
      4. Must be of good moral character
      5. Must have no previous record of any conviction of any
crime
         or offense involving moral turpitude
      6. Must not be suffering from any of the following
         disqualifications:
               a. Dishonorably discharged or separated from the
AFP
               b. Mental incompetent
               c. Addicted to the use of narcotic drug or drugs
               d. Habitual drunkard
      7. Must have taken a course/seminar on industrial Security
         Management and/or must have adequate training or
experience
         in security business (IRR)

      Note: One can not be a Commissioned officer in the
inactive
      service of the AFP unless college graduate. The law used
the
      word and/or.
      RA 5487 is a law. In case of conflict between the law and
its
      implementing rules and regulations promulgated by the
chief
      PNP, The law shall prevail.
  
Private Security Industry – shall cover those in the
legitimate
business of providing private security and detective services.
Private Security Personnel – shall be natural persons which
include
private security guards, private detectives, security
consultants,
and security officers rendering/performing security and/or
detective
services as employed by private security agencies and/or
private firms.
Protective Security System - are those measures taken by an
installation or unit to protect itself against sabotage,
espionage or subversion.
      
RA 5487 - known as "The Private Security Agency Law."
Restricted Area - is any area in which personnel or vehicles
are
controlled for reasons of security. Restricted area is
established
to provide security for installation or facilities and to promote
efficiency of security operations and economy in the use of
security personnel.
SAGSD - Security Agency and Guard Supervision Division.
SAGSD is
under the PNP Civil Security Group.
Security - is the state or quality of being secured, freedom
from
fear or danger;assurance; certainty. To secure is to make safe
or
be protected. From the Greek word SECUROS which means
safe,
safety or secured.
Security Guard - (watchman) Any person who offers or
renders
personal service to watch or secure either residential or
business
establishment, or both, or any building, compound, or area
including
but not limited to logging concessions, agricultural, mining or
pasture lands for hire or compensation, or as an employee
thereof.
Security Hazards - is an act or condition which results in a
situation
like a breach of the protection system and the subsequent loss
or
compromise of defense information, company secret or
damage to
personnel, property or facilities.
Three Major Areas of Security
1. Physical Security - this concern with the physical measures
   adopted to prevent unauthorized access to equipment,
facilities,
4
   material and document and to safeguard them against
espionage,
   damage, loss and theft
2. Personnel Security - this is as important as physical
security.
   Personnel security starts even before the hiring of an
employee
   and remains to be maintained for as long as the person is
employed.
   Its purpose is to insure that a firm hires those best suited to
   assist the firm in achieving its goals and objectives and once
   hired assist in providing necessary security to the work force
   while carrying out their functions
3. Document and Information Security - this involves the
protection
   of documents as classified papers from loss, access by
unauthorized
   persons, damage, theft and compromise through disclosure
Two Instances When  the Chief PNP may deputize any
security guard 
to assist the PNP in the performance of police duties.
1. In case of emergency
2. In times of disaster or calamities
Types of Security
1. Industrial Security - a type of security applied to business
   groups engaged in industries like manufacturing,
assembling,
   research and development, processing, warehousing and
even
   agriculture. It may also mean the business of providing
security.
2. Hotel Security- a type of security applied to hotels where its
   properties are protected from pilferage, loss damage and the
   function in the hotel restaurants are not disturbed and
troubled
   by outsiders or the guest themselves. This type of security
   employs house detectives, uniforms guard and supervisor
and
   insures that hotel guests and their personal effects are
safeguarded.
3. Bank Security- this type of security is concern with the
bank
   operations.
4. VIP Security- a type of security applied for the protection of
   top-ranking officials of the government or private entity,
   visiting persons of illustrious standing and foreign
dignitaries.
5. School Security- a type of security that is concern with the
   protection of the students, faculty members, and school
properties.
6. Supermarket or Mall Security- a type of security which is
concern
   with the protection of the stores, warehouses, storage, its
   immediate premises and properties as well as the
supermarket
   personnel and customers. Security personnel are trained to
detect
   shoplifter, robbery, and bomb detection and customer
relation.
7. Other Types- this includes all other security matters not
covered
   in the above enumeration.
Police Patrol Reviewer
1842 - the London Metropolitan Police established the first
detective
branch.
Bobbies - British police.
Boston Police - first public police force established in 1631.
Patrol Officer -  is the backbone of the police department.
Bow Street Patrols - a small body of police in London who
had been Patrol Supervision
organized in the mid-18th century by the novelist and       1. Hands on - supervisor involved in day to day activities.
magistrate       2. Command - supervisor shows up at incident sites and
Henry Fielding and his half brother, Sir John Fielding. gives
         orders
Compurgation - also called Wager Of Law,  in early English       3. Counsel - supervisor available and when requested
law, method shows
of settling issues of fact by appeal to a type of character          up at incident sites.
witness.
Patrol Techniques
Egypt - the first policing organization was created in about       1. Routine Patrol
3000 BC.       2. Directed Patrol
      3. D-Runs
Emperor Augustus - organized one of the earliest form of       4. Saturation Patrol
organized       5. Split Force
policing in Rome in 7 BC. He divided the city of Rome into       6. Suspect-Oriented Patrol
14 regiones
(wards), each consisting of vici (precincts) overseen by Police Traffic Enforcement Activities
vicomagistri,       1. Issue Traffic Citations
who were responsible for fire protection and other       2. Issue Parking Citations
administrative and       3. Investigate Traffic Accidents
religious duties.       4. Arrest Drunk Drivers
      5. Enforce Seat belt Laws
New Scotland Yard - the headquarters of the London       6. Direct Traffic
Metropolitan Police.
Police Traffic Enforcement Purposes
New York Police - The first police department in the United       1. Insure Safety of Public
States,       2. Reduce Accidents and Injuries
it was established in 1844 and it was officially organized in       3. Collect Information
1845.       4. Make Criminal Arrests
      5. Enforce Laws
Patrol - keep watch over (an area) by regularly walking or       6. Facilitate Traffic Flow
travelling
around it. Peel's 9 (Nine) Principle
      Principle 1. The basic mission for which the police exist is
Patrol Functions (Categories)       to prevent crime and disorder.
      1. Crime prevention - pro-active deterrence       Principle 2 - The ability of the police to perform their
      2. Law Enforcement - reactive deterrence duties
      3. Order Maintenance - security       is dependent upon public approval of police actions.
      4. Social Services - community welfare       Principle 3 - Police must secure the willing co-operation of
      the public in voluntary observance of the law to be able to
Patrol As A Function secure
      1. Constant Movement       and maintain the respect of the public.
      2. Prevent/deter crime       Principle 4 - The degree of co-operation of the public that
      3. Eliminate opportunity for crime can
      be secured diminishes proportionately to the necessity of
Patrol Activities and Purposes the use
      1. Crime Detection and Prevention       of physical force.
      2. Apprehension of Criminals & Wanted Suspects       Principle 5 - Police seek and preserve public favour not by
      3. Data & Information Collection       catering to the public opinion but by constantly
      4. Report Writing & Documentation demonstrating
      5. Public Assistance       absolute impartial service to the law.
      6. Peace Keeping and Order Maintenance       Principle 6 - Police use physical force to the extent
      7. Conflict Resolution necessary
      8. Traffic Control and Enforcement       to secure observance of the law or to restore order only
      9. Parking Enforcement when
      10.Law Enforcement Reduce Citizens’ Fear of Crime       the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning is found to
      11.Detect and Enforce Code and Safety Violations be
      12.Rapid Responses to Emergencies       insufficient.
      13.Public Relations       Principle 7 - Police, at all times, should maintain a
      14.Police Visibility relationship
      15.Property Protection       with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition
that
Patrol Method       the police are the public and the public are the police; the
      1. Foot Patrol       police being only members of the public who are paid to
      2. Motorcycle Patrol give
      3. Motorized Patrol       full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every
      4. Bike Patrol citizen
      5. Horse Patrol       in the interests of community welfare and existence.”
      6. Aircraft Patrol       Principle 8 - Police should always direct their action
      7. Watercraft Patrol strictly
5
      towards their functions and never appear to usurp the 2. Vice & Drugs
powers of 3. K-9
      the judiciary. 4. Organized Crime
      Principle 9 - The test of police efficiency is the absence of 5. Community Services
      crime and disorder, not the visible evidence of police 6. Crime analysis
action 7. Domestic Violence
      in dealing with it. 8. Sex Crimes
9. Internal Affairs
Peeler - a police officer, especially in the United Kingdom 10.Crime Prevention
and 11.Juvenile & School Service
Australia. Derived from the name of Sir Robert Peel who 12.Intelligence
developed the
Metropolitan Police Act in 1928 which proved to be the
foundation for
Police Intelligence Reviewer
the modern police force in Britain.
Accuracy of Information 
Police Functional Units 1 - Confirmed By Other Sources
      1. Bureau - the largest organic functional unit within a 2 - Probably True
large 3 - Possibly True
         department. It comprises of numbers of divisions. 4 - Doubtfully True
      2. Division - a primary subdivision of a bureau. 5 - Improbable
      3. Section -functional unit within a division that is 6 - Truth Can Not Be Judged
necessary
         for specialization.
      4. Unit -functional group within a section; or the smallest Alexander The Great - A Greek Conqueror, was able to
         functional group within an organization. identify those
who are disloyal to him by ordering the opening of
Police Operations  communication
1. Patrol - 50 % Of Force - 80 % Of Budget letter of his men and was successful in uplifting the esprit de
2. Criminal Investigation (Detectives) - Solve 20 % Of Cases corps
Solved and morale of his men.
   In Depth  case screening
3. Traffic ASIS - Australian Secret Intelligence Service - Primary
4. Support/Special Services responsibility
is gathering intelligence from mainly Asian and Pacific
Police Territorial Units interest
      1. Post - a fixed point or location to which an officer is using agents stationed in wide variety of areas. Its main
         assigned for duty, such as a designated desk or office or purpose like
         an intersection or cross walk from traffic duty.It is a spot other most agencies is to protect the country's political and
         location for general guard duty. economic interest and ensure the safety of its citizens against
      2. Route -a length of streets designated for patrol purposes. national threats.
         It is also called Line Beat.
      3. Beat - an area assigned for patrol purposes, whether foot Bundesnachrichtendienst - BND, Federal Intelligence
         or motorized. Service, is the
      4. Sector - an area containing two or more beats, routes, or foreign intelligence agency of the German government, the
post. BND act as
      5. District-a geographical subdivision of a city for patrol the early warning system to alert the German government
         purposes, usually with its own station. against
      6. Area- a section or territorial division of a large city each threats to its interest coming from abroad.
         comprised of designated districts.
Categories of Intelligence
Polis - greek word which means city. 1. National Intelligence - integrated product of intelligence
   developed by all government departments concerning the
Purposes of Criminal Investigation broad
1. Determine whether or not a crime has been committed.    aspect of national policy and national security.
2. Decide if the crime was committed within the investigator’s 2. Departmental Intelligence - the intelligence required by the
   jurisdiction.    department or agencies of the government to execute iys
3. Discover all facts pertaining to the complaint. mission
4. Gather and preserve physical evidence.    and discharge its responsibilities.
5. Identify the perpetrator. 3. Military Intelligence - refers to the knowledge by the
6. Develop and follow up all clues. military
7. Locate and apprehend the perpetrator.    institution essential in the preparation and execution of
8. Aid in the prosecution of the offender by providing military
evidence of    plans, policies and programs.
   guilt that is admissible in court.
9. Testify effectively as a witness in court. CIA - Central Intelligence Agency, is the civilian intelligence
10.Recover stolen property. agency
of the USA. It is the largest intelligence agency in the world.
Robert Peel - established the Metropolitan Police Force for
London based Classifications of Documents
at Scotland Yard in 1929. Father of modern policing system. 1. Top Secret - calls for the utmost degree of protection,
Unauthorized
Specialized Units and Operations    revelation of this materials and information will cause
1. Special Weapons & Tactics extremely
6
   severe damage to the nation, politically, economically, or
   militarily.
2. Secret - unauthorized disclosure of this documents or things
may
   put at risk the national security, cause serious injury to the
   reputation of the nation.
3. Confidential - Unauthorized revelation of which may be
injurious
   to the reputation of the nation or governmental activity or
will
   cause administrative humiliation or unnecessary injury.
4. Restricted - this are information which should not be
published
   or communicated to anyone except for official purposes.
These
   records are daily files, routine in nature even if lost or
   destroyed will not affect operation or administration.
Classification of Sources of Information
1. Open Sources - 99% of the information collected are
coming from
   open sources or obtained from overt operation.
2. Close Sources - only 1% of information are obtained from
covert
   operation.
      Elements of Clandestine Operation
      1. Sponsor - directs the organization conducting the
clandestine
         activity.
      2. Target - person, place or things against which the
         clandestine activity is to be conducted.
      3. Agent - refers to a person who conducts the clandestine
         operations, includes principal agents, action agents,
         and support agents.
            Principal Agent - leader or management agent in
clandestine
            operation usually undertaken by the case officer.
            Action Agent - one who conducts the clandestine
operation
            that includes:
               a. Espionage Agent - agent who clandestinely
procure or
                  collect information.
               b. Propagandist - agents who molds the attitudes,
opinions
                  and actions of an individual group or nation.
            Support Agent - agent who is engaged in activities
which
            supports the clandestine operations that includes the ff:
               a. Surveillant - agent who observes persons and
places
                  of operation of interest.
               b. Investigator - agent who undertakes to procure
                  information or things of clandestine operation.
            Procurer of Funds - agent who obtains money when
needed
            for operational use.
            Safe House Keeper - agents who manages and
maintains a safe
            house for clandestine operations like meetings, safe
heavens,
            training, briefing and debriefing.
            Communication Agent - agent who is detailed to
secure
            clandestine communications.             by using her beauty and charm, she was responsible for the
7
Coding - the changing of message from plain clear text to
unintelligible
form, also known as encrypting.
      Decoding - transforming of coded message into plain text,
also
      known as decrypting.
Counter Intelligence - phase of intelligence covering the
activity
devoted in destroying the effectiveness of hostile foreign
activities
and the protection of information against espionage,
subversion and
sabotage.
      Types of Counter Intelligence
      1. Passive CI Measures - protection of classified and
sensitive
         information against unauthorized access through secrecy,
         communication security and other safeguards.
      2. Active CI Measures - are those measures which seek
actively
         to block enemies effort to gain information or engage in
         espionage, subversion and sabotage.
      Categories of Counter Intelligence Operations
      1. Military Security - it encompasses the measures taken
by a
         command to protect itself against espionage, enemy
operation,
         sabotage, subversion, or surprise.
      2. Port Boundary and Travel Security - application of both
         military and civil security measures for counter-
intelligence
         control at point of entry and departure, international
borders
         and boundaries.
      3. Civil Security - active and passive counter-intelligence
         measures affecting the non-military nationals
permanently
         or temporarily residing in an area under military
         jurisdiction.
      4. Special Operations - counter subversion, sabotage and
espionage.
      Objectives of Counter-Intelligence
      1. It denies information to the enemy
      2. It reduces the risk of a command
      3. Aid in achieving surprises
      4. Increases the security of the command
      5. Decrease the ability of the enemy to create information
         about he forces.
   
      Functions/Activities of Counter-Intelligence
      1. Protection of Information against espionage
      2. Protection of personnel against subversion
      3. Protection of installations and materials against
sabotage
Cryptography - arts and science of codes and ciphers.
Crypto Analyst - refers to those persons who break
intercepted codes.
Cryptographer - refers to a person who is highly skilled in
converting
message from clear to unintelligible forms by use of codes and
ciphers.
Delilah - a biblical personality, she was able to gain
information
fall of
Samson, a known Israelite leader and enemy of the Philistines.
Frederick The Great - Father of organized military
espionage.
    
FSD - Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, is
the main
domestic security agency of the Russian Federation, and the
main
successor of the Cheka, NKVD and the KGB.
General Directorate For External Security - France external
intelligence agency, operating under the direction of  the
french
Ministry of Defense.
Informants - any person who hand over information to the
agents which
is relevant to the subject.
      Type of Informants
      1. Anonymous - unidentified or unknown informants.
      2. False Informant - reveals information of no
consequences
         or value.
      3. Frightened Informants - weakest link in criminal chain,
         motivated by anxiety.
      4. Self-Aggrandizing - moves around the the center of
criminals
         delight in surprising the police about bits of information.
      5. Mercenary - information for sale, needed something for
exchange
         of information.
      6. Double Crosser - wants to get more information from
the police
         more than what he gives.
      7. Women Informant - most dangerous type of informant.
      8. Legitimate - operators of business.
      Motives of Informants
      1. Vanity - conceited act/character of the criminal resulting
to
         self betrayal or tantamount to guilt, gaining favorable
         attention and importance by the police.
      2. Civic-Mindedness - sense of duty and obligation to
assist
         the police.
      3. Fear - a person under an illusion of oppression by
enemies or
         of other impending danger.
      4. Repentance - one who has a change of heart and wishes
to
         report a crime that is preying on his conscience.
      5. Gratitude or Gain - an expression of appreciation to
obtain
         a privilege or an interest in the welfare of his family
         during his detention.
      6. Revenge - to settle a grudge due to settle a previous
injury.
      7. Jealousy - envious of the accomplishments or
possessions of
         another and wishes to humiliate him.
      8. Remuneration - a person who informs solely for the
pecuniary
         or other material gain he is to receive.
Informers - refers to any person who provides information to
the agents
in a regular basis regarding a subject, they are paid either on a
regular or case to case basis.        
Intelligence - the organized effort to collect information, to
assist
it Little by little, and piece it together until it forms larger and
8
clear pattern. (intelligence as an activity)
             - the end product resulting from the collection,
evaluation, analysis, integration and interpretation of all
available information which may have immediate or potential
significance to the development and execution of plan,
policies and
programs of the user.(intelligence as a product)
             - an institution composed of person who prepares a
plan
or formulating policies.(intelligence as an institution)
Intelligence Cycle
1. Planning
2. Collection
3. Processing
4. Dissemination
      Planning - the intelligence officer must have a thorough
      knowledge of the available sources of information, the
      collecting agencies and type of information the latter can
      provide.
      Collection - the intelligence officer must have thorough
      knowledge of the available sources of information and
      collecting agencies and the type of information they can
      provide and consider the following:
         a. Determine collecting agency
         b. Send orders or request
         c. Supervise collection efforts
         d. Use tools or techniques in collection
         e. Ensure timely collection
         Factors in Choosing Collection Agents
         a. Capability - agents placement or access to target
         b. Multiplicity - more agents
         c. Balance
      Processing - Five Steps
      1. Recording - is the reduction of information in writing
         or other form of graphical representation and
         arranging the information into groups of related items.
      2. Evaluation - is the determination of the pertinence of the
         information to the operation, reliability of the source or
         agency and the accuracy of the information.
               Pertinence - does it holds some value to current
                            operation.
               Reliability - judging the source of information or
                             agency
               Credibility - truth of information
      3. Analysis - is the stage in which the collected
information
         is subjected to review in order to satisfy significant facts
         and derive conclusions there from.
      4. Integration - the combination of the elements isolated
         analysis with other known information related to the
         operation.
      5. Interpretation - process of determining the significance
of
         new information and its meaning.
      Dissemination - processed information or intelligence data
are
      disseminated to end users, common methods of
disseminating intel
      data are conferences, briefing and person to person
exchanges.
      In this process, consider the factors of timeliness,
correctness
      and security.
ISI - Inter-Services Intelligence, Pakistan's premier
intelligence
agency. It was established in 1948. Its office is located in
Islamabad.
Julius Caesar - in his time, the staff of each legion includes
ten
speculators who served as an information collecting agency.
The
Speculators were the first intelligence personnel to appear in a
military organization. Military success of the Romans was
aided by
the communication system. Made use of pigeons as carrier
which made
intelligence transmittal very fast.
Karl Schulmeister - known as Napoleon's Eye, he was
credited for
establishing counter-intelligence against spies. He is a master
of
deceit who used black mail to obtain vital information to
identify
the enemy's of Napoleon.
Kinds of Covert Operation
   1. Surveillance - is the covert, discreet observation of people
and
      places for the purpose of obtaining information concerning
the
      identities or activities of subjects.
         Surveillant - is the plainclothes investigator assigned to
         make the observation.
         Subject - can be a person, place, property and vehicle,
         group of people, organization, or object.
         Safe house - refers to place where agents meet each other
         for purposes of debriefing and reporting.
         Live Drop - refers to a place where agents or informants
         leave their messages to the other agents.
         Decoy - a person or object used by the subject in an
attempt
         to elude the surveillant.
         Convoy - an associate of the subject who follows him to
         detect surveillance.
         Log - chronological records of activities that took place
         in the establishment under surveillance.
         Methods of Surveillance
         1. Stationary Surveillance - also referred to as Fixed or
            Stakeout Surveillance - is used when you know or
suspect
            that a person is at or will come to a known location,
when
            you suspect that stolen goods are to be dropped  or
when
            informants have told you that a crime is going to be
            committed.
         2. Moving Surveillance/Shadowing/Tailing - simply the
act
            of following a person.
               Forms of Shadowing/Tailing
               1. Loose Tail - employed where a general impression
                  of the subject's habits and associates is required.
       
               2. Rough Shadowing - employed without special
                  precautions, subject maybe aware of the
surveillance,
                  employed also when the subject is a material
                  witness and must be protected from harm or other
9
                  undesirable influences.
               3. Close Tail - extreme precautions are taken against
                  losing the subject is employed where constant
                  surveillance is necessary.
   2. Casing - it is the careful inspection of a place to determine
      its suitability for a particular operational purpose.
   3. Elicitation - the process of extracting information from a
person
      believe to be in possession of vital information without his
      knowledge or suspicion.
   4. Employment of Technical Means
            Bugging - the use of an equipment or tool to listen and
            record discreetly conversation of other people.
            Wiretapping - a method of collecting information
through
            interception of telephone conversation.
   5. Tactical Interrogation - it is the process or method of
obtaining
      information from a captured enemy who is reluctant to
divulge
      information.
   6. Observation and Description - it is a method of collecting
      information by just merely using the different senses.
Methods and Techniques of Collecting Information
      Information - all evaluated materials of every description
      including those derived from observation, reports, rumors,
      imagery and other sources from which intelligence is
produced.
      Types of Agents Used in Collecting Information
      1. Agent of Influence - agent who uses authority to gain
         information.
      2. Agent in Place - agent who has been recruited within a
highly
         sensitive target
      3. Penetration Agent - agent who have reached the enemy,
gather
         information and able to get back without being caught.
      4. Expendable Agent - agent who leaks false information
to the
         enemy.
      5. Double Agent - an enemy agent who has been taken into
custody
         turned around and sent back where he came from as an
agent
         of his captors.
MI6 - Secret Intelligence Service, supplies the British
government
of foreign intelligence.
MSS - Ministry of State Security, is the security agency of the
Peoples Republic of China
Mossad - Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations, is
responsible for the intelligence collection and covert operation
of
the Israel government, Its Director reports directly to the
Israel Prime Minister.  It is one of the entities of the Israeli
intelligence community along with AMAN (Military
Intelligence) and
SHIN BET (Internal Security)
Moses - sent 12 scouts to the land of Canaan to survey the
land,
the people, their location and the nature of their cities.
NICA - National Intelligence Coordinating Agency, the
primary
intelligence gathering arm of the Philippines. Its motto is
Knowledge is Safety. It is headed by a Director General and is
assisted by a Deputy Director General. The Director General
reports
directly to the President of the Philippines.
      EO 492 issued on February 1, 2006, ordered the NICA to
activate
      the National Maritime Aerial Reconnaissance and
Surveillance
      Center or NMARSC. The NMARSC shall serve as the
primary intel
      provider for the Philippine intelligence community. Under
the
      supervision and oversight of the National Security
Adviser, the
      NICA-NMARSC will operate unmanned aerial vehicles or
UAV's to
      cater to the imagery intelligence demands of various
government
      agencies.
Police Intelligence - the end product resulting from the
collection,
evaluation, analysis, integration and interpretation of all
available
information regarding the activities of criminals and other law
violators for the purpose of effecting their arrest, obtaining
evidence
and prevent plan to commit crimes.
      Categories of Police Intelligence
      1. Strategic Intelligence - knowledge pertaining to the
         capabilities and vulnerabilities of a foreign nation which
         is required by the national planners for the formulation
         of an adequate national defense. Intelligence is for long
         range.
      2. Counter-Intelligence - preparation and execution of
plans
         and programs to neutralize or prevent any activities
         undesirable to the police organization.
      3. Line or Tactical Intelligence - intelligence information
         directly contributes to the accomplishment of specific
         objectives and immediate in nature and necessary for
more
         effective police planning and operation.
      Components of Strategic Intelligence
      1. Political Intelligence - deals with domestic and foreign
         affairs and relations of government operations.
      2. Economic Intelligence - deals with the extent and
utilization
         of natural and human resources to the industrial potential
         of the nation.
      3. Transportation and Telecommunication intelligence -
concerned
         with the operations and facilities of the military and
         civilians.
      Functional Classification of Police Intelligence
      1. Criminal Intelligence - refers to the knowledge essential
         to the prevention of crimes and the investigation, arrest
         and prosecution of criminal offenders.
      2. Internal Security Intelligence - refers to the knowledge
         essential to the maintenance of peace and order.
      3. Public Safety Intelligence - refers to the knowledge
         essential to ensure the protection of lives and properties.
Principles of Intelligence
10
1. Intelligence and Operation are interdependent
2. Intelligence is continuous
3. Intelligence must be useful
4. Intelligence operation requires imagination and foresight
5. intelligence must be available on time
6. Intelligence must be flexible
7. Intelligence requires continuous security measures
RAW - Research and Analysis Wing is India's external
intelligence
agency. Its primary function is collection of external
intelligence,
counter-terrorism and covert operations.
Reliability of Information
A - Completely Reliable
B - Usually Reliable
C - Fairly Reliable
D - Not Usually Reliable
E - Unreliable
F - Reliability Can Not Be Judge
Security Clearance - is a certification by a responsible
authority
that the person described is clear to access and classify matters
at appropriate levels.
      Interim Clearance - effective for 2 years.
      Final Clearance - effective for 5 years.
Security Measures and Operations in Relation To
Intelligence
1. Physical Security - the broadest type of security that is
concerned
   with the physical measures designed to safeguard personnel
and
   prevent unauthorized access to equipment, facilities,
materials,
   documents and to protect them from espionage, sabotage,
damage,
   or theft.
2. Communication Security - the protection resulting from the
   application of various measures which prevent or delay the
enemy
   or unauthorized person in gaining information through
communication.
   This includes transmission, cryptographic and physical
security.
3. Documentary Security - protection of documents, classified
matters
   and vital records from loss, access to unauthorized persons,
damage,
   theft and compromise through proper storage and procedure.
4. Personnel security - the sum total procedures followed,
inquiries
   conducted and criteria applied to determine the work
suitable to
   a particular applicant or the retention or transfer of a
   particular employee.
         Personnel Security Investigation - is an inquiry into the
         character, reputation, discretion, integrity, morals and
         loyalty of an individual in order to determine a person's
         suitability for appointment and access to classified
matters.
         Types of PSI
         1. Local Agency Check - refers to the investigation of
the
            records and files of agency in the area of principal
            residence of the individual being investigated: Mayor,
            Police, Fiscal where the individual is a resident.
         2. National Agency Check - it consist of LAC
supplemented by
            investigation of the records and files of the following          of the subject itself, he must know the ideologies of the
            agencies: PNP. ISAFP, NBI, CSC, Bureau of          group and the actions while inside should conform to the
Immigration          organization to avoid any suspicion.
            and other agencies.
         3. Background Investigation - a check made on an
individual
Police Personnel and Records
            usually seeking employment through subject's records Management Reviewer
in
            the police files, educational institutions, place of
            residence and former employers. Attrition - refers to the retirement or separation from the
police
               Complete Background Investigation - a type of BI service of PNP uniformed personnel pursuant to any of the
which means
               is more comprehensive, it consist of detailed mentioned in RA 8551.
information
               regarding the subject.       Means of Attrition
      1. Attrition by attainment of maximum tenure in
               Partial Background Investigation - investigation of position
the          a. Chief PNP - 4 years
               background of an individual but limited only to some          b. PNP Deputy Chief for Operation - 4 years
of          c. PNP Deputy chief for Administration - 4 years
               the circumstances.          d. PNP Chief of the Directorial Staff - 4 years
         e. Regional Directors - 6 years
Sun Tzu - author of the art of war.          f. Provincial directors - 9 years
         g. City Directors - 9 years
Undercover Operation - also called Roping - is disguising          h. Other positions higher than provincial director shall
one's have
own identity or using an assumed identity for the purpose of             the maximum tenure of 6 years.
gaining the trust of an individual or organization to learn       2. Attrition by Relief
secret          A PNP member who has been relieved for cause and has
information or to gain the trust of targeted individuals in order not been
to gain information or evidence.          given an assignment within 2 years from the effective
date of
      Cover - it refers to the changing, forging, or falsifying          such relief shall be retired or separated.
agent's       3. Attrition by Demotion in Position
      real personality including but not limited to things,          A PNP member who has been relieved and assigned to a
location, position
      job and others that will be used in undercover assignments.          lower than what is established for his/her rank in the
PNP
         Types of Cover          staffing pattern and who shall not be assigned to a
         1. Artificial -altering the background that will position
correspond          commensurate to such rank despite the existence of a
            to theh operation. vacancy
         2. Multiple - includes different cover          within 18 months after his/her demotion in position shall
         3. Natural - actual or true background be
         retired or separated.
      Hazards of Undercover Operations       4. Attrition by Non-Promotion
      1. Reintegration back to normal duty          A PNP member who has not been promoted for a
      2. Maintenance of identity continuous period
         of 10 years shall be retired or separated.
      Uses and Types of Undercover Assignment       5. Attrition by Other Means - a PNP member with at
      1. Residential Assignment - it is related to the least 5 years
neighborhood          of accumulated active service shall be separated based
         of the subject, where the agent will live as a new resident on any
         without making any suspicion. His mission is to make          of the following grounds:
friends          a. Inefficiency based on poor performance during the last
         within its neighborhood and gather information 2
regarding             successive annual rating periods.
         the subject and possibly getting closer to the subject.          b. Inefficiency based on poor performance for 3
      2. Social Assignment - the agent will gain access to the cumulative
subject             annual ratings.
         by going to the different hangout places of the subject          c. Physical and/or mental incapacity to perform police
and             functions and duties
         gather information like knowing how to drink socially          d. Failure to pass the required entrance examination
         without getting drunk. twice
      3. Work Assignment - the agent will be employed where             and/or finish the required career courses except for
the subject             justifiable reasons.
         work to acquire information. The agent must know his          e. Refusal to take a periodic PNP Physical fitness test
work and             without justifiable reason.
         focus his mind set and habit to his work assignment          f. Failure to take PNP physical fitness test for 4
      4. Subversive Organization - this is the most dangerous of consecutive
all             periodic tests due to health reasons.
         the undercover assignment, the agent will join the          g. Failure to pass PNP physical fitness test for 2
organization consecutive
11
            periodic tests or 4 cumulative periodic tests. subordinates.
         h. Non-Compliance with the minimum qualification
standards for Esprit de corps - Promoting team spirit will build harmony
            the permanency of original appointment. and unity
within the organisation.
Attrition in Action - refers to the action containing the
findings Field Training Program - refers to the training required to
and evidence on a specific means of attrition filed by a make the
particular temporary appointment of a new PNP member permanent.
screening committee before the concerned attrition board.
Formal hierarchical structure - An organization is organized
Authority - Managers must be able to give orders. Authority into a
gives them hierarchy of authority and follows a clear chain of command.
this right. Note that responsibility arises wherever authority is The
exercised. hierarchical structure effectively delineates the lines of
authority
Budgeting - with all that goes with budgeting in the form of and the subordination of the lower levels to the upper levels of
planning, the
accounting and control. hierarchical structure.

Centralization - Centralization refers to the degree to which
subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether
decision making
is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to
subordinates) is
a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the
optimum degree
of centralization for each situation.
Coordinating - that is the all important duty of interrelating
the
various parts of the work.
Demotion in Position - refers to the designation of a
personnel to a
position lower than what is established for his/her rank or not
commensurate to his/her rank in the PNP table of
organization.
Directing - that is the continuous task of making decisions
and
embodying them in specific and general orders and
instructions and
serving as the leader of the enterprise.
Discipline - Employees must obey and respect the rules that
govern the
organisation. Good discipline is the result of effective
leadership,
a clear understanding between management and workers
regarding the
organisation's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for
infractions
of the rules.
      Discipline - the practice of training people to obey rules or
a member to be eligible for promotion to the next higher rank.
      code of behaviour, using punishment to correct
disobedience.
Division of labor - Authority and responsibility are clearly
defined
and officially sanctioned. Job descriptions are specified with
responsibilities and line of authority. All employees have thus
clearly defined rules in a system of authority and
subordination.
Division of Work - This principle is the same as Adam
Smith's
division of labour. Specialization increases output by making
employees
more efficient.
Equity - Managers should be kind and fair to their
12
Grievance - a wrong considered as grounds for complaint, or
something
believed to cause distress.
Immediate Supervisor - refers to a person authorized to make
the
performance evaluation rating of a PNP member.
Initiative - Employees who are allowed to originate and carry
out plans
will exert high levels of effort.
Just Cause - refers to the legal grounds that would warrant the
relief
or removal of a PNP member from his present position and
designation
in the PNP organization.
Management by rules - A bureaucracy follows a consistent
set of rules
that control the functions of the organization. Management
controls
the lower levels of the organization's hierarchy by applying
established
rules in a consistent and predictable manner.
Managers are salaried officials - A manager is a salaried
official
and does own the administered unit. All elements of a
bureaucracy are
defined with clearly defined roles and responsibilities and are
managed
by trained and experienced specialists.
Mandatory Career Courses - refers to the required training
for a PNP
Max Weber - As a German academic, Weber was primarily
interested in
the reasons behind the employees’ actions and in why people
who work
in an organization accept the authority of their superiors and
comply
with the rules of the organization.
Maximum Tenure of Position - is the maximum cumulative
period for a
PNP member to hold a particular position level.
Mental Incapacity - is a condition where a PNP member is
unable to
exercise his/her reasoning faculties or incapable of
understanding and
acting with discernment his/her duties and responsibilities as a Police Appraisal or Performance Rating - is the evaluation
result of the
of illness or injury as may be determined by the PNP medical traits, behavior and effectiveness of a police officer on the job
screening as
committee. determined by work standards.

Non-Promotion - refers to the non advancement to the next Police Compensation - Financial compensation in the form of
higher rank wages of
or position beyond the maximum prescribed period. salaries constitutes the largest single expenditure for most
organizations. In Metropolitan Manila and other urban centers,
Order - People and materials should be in the right place at wages of
the salaries represent the sole source to meet the basic needs of
right time. food,
clothing and shelter.
Organic Personnel To A Unit - is a PNP member assigned to
a particular Police Personnel Management - (Human Resources
unit covered with appropriate PNP assignment orders. Management) may be
defined as that area of management concerned with human
Original Appointment - refers to the appointment for the relations in
initial entry the police organization.
of PNP member to the uniformed service who meets all the
requirements Police Personnel Planning – is a study of the labor supply of
of the position. jobs, which are composed with the demands for employees in
an organization
Organizing - that is the establishment of the formal structure to determine future personnel requirements, which either
of increase or
authority through which work subdivisions are arranged, decrease.
defined, and
coordinated for the defined objective. Police Placement - is the process of making police officers
adjusted
Pendency of an Attrition Action - refers to the stage when and knowledgeable in a new job and or working environment.
the
endorsement of the PRO regional director or the NSU director Police Recruitment - is the process of encouraging police
of a applicant
PCO Attrition action has been officially received by the from outside an organization to seek employment in an
concerned organization.
NHQ PCO attrition board through the NHQ screening
committee report       Recruitment - refers to the overall process of attracting,
of a PNCO  attrition action has been officially received by the       selecting and appointing suitable candidates for jobs
NHQ/ within
PRO/NSU attrition board.       an organisation, either permanent or temporary.

Personnel Action on Attrition - is an action filed before the Police Selections (screening) - is the process of determining
screening the
committee based on a verified statement of an alleged means most qualified police applicant for a given position in the
of police
attrition by an initiating person. organization.

Personnel Administration - Recruitment, induction, Police Training and Development – refers to any method
placement, transfer, used to improve
promotion, salary administration of Police personnel. the attitude, knowledge, and skill or behavior pattern of an
employee
Personnel hired on grounds of technical competence - for adequate performance of a given job.
Appointment to
a position within the organization is made on the grounds of Promotion - is the advancement of an employee's rank or
technical position in
competence. Work is assigned based on the experience and an organizational hierarchy system.
competence
of the individual.       Promotion - means shifting of an employee to a higher
position
Personnel Programs - refers to the activities programmed to       carrying higher responsibilities, facilities, status and
implement salaries.
the organization philosophy or creed and the personnel
philosophy of Physical Fitness Test - the method of evaluating the physical
central managers in relation to people so as to accomplish condition
organizational of PNP members in terms of stamina, strength, speed and
objectives. agility.

Planning - that is working out in broad outline the things that Physical Incapacity - the inability of a PNP member to
need perform his/her
to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the duties and responsibilities due to physical defect as a result if
purpose disease or injury as may be determined by the PNP medical
set for the enterprise. screening
committee.
13
 Unity of Command - Every employee should receive orders
Poor Performance - is the poor rating in the promulgated from only one
PNP superior.
performance evaluation rating system.
Unity of Direction - Each group of organisational activities
Remuneration - Workers must be paid a fair wage for their that have
services. the same objective should be directed by one manager using
one plan.
Reporting - that is keeping those to whom the executive is
responsible Waiver Program - refers to the waiver of the minimum age,
informed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping height,
himself weight and educational requirements for the initial
and his subordinates informed through records, research, and appointment to
inspection. the PNP pursuant to existing laws and policies.

Respondent - refers to the PNP member subjected to attrition
proceedings.
Retirement - the termination of employment and official
relations of a
PNP member who rendered at least 20 years of active service
in the
government with payment of corresponding benefits.
Scalar Chain - The line of authority from top management to
the lowest
ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should
follow this
chain. However, if following the chain creates delays,
cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all
parties and
superiors are kept informed.
      Waiver - the act of choosing not to use or require
something
      that you are allowed to have or that is usually required.
Welfare - the health, happiness, and fortunes of a person or
group.
Written documents - All decisions, rules and actions taken
by the
organization are formulated and recorded in writing. Written
documents
ensure that there is continuity of the organization’s policies
and
procedures.
Comparative Police System Reviewer

Second Level PCO Ranks - refers to police commissioned 1998 - Asean Chiefs of Police (Aseanapol) was estabished.
officers below
the third level ranks in the PNP.       Members Aseanapol
      1. Indonesia
Second Level PCNO Ranks - refers to all rank for police non       2. Malaysia
commissioned officers.       3. Philippines
      4. Singapore
Separation - is the termination of employment and official       5. Thailand
relations       6. Brunei Darussalam
of a PNP member who rendered less than 20 years of active       7. Vietnam
service in       8. Laos PDR
the government with payment of corresponding benefits.       9. Myanmar
      10.Cambodia
Stability of tenure of personnel - High employee turnover is
inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel Abu Sayyaf - Abu means father and sayyaf means
planning and swordsmith, is a
ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. militant Islamist group based in and around Jolo and Basilan,
Philippines.
Staffing - that is the whole personnel function of bringing in
and Al Qaeda - literally means the base, a global militant Islamist
training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of organization founded by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam,
work. and
several other militants.
Subordination of individual interests to the general
interest - The Apostasy -  is defined as the conscious abandonment of Islam
interests of any one employee or group of employees should by a
not take Muslim in word or through deed. It includes the act of
precedence over the interests of the organisation as a whole. converting to
another religion by a person who was born in a Muslim family
Third Level PCO Ranks - refers to police commissioned or who
officers with had previously accepted Islam.
the rank of Police Senior Superintendent and higher.
Arvan Tavnii Tsagdaa - The National Police Agency of
Total Permanent Physical Disability - is any impairment of Mongolia.
the body Created in 1965 and with its headquarters in the capital
which renders PNP member indefinitely incapable of Ulaanbaatar.
substantially
performing the mandated duties and functions of his position. Asean Police - Comparison
1. Afganistan - Name of Police Agency - ANP (Afganistan
Transfer - refers to a change in job assignment. National Police)
                Under What Department - Ministry of the Interior
14
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Patrolman
2. Armenia -    Name of Police Agency - Police of the
Republic of Armenia
                Under What Department - Ministry of Defense
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Junior Sergeant
3. Azerbaijan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of
the Republic of
                                        Azerbaijan
                Under What Department - Ministry of the Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
4. Bahrain -    Name of Police Agency - Bahrain National
Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
5. Bangladesh - Name of Police Agency - Bangladesh Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of
Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
6. Bhutan -     Name of Police Agency - Royal Bhutan Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home and
Cultural Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Gagpeon (Chief of
Police)
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Gagpa
7. Brunei -     Name of Police Agency - Royal Brunei Police
Force
                Under What Department - Home Affairs Ministry
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
8. Myanmar -    Name of Police Agency - Myanmar Police
Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Major General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
9. Cambodia -   Name of Police Agency - Cambodian Police
Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Brigadier General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Officer Cadet
10.Peoples Republic of China - Name of Police Agency -
Peoples Armed
                                                       Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public
Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable 2nd Class
11.Cyprus -     Name of Police Agency - Cyprus Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Justice
                Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
12.East Timor - Name of Police Agency - National Police of
East Timor
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
13.Georgia -    Name of Police Agency - Georgian National
Police
                Under What Department - Department of Public
Safety
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
14.Hongkong -   Name of Police Agency - Hongkong Police
Force
                Under What Department - Operations and Support
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
15
15.India -      Name of Police Agency - Indian Police Service
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
16.Indonesia -  Name of Police Agency - Indonesian National
Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - 2nd Bhayangkar
17.Iran -       Name of Police Agency - Iranian National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior and
Justice
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
18.Iraq -       Name of Police Agency - Iraqi Police Service
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Chief of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Patrolman
19.Israel -     Name of Police Agency - Israeli Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
20.Japan -      Name of Police Agency - National Police
Agency
                Under What Department - National Public Safety
Commission
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
21.Jordan -     Name of Police Agency - Public security Force
                Under What Department - Public Security
Directorate of
                                        the Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
22.Kazakhstan - Name of Police Agency - National Police of
Kazakhstan
                Under What Department - National Security
Committee of
                                        Ministry of internal Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Procurator General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Ryadovoy
23.North Korea - Name of Police Agency - National Police
Agency
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public
Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - Daewon (Grand
Marshall)
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Chonsa (Private)
24.South Korea - Name of Police Agency - Korea National
Police Agency (KNPA)
                Under What Department - Ministry of Government
Administration
                                        and Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
25.Kuwait -     Name of Police Agency - Kuwait National
Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
26.Krygzstan -  Name of Police Agency - Krygzstan Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer
27.Laos -       Name of Police Agency - Laos National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public
Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
28.Lebanon -    Name of Police Agency - International
Security Forces
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Gendarme
29.Macau -      Name of Police Agency - Macau National
Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Superintendent
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Guard
30.Malaysia -   Name of Police Agency - Royal Malaysian
Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of
Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
31.Maldives -   Name of Police Agency - Maldives Police
                Under What Department - National Security and
Defense Branch
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Lance Constable
32.Mongolia -   Name of Police Agency - Mongolia Public
Security Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Justice and
Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Private
33.Nepal -      Name of Police Agency - Nepal Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Home Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
34.Oman -       Name of Police Agency - Royal Oman Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Lieutenant General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Conscript
35.Pakistan -   Name of Police Agency - Pakistan Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
36.Papua New Guinea - Name of Police Agency - Royal
Papua New Guinea
                                              Constabulary
                Under What Department -
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Kiap (Patrol Officer)
37.Philippines - Name of Police Agency - Philippine National
Police
                Under What Department - Department of Interior
and
                                        Local Government
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer 1
38.Qatar -      Name of Police Agency - Qatar National Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Shurti
39.Russia -     Name of Police Agency - Militsiya
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Colonel
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Cadet
40.Saudi Arabia - Name of Police Agency - Departmemnt of
Security
                Under What Department -
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
41.Singapore -  Name of Police Agency - Singapore Police
Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Commissioner of Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable
42.Sri Lanka -  Name of Police Agency - Sri Lanka Police
Service
16
                Under What Department - Defense Ministry
                Highest Ranking Officer - Inspector General of
Police
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Constable Class 4
43.Syria -      Name of Police Agency - Syria Public Security
Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Private
44.Taiwan -     Name of Police Agency - National Police
Agency
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police Supervisor
General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Rank 4
45.Thailand -   Name of Police Agency - Royal Thai Police
Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Police General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
46.Turkey -     Name of Police Agency - Turkish Police
                Under What Department - Ministry of Internal
Affairs
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Police Officer\
47.Turkmenistan - Name of Police Agency - Turkmenistan
National Police
                                          Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of State Security
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
48.UAE Dubai -  Name of Police Agency - National Police
Forces
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - General Commander
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
49.Uzbekistan - Name of Police Agency - Uzbekistan Police
Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer - Director General
                Lowest Ranking Officer - Constable
50.Vietnam -    Name of Police Agency - Peoples Police of
Vietnam
                Under What Department - Ministry of Public
Security
                Highest Ranking Officer - General
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
51.Yemen -      Name of Police Agency - Yemen National
Police Force
                Under What Department - Ministry of Interior
                Highest Ranking Officer -
                Lowest Ranking Officer -
Basic Functions of Criminal Justice System
1. Policing
2. Adjudication
3. Correction
Centralized Police - A country with only one recognized
police force
which operates entire that country. It uses a centralized system
of
policing.  Philippines is an example of centralized police
because
the Philippine National Police has one central office with
many
regional, provincial and local branches throughout the country.
      Decentralized police - refers to a system where police
      administrations and operations areindependent from one
state
      to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal
      government.
 an
Comparative Criminology - Theories (Scheider) in-house computer system.
      Alertness to crime theory - is that as a nation develops,
      people’s alertness to crime is heightened, so they report       Cyberstalking - a technologically based attack on person
more because
      crime to police and also demand the police become       of anger, revenge, or control.
moreeffective
      at solving crime problems.       Computer Fraud - altering data or gaining unlawful use of
      computer or services.
Chowkidar - in India, means one who inhabits a "chowki",
police station       Identity Theft - using another's personal information to
or guard house. commit
      fraud or other crimes.
      Economic or migration theory - is that crime everywhere is
      the result of unrestrainedmigration and over population in       Computer Viruses - a program that copies itself and infects
      urban areas such as ghettos and slums. a
      computer.
      Opportunity theory - is that along with higher standards of
      living, victims become morecareless of their belongings,       Denial of Service Attacks - making service unavailable to
      and opportunities for committing crime multiply. users.

      Demographic theory - is based on the event of when a       Malware - malicious software that interferes with the
greater functioning
      number of children are beingborn, because as these baby       of computers and sending data of user over the internet.
booms
      grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of       Information warfare - attacks on information and computer
theadolescent systems.
      identity crisis. Deprivation theory holds that progress  
comes Different Police Global Organizations
      along with risingexpectations, and people at the bottom 1. ASEAN Chiefs of Police
develop 2. Europol
      unrealistic expectations while people at the top don’t see 3. IACP
      themselves rising fast enough. 4. Interpol
5. UN policing
      Modernization theory - sees the problem as society
becoming too Drug Trafficking - Drug trafficking is the commercial
      complex. exchange of drugs
and drug paraphernalia. Thisinclude any equipment used to
      Theory of anomie and synomie - (the latter being a term manufacture
      referring to social cohesion onvalues), suggests that illegal drugs or use them.
      progressive lifestyle and norms result in the disintegration
      of older norms that once held people together (anomie). Elliniki Astynomia - is the national police service of Greece.

Chusai-san - the rural police officer in Japan. EUROPOL - It means European Police Office or Europol.
Europol is the
Comparative Criminal Justice - it is as subfield of the study of European Union’s criminal intelligence agency. It became
criminal justice systems worldwide. It studies the similarities fully
and operational on July 1,1999. Europol only acts on request at
differences in structure, goals, punishment and emphasis on present.
rights
as well as the history and political stature of different systems.       EUROPOL's Mandate
      1. llicit drug trafficking
Comparative Police System - it is the science and art of       2. Illicit immigration networks;
investigating       3. Terrorism; Forgery of money (counterfeiting of the
and comparing the police system of nations. It covers the euro)
study of          and other means of payment;
police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of       4. Trafficking in human beings (including child
various nations. pornography);
      5. Illicit vehicle trafficking;
Confucian thought - The belief that social order can be       6. Money laundering
achieved
through moral and political reform because man is by nature Gendarmerie Nationale - is the national rural police force of
good or Algeria.
capable of goodness.
      National Gendarmerie - is a branch of the French Armed
Countries With Less Or No Crime Forces,
1. Switzerland       in charge of public safety, with police duties among the
2. Japan       civilian population.
3. Ireland
4. Egypt - Siwa Oasis Globalization -  is a process of interaction and integration
among
Cybercrimes - are generally defined as any type of illegal the people, companies,and government of different nations, as
activity process
that makes use of the Internet, a private or public network, or driven by international trade and investmentand aided by
17
information translated to English as Police Box. Koban are staffed by a
technology. relatively
small number of police officers (usually 3-5 officers).
Hezbollah - literally means "Party of God", is a Shi'a Islamist
militant       Chuzaisho - (residential police box) is usually staffed by a
group and political party based in Lebanon.       single officer. The Chuzaisho is typically located outside
of
Hongkong Police Force - It is the world's second, and Asia's       urban districts in villages and is operated by one
first, community
police agency to operate with a modern policing system.       officer, who resides with his family in this police facility.

Human Trafficking - the illegal movement of people, typically       Hashutsusho -  (police box) The Hashutsusho is typically
for the placed
purposes of forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation.       in an urban district and is operated by a number of
community
IACP - (International Association of Chiefs of Police) the       police officers who work under a shift system. The
world’s community
oldest and largest nonprofit membership organization of police       officers generally live in the jurisdiction served by the
executives, with over 20,000 members in over 80 different       Hashutsusho.
countries.
IACP’s leadership consistsof the operating chief executes of Model System - is used to described the countries being used
international, federal, state and local agencies of all sizes. as
topics of discussion.These countries are chosen not because
Illegal Drug Trade - the term being used in the international they are
scene, greater than others but because they are thefocus of
it is a more comprehensive term than drug traficking as it comparison
includes being studied.
cultivation and manufacture.
Money Laundering - the concealment of the origins of
International Crime - Defined as crimes against the peace and illegally obtained
security money, typically by means of transfers involving foreign
of mankind. banks or
legitimate businesses.
      Internationa Crimes
      1. Aggression (by one state against another) Mutawa - religious police in Saudi Arabia whose duty is to
      2. Treat of aggression ensure
      3. Genocide (destroying a national, ethnic, racial, or strict adherence to established codes of conduct.
         religious group)
      4. Terrorism National Public Safety Commission - is the policy making and
      5. Drug trafficking oversight
body of the national police forces in Japan and South Korea.
International Criminal Justice - It involves the study and
description Ngā Pirihimana o Aotearoa - it literally means "the
of one country’s law, criminal procedure, or justice. policeman", is the
Comparative national police force of New Zealand. Policing in New
criminal justice system attempts to build on the knowledge of Zealand started
criminal in 1840.
justice in one country by investigating and evaluating, in terms
of Palermo Protocols - are three protocols that were adopted by
another country,culture, or institution. the
United Nations to supplement the 2000 Convention against
Interpol - (International Criminal Police Organization)  It Transnational
began in Organized Crime. They are:
1923,and at the same time its name was International Criminal       1. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish
Police Commission. In 1956, its name became International Trafficking in
Criminal          Persons, especially Women and Children; and
Police Organization. Slowly, the name of this international       2. The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by
organization Land,
became famous as Interpol. Now,Interpol is the second biggest          Sea and Air.
international organization; the United Nations is the first.       3. The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and
Trafficking
Jemaah Islamiyah - (Islamic Congregation) is a Southeast          in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and
Asian militant Ammunition
Islamist terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment    
of a POLRI - (Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia) Indonesian
regional Islamic caliphate in Southeast Asia. National Police.
The Chief of Police of Indonesia is called Kapolri.
Jolly R. Bugarin - a Filipino former President of the Interpol,
from Police Box - is a British telephone kiosk or callbox located in
1980 to 1984. He is the only Filipino who had achieved that a public
feat. place for the use of members of the police, or for members of
the public
Koban - is a small neighborhood police station found in Japan. to contact the police. Most are disused at present with the
Often advent of
18
two way radio and mobile phones. robbery
   and murder.
Polis Diraja - the Royal malaysia police. 2. La Cosa Nostra - Known as the Italian or Italian-American
mafia.
RA 8792 - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000.    The most prominent organized crime group in the world
from the
RA 9208 - The Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003.    1920’s to the 1990’s. They have been involved in violence,
arson,
RA 9165 - Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002.    bombings, torture, sharking, gambling, drug trafficking,
health
RA 9372 - Human Security Act of 2007.    insurance fraud, and political and judicial corruption.
3. Yakuza - Japanese criminal group. Often involved in
RA 9995 - Anti-Photo and Voyeurism Act of 2009. multinational
   criminals activities,including human trafficking, gambling,
Schupo - (Schutzpolizei), the state level police of the German    prostitution, and undermining licit businesses.
States. 4. FukChing - Chinese organized group in the United States.
They
Taliban - means "students", is an Islamic fundamentalist    have been involved in smuggling, street violence, and
political human
movement in Afghanistan.    trafficking.
5. Triads - Underground criminal societies based in Hong
Terrorism - the unofficial or unauthorized use of violence and Kong. They
intimidation in the pursuit of political aims.    control secret markets and bus routes and are often involved
in
Transnational Crime - It is a term that has been used in    money laundering and drug trafficking.
comparative 6. Heijin - Taiwanese gangsters who are often executives in
and international criminal justice study inrecent years to large
reflect    corporations. They are often involved in white collar crimes,
the complexity and enormity of global crime issues. It is    such as illegal stock trading and bribery, and sometimes run
defined    for public office.
by the United Nations (UN) offences whose inception, 7. Jao Pho - Organized crime group in Thailand. They are
proportion often
and/or direct or indirect effects involve in more than one    involved in illegal political and business activity.
country. 8. Red Wa - Gangsters from Thailand. They are involved in
   manufacturing and trafficking methamphetamine.
      Examples of Transnational Crimes
      1. Money laundering
      2. Drug trafficking
      3. Terrorism
      4. Human trafficking
CRIMINALISTICS
      5. Cyber crime
Personal Identification Reviewer
Transnational Organized Crime - involves the planning and
execution Alphonse Bertillon - was a French criminologist and
of illicit business ventures by groups or networks of anthropologist who
individuals
created the first system of physical measurements,
working in more than one country. These criminal groups use
photography, and
systematic
record-keeping that police could use to identify recidivist
violence and corruption to achieve their goal. Crimes
commonly criminals.
include money laundering; human smuggling; cyber crime;
and Ancient Babylon - fingerprints were used in clay tablets for
trafficking of humans, drugs, weapons,endangered species, business
body parts, transactions. 1000 - 2000 BC
or nuclear material.
Anthropometry - the first system of personal identification.
Types of Court Systems of the World
1. Adversarial System - the accused is innocent until proven Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose(1897) - Two Indian
guilty. fingerprint
2. Inquisitorial System - the accused is guilty until proven experts credited with primary development of the Henry
innocent. System of
fingerprint classification (named after their supervisor,
Vetting - is the process of performing a background check on Edward Richard Henry).
someone
to ensure that they are suitable for a job requiring secrecy,
Bertillon System - a system of identification which focuses on
loyalty,
the
or trustworthiness.
meticulous measurement and recording of different parts and
Well Known Organized Crime Group components
1. Russian Mafia - Around 200 Russian groups that operate in of the human body.
nearly
   60 countries worldwide. Theyhave been involved in Chiroscopy – It is the examination and thorough study fo the
racketeering, palms of
   fraud, tax evasion, gambling, drugtrafficking, ransom, the human hand as a point indentifying persons.
19
          used in the early1900s.
Core - 1. Approximate center of the pattern       9. Battley System – a classification system forsingle
       2. It is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient          fingerprints used in the 1930s
recurve.
Gilbert Thompson - He used his thumb print on a document
Delta - 1. point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of to prevent
divergence forgery. First known use of fingerprints in the U.S.
           of two typelines and
        2. is located at or directly in front of the point of John Evangelist Purkinje - anatomy professor at the
           divergence. University of
Breslau, in 1823, he published his thesis discussing nine
Dr. Henry P. DeForrest - he accomplished the first fingerprint fingerprint
file patterns  but he made no mention of the value of fingerprints
established in the United States, and the first use of for
fingerprinting personal identification.
by a U.S. government agency.
Juan Vucetich - In 1892, two boys were brutally murdered in
Dr. Nehemiah Grew - in 1684, he was the first European to the
publish village of Necochea, near Buenos Aires, Argentina. Initially,
friction ridge skin observations. suspicion fell on a man named Velasquez, a suitor of the
children's
Edgeoscopy – the study of the morphological characteristics mother, Francisca Rojas. Investigators found a bloody
of fingerprint at
friction ridges; shape or contour of the edges of friction the crime scene and contacted Juan Vucetich, who was
ridges. developing a
system of fingerprint identification for police use. Vucetich
Edmond Locard - informally referred to as the Sherlock compared
Holmes of France, the fingerprints of Rojas and Velasquez with the bloody
he developed the science of poroscopy, the study of fingerprint.
fingerprint pores Francisca Rojas had denied touching the bloody bodies, but
and the impressions produced by these pores. He went on to the
write that fingerprint matched one of hers. Confronted with the
if 12 specific points were identical between two fingerprints, evidence, she
it would confessed—the first successful use of fingerprint
be sufficient for positive identification. This work led to the identification in a
use of murder investigation.
fingerprints in identifying criminals being adopted over
Bertillon's Loop - 1. One or more ridges enter upon either side
earlier technique of anthropometry.             2. Recurve
            3. Touch or pass an imaginary line between delta and
Fingerprint - is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any core
part of the finger. Fingerprint ridges are formed during the             4. Pass out or tend to pass out upon the same side the
third ridges
to fourth month of fetal development.                entered.

Fingerprint Classification Systems            Three Loop Characteristics

           1. A sufficient recurve
      1. The Henry Classification System – developed by Henry            2. A Delta
in the            3. A ridge count across a looping ridge
         late 1800s.
      2. Icnofalangometric System – the originalname of the Marcelo Malpighi - in 1686,  an anatomy professor at the
system University of
         developed by Vucetichin 1891 Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his
      3. Dactiloscopy – the new name of the systemdeveloped treatise.
by Vucetich. A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which
      4. The Oloriz System of Classification – developed by is
Oloriz. approximately 1.8mm thick.
         Identakey – developed in the 1930s by G. Tyler Mairs.
      5. The American System of FingerprintClassification – Mark Twain - author of the novel Pudd'nhead Wilson where
developed one of the
         by Parke in1903. characters has a hobby of collecting fingerprints.
      6. The Conley System. The Flack-ConleySystem –
developed in 1906 Paul-Jean Coulier - of Val-de-Grâce in Paris, published his
         in New Jersey,an improved Conley System. observations
      7. NCIC Fingerprint Classification System. that (latent) fingerprints can be developed on paper by iodine
         Collins System – a classification system forsingle fuming,
         fingerprints explaining how to preserve (fix) such developed impressions
         used in Scotland Yard inthe early 1900s. and
      8. Jorgensen System – a classification systemfor single mentioning the potential for identifying suspects' fingerprints
         fingerprints by
20
use of a magnifying glass.
Poroscopy – refers to the examination of the shape,size and
arrangement of the small opening on friction ridge through
which body
fluids are secreted or released.
Podoscopy – a term coined by Wilder and Wentwrth which
refers to the
examination of the soles and their significance in personal
identification.
Ridgeology – describes the individualization process of any
area of
friction skin using allavailable detail.
Ridge Characteristics
1. Ridge Dots - An isolated ridge unit whose length
approximates
   its width in size.
2. Bifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
   into two friction ridges.
3. Trifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
   into three friction ridges.
4. Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that terminates within
   the friction ridge structure.
5. Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units intersect.
6. Enclosures (Lakes) - A single friction ridge that bifurcates
and
   rejoins after a short course and continues as a single friction
   ridge.
7. Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying lengths.
8. Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge
branching off
   a longer ridge.
9. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel
running
   ridges, generally right angles.
Sir Edward Richard Henry -  he was appointed Inspector-
General of Police
of Bengal, India in 1891, he developed a system of fingerprint
classification enabling fingerprint records to be organised and
searched
with relative ease.
Sir Francis Galton - He devised a method of classifying
fingerprints
that proved useful in forensic science. He pointed out that
there were
specific types of fingerprint patterns. He described and
classified
them into eight broad categories: 1: plain arch, 2: tented
arch,
3: simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop,
6: lateral pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and 8: accidental
Sir Henry Faulds - his first paper on the subject of fingerprint
was published in the scientific journal Nature in 1880.
Examining his
own fingertips and those of friends, he became convinced
that the
pattern of ridges was unique to each individual.
Sir William James Herschel - was a British officer in India who
used
fingerprints for identification on contracts.
Time Line - Fingerprints
21
      1000-2000 B.C. - Fingerprints were used on clay tablets for
      business transactions in ancient Babylon.
      3rd Century B.C. - Thumbprints begin to be used on clay
seals
      in China to “sign” documents.
      610-907 A.D. - During the T’ang Dynasty, a time when
imperial
      China was one of the most powerful and wealthy regions
of the
      world, fingerprints are reportedly used on official
documents.
      1st Century A.D. - A petroglyph located on a cliff face in
      Nova Scotia depicts a hand with exaggerated ridges and
finger
      whorls, presumably left by the Mi'kmaq people.
      14th Century A.D. - Many official government documents
in
      Persia have fingerprint impressions. One government
physician
      makes the observation that no two fingerprints were an
exact
      match.
      1686 - At the University of Bologna in Italy, a professor
      of anatomy named Marcello Malpighi notes the common
      characteristics of spirals, loops and ridges in fingerprints,
      using the newly invented microscope for his studies. In
time,
      a 1.88mm thick layer of skin, the “Malpighi layer,” was
named
      after him. Although Malpighi was likely the first to
document
      types of fingerprints, the value of fingerprints as
      identification tools was never mentioned in his writings.
      1823 - A thesis is published by Johannes Evengelista
Purkinje,
      professor of anatomy with the University of Breslau,
Prussia.
      The thesis details a full nine different fingerprint patterns.
      Still, like Malpighi, no mention is made of fingerprints as
      an individual identification method.
      1858 - The Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in
Jungipoor,
      India, Sir William Herschel, first used fingerprints to “sign”
      contracts with native Indians. In July of 1858, a local
      businessman named Rajyadhar Konai put his hand print
on the
      back of a contract at Herschel’s request. Herschel was not
      motivated by the need to prove personal identity; rather,
his
      motivation was to simply “frighten (Konai) out of all
thought
      of repudiating his signature.” As the locals felt more
bound to
      a contract through this personal contact than if it was just
      signed, as did the ancient Babylonians and Chinese,
Herschel
      adopted the practice permanently. Later, only the prints
of the
      right index and middle fingers were required on contracts.
In
      time, after viewing a number of fingerprints, Herschel
noticed
      that no two prints were exactly alike, and he observed
that
      even in widespread use, the fingerprints could be used for
      personal identification purposes.
      1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, a British surgeon and
Superintendent
      of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, published an article in the
      Scientific Journal, "Nautre" (nature). He discussed
fingerprints
      as a means of personal identification, and the use of
printers
      ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints. Faulds had
      begun his study of what he called “skin-furrows” during
the
      1870s after looking at fingerprints on pieces of old clay
      pottery. He is also credited with the first fingerprint
      identification: a greasy print left by a laboratory worker on
      a bottle of alcohol. Soon, Faulds began to recognize that
the
      distinctive patterns on fingers held great promise as a
means
      of individual identification, and developed a classification
      system for recording these inked impressions. Also in
1880,
      Faulds sent a description of his fingerprint classification
      system to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, aging and in poor
health,
      declined to assist Dr. Faulds in the further study of
      fingerprints, but forwarded the information on to his
cousin,
      British scientist Sir Francis Galton.
      1882 - Gilbert Thompson, employed by the U.S. Geological
Survey
      in New Mexico, uses his own fingerprints on a document
to guard
      against forgery. This event is the first known use of
      fingerprints for identification in America.
      1883 - “Life on the Mississippi,” a novel by Mark Twain,
tells
      the story of a murderer who is identified by the use of
      fingerprints. His later book "Pudd'n Head Wilson” includes
a
      courtroom drama involving fingerprint identification.
      1888 - Sir Francis Galton’s began his study of fingerprints
      during the 1880s, primarily to develop a tool for
determining
      genetic history and hereditary traits. Through careful
study of
      the work of Faulds, which he learned of through his cousin
Sir
      Charles Darwin, as well as his examination of fingerprints
      collected by Sir William Herschel, Galton became the first
to
      provide scientific evidence that no two fingerprints are
      exactly the same, and that prints remain the same
throughout
      a person’s lifetime. He calculated that the odds of finding
      two identical fingerprints were 1 in 64 billion.
      1892 - Galton’s book “Fingerprints” is published, the first
of
      its kind. In the book, Galton detailed the first classification
      system for fingerprints; he identified three types
      (loop, whorl, and arch) of characteristics for fingerprints
      (also known as minutia). These characteristics are to an
extent
      still in use today, often referred to as Galton’s Details.
22
      1892 - Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police official, had
recently
      begun keeping the first fingerprint files based on Galton’s
      Details. History was made that year when Vucetich made
the
      first criminal fingerprint identification. A woman named
Rojas
      had murdered her two sons, then cut her own throat to
deflect
      blame from herself. Rojas left a bloody print on a
doorpost.
      After investigators matched the crime scene print to that
of
      the accused, Rojas confessed. Vucetich eventually
developed his
      own system of classification, and published a book
entitled
      Dactiloscopía Comparada ("Comparative Fingerprinting")
in 1904,
      detailing the Vucetich system, still the most used system
in
      Latin America.
      1896 - British official Sir Edward Richard Henry had been
living
      in Bengal, and was looking to use a system similar to that
of
      Herschel’s to eliminate problems within his jurisdiction.
After
      visiting Sir Francis Galton in England, Henry returned to
Bengal
      and instituted a fingerprinting program for all prisoners.
By
      July of 1896, Henry wrote in a report that the classification
      limitations had not yet been addressed. A short time later,
      Henry developed a system of his own, which included
1,024
      primary classifications. Within a year, the Governor
General
      signed a resolution directing that fingerprinting was to be
the
      official method of identifying criminals in British India.
      1901 - Back in England and Wales, the success of the
“Henry
      Fingerprint Classification System” in India was creating a
stir,
      and a committee was formed to review Scotland Yard's
      identification methods. Henry was then transferred to
England,
      where he began training investigators to use the Henry
      Classification System after founding Scotland Yard's
Central
      Fingerprint Bureau. Within a few years, the Henry
Classification
      System was in use around the world, and fingerprints had
been
      established as the uniform system of identification for the
      future. The Henry Classification System is still in use today
      in English speaking countries around the globe.
      1902 - Alphonse Bertillon, director of the Bureau of
      Identification of the Paris Police, is responsible for the first
      criminal identification of a fingerprint without a known
suspect.
      A print taken from the scene of a homicide was compared
against
      the criminal fingerprints already on file, and a match was
made,
      marking another milestone in law enforcement       the fingerprinting of children for investigative purposes in
technology.       the event of a child becoming missing, Chris Migliaro
      Meanwhile, the New York Civil Service Commission, founds
spearheaded       Fingerprint America in Albany, NY. The company provides
      by Dr. Henry P. DeForrest, institutes testing of the first a simple,
      systematic use of fingerprints in the United States.       at-home fingerprinting and identification kit for parents,
      maintaining the family’s privacy while protecting and
      1903 - Fingerprinting technology comes into widespread educating
use in       children about the dangers of abduction. By 2001, the
      the United States, as the New York Police Department, the company
New       distributes over 5 million Child ID Fingerprinting Kits
      York State Prison system and the Federal Bureau of around
Prisons begin       the world.
      working with the new science.
      1999 - The FBI phases out the use of paper fingerprint
      1904 - The St. Louis Police Department and the cards with
Leavenworth State       their new Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) site at Clarksburg, West
      Penitentiary in Kansas start utilizing fingerprinting, Virginia.
assisted       IAFIS will starts with individual computerized fingerprint
      by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been guarding records
the       for approximately 33 million criminals, while the outdated
      British Display at the St. Louis Exposition. paper
      cards for the civil files are kept at a facility in Fairmont,
      1905 - The U.S. Army gets on the fingerprinting       West Virginia.
bandwagon, and
      within three years was joined by the U.S. Navy and Marine Typelines - 1. Two innermost ridges that start or go parallel
Corps.                    2. Diverge and surround or tend to surround the
      In the ensuing 25 years, as more law enforcement pattern
agencies                       area
      joined in using fingerprints as personal identification
methods, Types of Fingerprints
      these agencies began sending copies of the fingerprint 1. Visible Prints
cards 2. Latent Prints
      to the recently established National Bureau of Criminal 3. Impressed Prints
      Investigation.
         Visible Prints - also called patent prints and are left in
      1911 - The first central storage location for fingerprints in          some medium, like blood, that reveals them to the
      North America is established in Ottawa by Edward Foster naked eye
of the          when blood, dirt, ink or grease on the finger come into
      Dominion Police Force. The repository is maintained by          contact with a smooth surface and leave a friction ridge
the Royal          impression that is visible without development.
      Canadian Mounted Police, and while it originally held only
2000          Latent Prints - not apparent to the naked eye. They are
      sets of fingerprints, today the number is over 2 million.          formed from the sweat from sebaceous glands on the
body or
      1924 - The U.S. Congress acts to establish the          water, salt, amino acids and oils contained in sweat.
Identification          They can be made sufficiently visible by dusting, fuming
      Division of the F.B.I. The National Bureau and or
Leavenworth are          chemical reagents.
      consolidated to form the basis of the F.B.I. fingerprint
repository.          Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are
      By 1946, the F.B.I. had processed 100 million fingerprint          indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as clay,
cards;          wax, paint or another surface that will take the
      that number doubles by 1971. impression.
         They are visible and can be viewed or photographed
      1990s - AFIS, or Automated Fingerprint Identification without
Systems,          development.
      begin widespread use around the country. This
computerized system Types of Patterns
      of storing and cross-referencing criminal fingerprint 1. Arch  a. Plain Arch
records               b. Tented Arch
      would eventually become capable of searching millions of 2. Loop  a. Radial Loop
      fingerprint files in minutes, revolutionizing law               b. Ulnar Loop
enforcement 3. Whorl a. Plain Whorl
      efforts.                b. Central Pocket Loop
               c. Double Loop
      1996 - As Americans become more concerned with the                d. Accidental Whorl
growing missing
      and abducted children problem, and law enforcement             Plain Arch - 1. Ridges enter upon one side
groups urge                                  2. Make a rise or wave in the center
23
                                 3. Flow or tend to flow out upon the Edward Richard Henry).
                                    opposite side.
Bertillon System - a system of identification which focuses on
            Tented Arch - Possesses an 1. Angle the
                                                           2. Upthrust meticulous measurement and recording of different parts and
                                                           3. Two of The Three basic components
                                                               characteristics of the loop of the human body.

            Ulnar loop - flow toward the little finger - ulna bone. Chiroscopy – It is the examination and thorough study fo the
palms of
            Radial Loop - flow toward the thumb - radius bone. the human hand as a point indentifying persons.

            Plain Whorl - 1. Consists of one or more ridges which Core - 1. Approximate center of the pattern
make        2. It is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient
                             or tend to make a complete circuit recurve.
                          2. With 2 delta's
                          3. Between which, when an imaginary line is Delta - 1. point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of
                             drawn, at least one recurving ridge within divergence
                             the inner pattern area is cut or touched.            of two typelines and
        2. is located at or directly in front of the point of
            Central Pocket Loop - 1. Consists of at least one            divergence.
recurving
                                                    ridge or Dr. Henry P. DeForrest - he accomplished the first fingerprint
                                                2. An obstruction at right angles to file
                                                     the line of flow established in the United States, and the first use of
                                                3. With 2 delta's fingerprinting
                                                4. Between which, when an by a U.S. government agency.
imaginary
                                                    line is drawn, no recurving ridge Dr. Nehemiah Grew - in 1684, he was the first European to
                                                    within the inner pattern area is publish
                                                    cut or touched. friction ridge skin observations.

            Double Loop - 1. Consists of two separate loop Edgeoscopy – the study of the morphological characteristics
formations of
                                    2. With two separate and distinct set of friction ridges; shape or contour of the edges of friction
                                        shoulders and ridges.
                                    3. Two delta's
Edmond Locard - informally referred to as the Sherlock
            Accidental Whorl - 1. Consists of a combination of two Holmes of France,
                                               different types of patterns with the he developed the science of poroscopy, the study of
                                              exception of the plain arch fingerprint pores
                                          2. With 2 or more delta's or and the impressions produced by these pores. He went on to
                                         3. A pattern which possesses some of write that
the if 12 specific points were identical between two fingerprints,
                                             requirements for 2 or more different it would
                                             types or a pattern which conforms to be sufficient for positive identification. This work led to the
                                             none of the definitions. use of
fingerprints in identifying criminals being adopted over
Bertillon's
earlier technique of anthropometry.
Personal Identification Reviewer
Fingerprint - is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any
Alphonse Bertillon - was a French criminologist and part of the finger. Fingerprint ridges are formed during the
anthropologist who third
created the first system of physical measurements, to fourth month of fetal development.
photography, and
record-keeping that police could use to identify recidivist Fingerprint Classification Systems
criminals.
      1. The Henry Classification System – developed by Henry
Ancient Babylon - fingerprints were used in clay tablets for in the
business          late 1800s.
transactions. 1000 - 2000 BC       2. Icnofalangometric System – the originalname of the
system
Anthropometry - the first system of personal identification.          developed by Vucetichin 1891
      3. Dactiloscopy – the new name of the systemdeveloped
Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose(1897) - Two Indian by Vucetich.
fingerprint       4. The Oloriz System of Classification – developed by
experts credited with primary development of the Henry Oloriz.
System of          Identakey – developed in the 1930s by G. Tyler Mairs.
fingerprint classification (named after their supervisor,       5. The American System of FingerprintClassification –
24
developed
         by Parke in1903.
      6. The Conley System. The Flack-ConleySystem –
developed in 1906
         in New Jersey,an improved Conley System.
      7. NCIC Fingerprint Classification System.
         Collins System – a classification system forsingle
         fingerprints
         used in Scotland Yard inthe early 1900s.
      8. Jorgensen System – a classification systemfor single
         fingerprints
         used in the early1900s.
      9. Battley System – a classification system forsingle
         fingerprints used in the 1930s
Gilbert Thompson - He used his thumb print on a document
to prevent
forgery. First known use of fingerprints in the U.S.
John Evangelist Purkinje - anatomy professor at the
University of
Breslau, in 1823, he published his thesis discussing nine
fingerprint
patterns  but he made no mention of the value of fingerprints
for
personal identification.
one of the
characters has a hobby of collecting fingerprints.
Paul-Jean Coulier - of Val-de-Grâce in Paris, published his
observations
that (latent) fingerprints can be developed on paper by iodine
fuming,
explaining how to preserve (fix) such developed impressions
and
mentioning the potential for identifying suspects' fingerprints
by
use of a magnifying glass.
Poroscopy – refers to the examination of the shape,size and
arrangement of the small opening on friction ridge through
which body
fluids are secreted or released.
Podoscopy – a term coined by Wilder and Wentwrth which
refers to the
examination of the soles and their significance in personal
identification.
Ridgeology – describes the individualization process of any
area of
friction skin using allavailable detail.

Juan Vucetich - In 1892, two boys were brutally murdered in Ridge Characteristics
the 1. Ridge Dots - An isolated ridge unit whose length
village of Necochea, near Buenos Aires, Argentina. Initially, approximates
suspicion fell on a man named Velasquez, a suitor of the    its width in size.
children's 2. Bifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
mother, Francisca Rojas. Investigators found a bloody    into two friction ridges.
fingerprint at 3. Trifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides
the crime scene and contacted Juan Vucetich, who was    into three friction ridges.
developing a 4. Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that terminates within
system of fingerprint identification for police use. Vucetich    the friction ridge structure.
compared 5. Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units intersect.
the fingerprints of Rojas and Velasquez with the bloody 6. Enclosures (Lakes) - A single friction ridge that bifurcates
fingerprint. and
Francisca Rojas had denied touching the bloody bodies, but    rejoins after a short course and continues as a single friction
the    ridge.
fingerprint matched one of hers. Confronted with the 7. Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying lengths.
evidence, she 8. Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge
confessed—the first successful use of fingerprint branching off
identification in a    a longer ridge.
murder investigation. 9. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel
running
Loop - 1. One or more ridges enter upon either side    ridges, generally right angles.
            2. Recurve
            3. Touch or pass an imaginary line between delta and Sir Edward Richard Henry -  he was appointed Inspector-
core General of Police
            4. Pass out or tend to pass out upon the same side the of Bengal, India in 1891, he developed a system of fingerprint
ridges classification enabling fingerprint records to be organised and
               entered. searched
with relative ease.
           Three Loop Characteristics
           1. A sufficient recurve Sir Francis Galton - He devised a method of classifying
           2. A Delta fingerprints
           3. A ridge count across a looping ridge that proved useful in forensic science. He pointed out that
there were
Marcelo Malpighi - in 1686,  an anatomy professor at the specific types of fingerprint patterns. He described and
University of classified
Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his them into eight broad categories: 1: plain arch, 2: tented
treatise. arch,
A layer of skin was named after him; "Malpighi" layer, which 3: simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop,
is 6: lateral pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and 8: accidental
approximately 1.8mm thick.
Sir Henry Faulds - his first paper on the subject of fingerprint
Mark Twain - author of the novel Pudd'nhead Wilson where was published in the scientific journal Nature in 1880.
25
Examining his
own fingertips and those of friends, he became convinced
that the
pattern of ridges was unique to each individual.
Sir William James Herschel - was a British officer in India who
used
fingerprints for identification on contracts.
Time Line - Fingerprints
      1000-2000 B.C. - Fingerprints were used on clay tablets for
      business transactions in ancient Babylon.
      3rd Century B.C. - Thumbprints begin to be used on clay
seals
      in China to “sign” documents.
      610-907 A.D. - During the T’ang Dynasty, a time when
imperial
      China was one of the most powerful and wealthy regions
of the
      world, fingerprints are reportedly used on official
documents.
      1st Century A.D. - A petroglyph located on a cliff face in
      Nova Scotia depicts a hand with exaggerated ridges and
finger
      whorls, presumably left by the Mi'kmaq people.
      14th Century A.D. - Many official government documents
in
      Persia have fingerprint impressions. One government
physician
      makes the observation that no two fingerprints were an
exact
      match.
      1686 - At the University of Bologna in Italy, a professor
      of anatomy named Marcello Malpighi notes the common
      characteristics of spirals, loops and ridges in fingerprints,
      using the newly invented microscope for his studies. In
time,
      a 1.88mm thick layer of skin, the “Malpighi layer,” was
named
      after him. Although Malpighi was likely the first to
document
      types of fingerprints, the value of fingerprints as
      identification tools was never mentioned in his writings.
      1823 - A thesis is published by Johannes Evengelista
Purkinje,
      professor of anatomy with the University of Breslau,
Prussia.
      The thesis details a full nine different fingerprint patterns.
      Still, like Malpighi, no mention is made of fingerprints as
      an individual identification method.
      1858 - The Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in
Jungipoor,
      India, Sir William Herschel, first used fingerprints to “sign”
      contracts with native Indians. In July of 1858, a local
      businessman named Rajyadhar Konai put his hand print
on the
      back of a contract at Herschel’s request. Herschel was not
      motivated by the need to prove personal identity; rather,
his
      motivation was to simply “frighten (Konai) out of all
thought
      of repudiating his signature.” As the locals felt more
26
bound to
      a contract through this personal contact than if it was just
      signed, as did the ancient Babylonians and Chinese,
Herschel
      adopted the practice permanently. Later, only the prints
of the
      right index and middle fingers were required on contracts.
In
      time, after viewing a number of fingerprints, Herschel
noticed
      that no two prints were exactly alike, and he observed
that
      even in widespread use, the fingerprints could be used for
      personal identification purposes.
      1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, a British surgeon and
Superintendent
      of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, published an article in the
      Scientific Journal, "Nautre" (nature). He discussed
fingerprints
      as a means of personal identification, and the use of
printers
      ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints. Faulds had
      begun his study of what he called “skin-furrows” during
the
      1870s after looking at fingerprints on pieces of old clay
      pottery. He is also credited with the first fingerprint
      identification: a greasy print left by a laboratory worker on
      a bottle of alcohol. Soon, Faulds began to recognize that
the
      distinctive patterns on fingers held great promise as a
means
      of individual identification, and developed a classification
      system for recording these inked impressions. Also in
1880,
      Faulds sent a description of his fingerprint classification
      system to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, aging and in poor
health,
      declined to assist Dr. Faulds in the further study of
      fingerprints, but forwarded the information on to his
cousin,
      British scientist Sir Francis Galton.
      1882 - Gilbert Thompson, employed by the U.S. Geological
Survey
      in New Mexico, uses his own fingerprints on a document
to guard
      against forgery. This event is the first known use of
      fingerprints for identification in America.
      1883 - “Life on the Mississippi,” a novel by Mark Twain,
tells
      the story of a murderer who is identified by the use of
      fingerprints. His later book "Pudd'n Head Wilson” includes
a
      courtroom drama involving fingerprint identification.
      1888 - Sir Francis Galton’s began his study of fingerprints
      during the 1880s, primarily to develop a tool for
determining
      genetic history and hereditary traits. Through careful
study of
      the work of Faulds, which he learned of through his cousin
Sir
      Charles Darwin, as well as his examination of fingerprints
      collected by Sir William Herschel, Galton became the first
to
      provide scientific evidence that no two fingerprints are
      exactly the same, and that prints remain the same
throughout
      a person’s lifetime. He calculated that the odds of finding
      two identical fingerprints were 1 in 64 billion.
      1892 - Galton’s book “Fingerprints” is published, the first
of
      its kind. In the book, Galton detailed the first classification
      system for fingerprints; he identified three types
      (loop, whorl, and arch) of characteristics for fingerprints
      (also known as minutia). These characteristics are to an
extent
      still in use today, often referred to as Galton’s Details.
      1892 - Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police official, had
recently
      begun keeping the first fingerprint files based on Galton’s
      Details. History was made that year when Vucetich made
the
      first criminal fingerprint identification. A woman named
Rojas
      had murdered her two sons, then cut her own throat to
deflect
      blame from herself. Rojas left a bloody print on a
doorpost.
      After investigators matched the crime scene print to that
of
      the accused, Rojas confessed. Vucetich eventually
developed his
      own system of classification, and published a book
entitled
      Dactiloscopía Comparada ("Comparative Fingerprinting")
in 1904,
      detailing the Vucetich system, still the most used system
in
      Latin America.
      1896 - British official Sir Edward Richard Henry had been
living
      in Bengal, and was looking to use a system similar to that
of
      Herschel’s to eliminate problems within his jurisdiction.
After
      visiting Sir Francis Galton in England, Henry returned to
Bengal
      and instituted a fingerprinting program for all prisoners.
By
      July of 1896, Henry wrote in a report that the classification
      limitations had not yet been addressed. A short time later,
      Henry developed a system of his own, which included
1,024
      primary classifications. Within a year, the Governor
General
      signed a resolution directing that fingerprinting was to be
the
      official method of identifying criminals in British India.
      1901 - Back in England and Wales, the success of the
“Henry
      Fingerprint Classification System” in India was creating a
stir,
      and a committee was formed to review Scotland Yard's
      identification methods. Henry was then transferred to
England,
      where he began training investigators to use the Henry
      Classification System after founding Scotland Yard's
Central
      Fingerprint Bureau. Within a few years, the Henry
Classification
      System was in use around the world, and fingerprints had
been
      established as the uniform system of identification for the
27
      future. The Henry Classification System is still in use today
      in English speaking countries around the globe.
      1902 - Alphonse Bertillon, director of the Bureau of
      Identification of the Paris Police, is responsible for the first
      criminal identification of a fingerprint without a known
suspect.
      A print taken from the scene of a homicide was compared
against
      the criminal fingerprints already on file, and a match was
made,
      marking another milestone in law enforcement
technology.
      Meanwhile, the New York Civil Service Commission,
spearheaded
      by Dr. Henry P. DeForrest, institutes testing of the first
      systematic use of fingerprints in the United States.
      1903 - Fingerprinting technology comes into widespread
use in
      the United States, as the New York Police Department, the
New
      York State Prison system and the Federal Bureau of
Prisons begin
      working with the new science.
      1904 - The St. Louis Police Department and the
Leavenworth State
      Penitentiary in Kansas start utilizing fingerprinting,
assisted
      by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been guarding
the
      British Display at the St. Louis Exposition.
      1905 - The U.S. Army gets on the fingerprinting
bandwagon, and
      within three years was joined by the U.S. Navy and Marine
Corps.
      In the ensuing 25 years, as more law enforcement
agencies
      joined in using fingerprints as personal identification
methods,
      these agencies began sending copies of the fingerprint
cards
      to the recently established National Bureau of Criminal
      Investigation.
      1911 - The first central storage location for fingerprints in
      North America is established in Ottawa by Edward Foster
of the
      Dominion Police Force. The repository is maintained by
the Royal
      Canadian Mounted Police, and while it originally held only
2000
      sets of fingerprints, today the number is over 2 million.
      1924 - The U.S. Congress acts to establish the
Identification
      Division of the F.B.I. The National Bureau and
Leavenworth are
      consolidated to form the basis of the F.B.I. fingerprint
repository.
      By 1946, the F.B.I. had processed 100 million fingerprint
cards;
      that number doubles by 1971.
      1990s - AFIS, or Automated Fingerprint Identification
Systems,
      begin widespread use around the country. This
computerized system
      of storing and cross-referencing criminal fingerprint 1. Arch  a. Plain Arch
records               b. Tented Arch
      would eventually become capable of searching millions of 2. Loop  a. Radial Loop
      fingerprint files in minutes, revolutionizing law               b. Ulnar Loop
enforcement 3. Whorl a. Plain Whorl
      efforts.                b. Central Pocket Loop
               c. Double Loop
      1996 - As Americans become more concerned with the                d. Accidental Whorl
growing missing
      and abducted children problem, and law enforcement             Plain Arch - 1. Ridges enter upon one side
groups urge                                  2. Make a rise or wave in the center
      the fingerprinting of children for investigative purposes in                                  3. Flow or tend to flow out upon the
      the event of a child becoming missing, Chris Migliaro                                     opposite side.
founds
      Fingerprint America in Albany, NY. The company provides             Tented Arch - Possesses an 1. Angle
a simple,                                                            2. Upthrust
      at-home fingerprinting and identification kit for parents,                                                            3. Two of The Three basic
      maintaining the family’s privacy while protecting and                                                                characteristics of the loop
educating
      children about the dangers of abduction. By 2001, the             Ulnar loop - flow toward the little finger - ulna bone.
company
      distributes over 5 million Child ID Fingerprinting Kits             Radial Loop - flow toward the thumb - radius bone.
around
      the world.             Plain Whorl - 1. Consists of one or more ridges which
make
      1999 - The FBI phases out the use of paper fingerprint                              or tend to make a complete circuit
cards with                           2. With 2 delta's
      their new Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) site at Clarksburg, West                           3. Between which, when an imaginary line is
Virginia.                              drawn, at least one recurving ridge within
      IAFIS will starts with individual computerized fingerprint                              the inner pattern area is cut or touched.
records
      for approximately 33 million criminals, while the outdated             Central Pocket Loop - 1. Consists of at least one
paper recurving
      cards for the civil files are kept at a facility in Fairmont,                                                     ridge or
      West Virginia.                                                 2. An obstruction at right angles to
                                                     the line of flow
Typelines - 1. Two innermost ridges that start or go parallel                                                 3. With 2 delta's
                   2. Diverge and surround or tend to surround the                                                 4. Between which, when an
pattern imaginary
                      area                                                     line is drawn, no recurving ridge
                                                    within the inner pattern area is
Types of Fingerprints                                                     cut or touched.
1. Visible Prints
2. Latent Prints             Double Loop - 1. Consists of two separate loop
3. Impressed Prints formations
                                    2. With two separate and distinct set of
         Visible Prints - also called patent prints and are left in                                         shoulders and
         some medium, like blood, that reveals them to the                                     3. Two delta's
naked eye
         when blood, dirt, ink or grease on the finger come into             Accidental Whorl - 1. Consists of a combination of two
         contact with a smooth surface and leave a friction ridge                                                different types of patterns with the
         impression that is visible without development.                                               exception of the plain arch
                                          2. With 2 or more delta's or
         Latent Prints - not apparent to the naked eye. They are                                          3. A pattern which possesses some of
         formed from the sweat from sebaceous glands on the the
body or                                              requirements for 2 or more different
         water, salt, amino acids and oils contained in sweat.                                              types or a pattern which conforms to
         They can be made sufficiently visible by dusting, fuming                                              none of the definitions.
or
         chemical reagents.
Police Photography Reviewer
         Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham) - a great authority on optics in
         indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as clay,
the Middle
         wax, paint or another surface that will take the
Ages who lived around 1000 AD, invented the first pinhole
impression.
camera,
         They are visible and can be viewed or photographed (also called the Camera Obscura } and was able to explain
without why the
         development. images were upside down.

Types of Patterns Angelo Sala - a self educated chemist, he discovered that

28
when paper or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a
contained powdered silver nitrate it would react with sunlight, court or
causing to aid in an investigation.
it to darken. These pioneering experiments with silver salts
were a Frederick Scoff Archer - an English sculptor who invented
crucial step towards the later invention of photography. He the wet
published plate negative in 1851. Using a viscous solution of collodion,
his findings in a pamphlet in 1614. he
coated glass with light-sensitive silver salts. Because it was
Anna Atkins - (1799- 1871) an English Botanist, she is glass
considered and not paper, this wet plate created a more stable and detailed
to be the first female photographer. negative.

Aristotle - he observed and noted the first casual reference to
the
optic laws that made pinhole cameras possible, around 330
BC, he
questioned why the sun could make a circular image when it
shined
through a square hole.
Arthur Fellig - (Weegee) became famous because of his
frequent,
seemingly prescient arrivals at scenes only minutes after
crimes,
fires or other emergencies were reported to authorities.
Carl William Scheele - (1742-1786) Swedish scientist, self-
educated.
He used to work as an assistant in pharmacies and showed a
talent in
chemistry from a very young age. In spite an offer made to
him to
study in London or Berlin, he operated a pharmacy in Kφping
where he
spend the rest of his life and made all his important inventions.
He was especially interest on chemical analysis and worked
particularly
with the chemical reactions between silver nitrate and
sunlight,
therefore making a break through in the chemistry of
photography.
The records from his experiments were of a great importance
for the
next generations of scientists.
Digital photography - uses an array of electronic photo
detectors to
capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an
exposure on
photographic film.
Emulsion - is a mixture of two or more liquids that are
normally
immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are part
of a more
general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids.
Exposure - is the amount of light per unit area (the image
plane
illuminance times the exposure time) reaching a photographic
film,
as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene
luminance.
Film Speed - is the measure of a photographic film's
sensitivity
to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various
numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system.
Forensic Photography - (forensic imaging)(crime scene
photography)
it is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime
scene
29
Gelatin - It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an
emulsion in
virtually all photographic films and photographic papers.
George Eastman - he invented in 1889 a film with a base that
was
flexible, unbreakable, and could be rolled. Emulsions coated
on a
cellulose nitrate film base, such as Eastman's, made the mass-
produced
box camera a reality.
Hamilton Smith - he patented in 1856 the Tintypes, another
medium that
heralded the birth of photography. A thin sheet of iron was
used to
provide a base for light-sensitive material, yielding a positive
image.
      Tintypes - are a variation of the collodion wet plate
process.
      The emulsion is painted onto a japanned (varnished) iron
plate,
      which is exposed in the camera.
Heliographs - (sun prints) were the prototype for the modern
photograph.
Henry Fox Talbot - an English botanist and mathematician
and The
inventor of the first negative from which multiple postive
prints
were made.
Hercules Florence - (1804-1879) Few details are known for
his life.
In 1824 goes to Brazil and takes part in a scientific mission at
the
Amazon, where he becomes preoccupied with the idea of
recording images
from his trip. From 1830 devotes himself to research and
experimentation for photography. The above, gives Brazil the
ability
to claim that is one of the places in the world, where
photography
was found.
Hippolyte Bayard - (1807-1887) The most unfortunate from
the pioneers
of photography. Discovered one direct positive photographic
method.
He was the first person to hold a photographic exhibition (for
humanitarian reasons) and the first who combined two
negatives to
created one print (called Combination Printing). As a civil
servant
and with five hundred franks that received as financial help
from
Arago for improving his method, prevented him from
presenting the
discovery of photography at the French Academy of Sciences.

History of Photography - Timeline
      Ancient Times: Camera obscuras used to form images on
walls in
      darkened rooms; image formation via a pinhole
      16th century: Brightness and clarity of camera obscuras
improved by
      enlarging the hole inserting a telescope lens
      17th century: Camera obscuras in frequent use by artists
and made
      portable in the form of sedan chairs
      1727: Professor J. Schulze mixes chalk, nitric acid, and
silver in
      a flask; notices darkening on side of flask exposed to
sunlight.
      Accidental creation of the first photo-sensitive compound.
      1800: Thomas Wedgwood makes "sun pictures" by
placing opaque objects
      on leather treated with silver nitrate; resulting images
deteriorated
      rapidly, however, if displayed under light stronger than
from candles.
      1816: Nicéphore Niépce combines the camera obscura
with
      photosensitive paper
      1826: Niépce creates a permanent image
      1827: Joseph Nicephore Niepce made the first known
photographic
      image using the camera obscura. The camera obscura was
a tool
      used by artists to draw.
      1834: Henry Fox Talbot creates permanent (negative)
images using
      paper soaked in silver chloride and fixed with a salt
solution.
      Talbot created positive images by contact printing onto
another
      sheet of paper.
      1837: Louis Daguerre creates images on silver-plated
copper, coated
      with silver iodide and "developed" with warmed mercury;
Daguerre is
      awarded a state pension by the French government in
exchange for
      publication of methods and the rights by other French
citizens to use
      the Daguerreotype process.
      1841: Talbot patents his process under the name
"calotype".
      1851: Frederick Scott Archer, a sculptor in London,
improves
      photographic resolution by spreading a mixture of
collodion
      (nitrated cotton dissolved in ether and alcoohol) and
chemicals on
      sheets of glass. Wet plate collodion photography was
much cheaper
      than daguerreotypes, the negative/positive process
permitted unlimited
      reproductions, and the process was published but not
patented.
30
      1853: Nadar (Felix Toumachon) opens his portrait studio
in Paris
      1854: Adolphe Disderi develops carte-de-visite
photography in Paris,
      leading to worldwide boom in portrait studios for the next
decade
      1855: Beginning of stereoscopic era
      1855-57: Direct positive images on glass (ambrotypes) and
metal
      (tintypes or ferrotypes) popular in the US.
      1861: Scottish physicist James Clerk-Maxwell
demonstrates a color
      photography system involving three black and white
photographs, each
      taken through a red, green, or blue filter. The photos were
turned
      into lantern slides and projected in registration with the
same color
      filters. This is the "color separation" method.
      1861-65: Mathew Brady and staff (mostly staff) covers the
American
      Civil War, exposing 7000 negatives
      1868: Ducas de Hauron publishes a book proposing a
variety of methods
      for color photography.
      1870: Center of period in which the US Congress sent
photographers
      out to the West. The most famous images were taken by
William
      Jackson and Tim O'Sullivan.
      1871: Richard Leach Maddox, an English doctor, proposes
the use of
      an emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide on a glass plate,
the
      "dry plate" process.
      1877: Eadweard Muybridge, born in England as Edward
Muggridge,
      settles "do a horse's four hooves ever leave the ground at
once"
      bet among rich San Franciscans by time-sequenced
photography of
      Leland Stanford's horse.
      1878: Dry plates being manufactured commercially.
      1880: George Eastman, age 24, sets up Eastman Dry Plate
Company in
      Rochester, New York. First half-tone photograph appears
in a daily
      newspaper, the New York Graphic.
      1888: First Kodak camera, containing a 20-foot roll of
paper, enough
      for 100 2.5-inch diameter circular pictures.
      1889: Improved Kodak camera with roll of film instead of
paper
      1890: Jacob Riis publishes How the Other Half Lives,
images of
      tenament life in New york City
      1900: Kodak Brownie box roll-film camera introduced.
      1902: Alfred Stieglitz organizes "Photo Secessionist" show
in
      New York City
      1906: Availability of panchromatic black and white film
and
      therefore high quality color separation color photography.
J.P.
      Morgan finances Edward Curtis to document the
traditional culture of
      the North American Indian.
      1907: First commercial color film, the Autochrome plates,
      manufactured by Lumiere brothers in France
      1909: Lewis Hine hired by US National Child Labor
Committee to
      photograph children working mills.
      1914: Oscar Barnack, employed by German microscope
manufacturer Leitz,
      develops camera using the modern 24x36mm frame and
sprocketed 35mm
      movie film.
      1917: Nippon Kogaku K.K., which will eventually become
Nikon,
      established in Tokyo.
      1921: Man Ray begins making photograms ("rayographs")
by placing
      objects on photographic paper and exposing the shadow
cast by a
      distant light bulb; Eugegrave;ne Atget, aged 64, assigned
to
      photograph the brothels of Paris
      1924: Leitz markets a derivative of Barnack's camera
commercially as
      the "Leica", the first high quality 35mm camera.
      1925: André Kertész moves from his native Hungary to
Paris, where he
      begins an 11-year project photographing street life
      1928: Albert Renger-Patzsch publishes The World is
Beautiful,
      close-ups emphasizing the form of natural and man-made
objects;
      Rollei introduces the Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex producing
a 6x6
      cm image on rollfilm.; Karl Blossfeldt publishes Art
Forms in Nature
      1934: Fuji Photo Film founded. By 1938, Fuji is making
cameras and
      lenses in addition to film.
      1935: Farm Security Administration hires Roy Stryker to
run a
      historical section. Stryker would hire Walker Evans,
Dorothea Lange,
      Arthur Rothstein, et al. to photograph rural hardships over
the next
      six years. Roman Vishniac begins his project of the soon-
to-be-killed
      -by-their-neighbors Jews of Central and Eastern Europe.
      1936: Development of Kodachrome, the first color multi-
layered color
      film; development of Exakta, pioneering 35mm single-lens
reflex
      (SLR) camera
            World War II: Development of multi-layer color
negative films
            Margaret Bourke-White, Robert Capa, Carl Mydans,
and W. Eugene
            Smith cover the war for LIFE magazine
      1940s - in the early 1940's commercially viable color films
      (except Kodachrome, introduced in 1935) were brought to
the market.
      These films used the modern technology of dye-coupled
colors in
      which a chemical process connects the three dye layers
together
      to create an apparent color image.
      1947: Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David
Seymour start the
      photographer-owned Magnum picture agency
      1948: Hasselblad in Sweden offers its first medium-format
SLR for
      commercial sale; Pentax in Japan introduces the automatic
diaphragm;
      Polaroid sells instant black and white film
      1949: East German Zeiss develops the Contax S, first SLR
with an
      unreversed image in a pentaprism viewfinder
      1955: Edward Steichen curates Family of Man exhibit at
New York's
      Museum of Modern Art

      1931: Development of strobe photography by Harold       1959: Nikon F introduced.

("Doc") Edgerton
      at MIT       1960: Garry Winogrand begins photographing women on
the streets of
      1932: Inception of Technicolor for movies, where three       New York City.
black and
      white negatives were made in the same camera under       1963: First color instant film developed by Polaroid;
different filters; Instamatic
      Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham, Willard Van Dyke,       released by Kodak; first purpose-built underwater
Edward Weston, introduced, the
      et al, form Group f/64 dedicated to "straight photographic       Nikonos
thought
      and production".; Henri Cartier-Bresson buys a Leica and       1970: William Wegman begins photographing his
begins a Weimaraner, Man Ray.
      60-year career photographing people; On March 14,
George Eastman,       1972: 110-format cameras introduced by Kodak with a
      aged 77, writes suicide note--"My work is done. Why 13x17mm frame
wait?"--and
      shoots himself.       1973: C-41 color negative process introduced, replacing
C-22
      1933: Brassaï publishes Paris de nuit
31
      1975: Nicholas Nixon takes his first annual photograph of
his wife
      and her sisters: "The Brown Sisters"; Steve Sasson at
Kodak builds
      the first working CCD-based digital still camera
      1976: First solo show of color photographs at the Museum
of Modern
      Art, William Eggleston's Guide
      1977: Cindy Sherman begins work on Untitled Film Stills,
completed
      in 1980; Jan Groover begins
      exploring kitchen utensils
      1978: Hiroshi Sugimoto begins work on seascapes.
      1980: Elsa Dorfman begins making portraits with the
20x24" Polaroid.
      1982: Sony demonstrates Mavica "still video" camera
      1983: Kodak introduces disk camera, using an 8x11mm
frame (the same
      as in the Minox spy camera)
      1985: Minolta markets the world's first autofocus SLR
system (called
      "Maxxum" in the US); In the American West by Richard
Avedon
      1988: Sally Mann begins publishing nude photos of her
children
      1987: The popular Canon EOS system introduced, with
new
      all-electronic lens mount
      1990: Adobe Photoshop released.
      1991: Kodak DCS-100, first digital SLR, a modified
Nikon F3
      1992: Kodak introduces PhotoCD
      1993: Founding of photo.net (this Web site), an early
Internet online
      community; Sebastiao Salgado publishes Workers; Mary
Ellen Mark
      publishes book documenting life in an Indian circus.
      1995: Material World, by Peter Menzel published.
      1997: Rob Silvers publishes Photomosaics
      1999: Nikon D1 SLR, 2.74 megapixel for $6000, first
ground-up DSLR
      design by a leading manufacturer.
      2000: Camera phone introduced in Japan by Sharp/J-
Phone
      2001: Polaroid goes bankrupt
      2003: Four-Thirds standard for compact digital SLRs
introduced with
      the Olympus E-1; Canon Digital Rebel introduced for less
than $1000
      2004: Kodak ceases production of film cameras
      2005: Canon EOS 5D, first consumer-priced full-frame
digital SLR,
      with a 24x36mm CMOS sensor for $3000; Portraits by
32
Rineke Dijkstra
Infrared Photography - the film or image sensor used is
sensitive to
infrared light.
Johann Heinrich Schulze - (1687 - 1744) he was a German
professor at
the University of Altdorf. He was the first person to produce
Photograms, which were created by using paper masks in
direct contact
with a jar containing a mixture of silver nitrate powder and
chalk.
Schulze proved that the darkening of silver nitrate was caused
by light
and ruled out the possibility of the change being caused by
temperature,
by observing no tonal change to silver nitrate when heated in
an oven.
Joseph Nicephore Niepce - made the first photographic
image with a
camera obscura.
Latent Image - is an invisible image produced by the
exposure to
light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film.
Louis Daguerre - a Frenchman and A professional scene
painter,  was
able to reduce exposure time to less than 30 minutes and keep
the image
from disappearing afterwards. He was the inventor of the first
practical
process of photography.
Mugshot - (police photograph)(booking photograph) is a
photographic
portrait typically taken after a person is arrested.
Negative - is an image, usually on a strip or sheet of
transparent
plastic film, in which the lightest areas of the photographed
subject
appear darkest and the darkest areas appear lightest.
Parallax - is a displacement or difference in the apparent
position
of an object viewed along two different lines of sight, and is
measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between
those
two lines.
Photography - It is a method of recording images by the
action of light,
or related radiation, on a sensitive material.
Photographic Film - (Film) is a strip or sheet of transparent
plastic
film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion
containing
microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals.
Point-and-Shoot Camera - (compact camera) is a still
camera designed
primarily for simple operation.[1] Most use focus free lenses
or
autofocus for focusing, automatic systems for setting the
exposure
options, and have flash units built in.
Rogues Gallery - is a police collection of pictures or
photographs of
criminals and suspects kept for identification purposes.

Shutter Lag - is the delay between triggering the shutter and
when
the photograph is actually recorded.
Shutter Speed - (exposure time) is the length of time a
camera's
shutter is open when taking a photograph.
Silver Halides - The light-sensitive chemicals used in
photographic
film and paper.
Single-Lens Reflex Camera (SLR) - typically uses a mirror
and prism
system (hence "reflex", from the mirror's reflection) that
permits
the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly
what will
be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image
could
be significantly different from what will be captured.
Sir Humphry Davy - (1778-1829) Chemistry genius, friend
and assistant
of Wedgwood in his experiments whose results were
published at Royal
Society, in 1802 by Davy. The problem of "fixing" the images
remained
in spite of Davy's breakthroughs in chemistry.
Sir John F.W. Herschel - a scientist who first used the word
photography
in 1839. The word photography was derived from the Greek
words Photos,
which means light and Graphein, which means to draw.
Snapshot - is popularly defined as a photograph that is "shot"
spontaneously and quickly, most often without artistic or
journalistic intent.
Thomas Wedgwood - (1771 - 1805) an Englishman who
made good ground
creating Photograms and recording images from his Camera
Obscura
or pinhole camera, However, he never overcome the problem
of fixing
the image and therefore the prints produced had to be viewed
for very
short periods of time in a darkened environment.
Twin-Lens Reflex Camera (TLR) - is a type of camera with
two objective
lenses of the same focal length.
Viewfinder - is what the photographer looks through to
compose,
and in many cases to focus, the picture.
Forensic Ballistics Reviewer
ACP - Automatic Colt Pistol
Action - the working mechanism of a firearm. An action is the
physical
mechanism that manipulates cartridges and/or seals the
breech.
Air Gun - a gun that uses compressed air or gas to propel a
projectile
also called air rifle, pellet rifle, pellet gun and gun.
33
Air Resistance - (Drag) decelerates the projectile with a force
proportional to the square of the velocity.
Ammunition - shall mean loaded shell rifle, muskets, carbine,
shotguns,
revolver and pistol from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or
other
missiles may be fore by means of a gun powder or other
explosives.
Anvil - An internal metal component in a boxer primer
assembly
against which the priming mixture is crushed by the firing pin
blow.
Anvil Marks - A term generally used by the military for a
cartridge
with a full metal jacketed bullet or solid metal projectile.
Armalite – occasionally, the home of manufacturing company
becomes
almost a generic term. It happens with the colt produced M16,
which
has been designed and develop at Armalite. The Armalite
business was
form by Charles Dorchester and George Sullivan in 1950.
Armalite
employed Eugene Stoner, Chief Engineer and one of the top
designer
of the country.
Automatic - when the mechanism is so arrange that it will fire
continuously when the trigger is depressed.
Automatic Action Type – a firearm design that feeds
cartridges fires
and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully
depressed
and there is cartridge available in the feed system.
Barrel - metal tube through which the projectiles travel.
Berthold Schwartz - the inventor of gunpowder. His real
name is
Constantin Anklitzen, a Franciscan monk in the town of
Freiberg
in Germany.
Blowback -  In firearm, an automatic and semi-automatic
firearm design,
that directly utilizes the breech pressure exerted on the head
of the
cartridge cases to actuate the mechanism. In ammunition, a
leakage
of gas re-ward between the case and chamber wall from the
mouth of
the case.
Bolt Action Type – a firearm in which the breech closure is
(1) in line with the bore at all times,
(2) manually reciprocated to load, unload and cock
(3) and is locked in place by breech bolt lugs and engaging
abutments
    usually in the receiver.
Bore -  the interior of the barrel of a gun or firearm.
Breechface - is the front part of the breechblock that makes
contact
with the cartridge in a firearm. The breech block (or
breechblock) in
a gun is what holds a round in the chamber, and absorbs the
recoil
of the cartridge when the round is fired, preventing the
cartridge
case from moving.
Broach Cutter - used to create a rifling impressions on a
barrel.
Broach, Gang – A tool having a series of cutting edges of
slightly
increasing height used to cut the spiral grooves in a barrel. All
groves are cut with a single pass of the broach.
Broach, Single – a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all
the
grooves simultaneously, and is in a series of increasing
dimensions
until the desired groove depth is achieved.
Browning, J.M. - born in 1855. Started the production of
single shot
rifle that was adopted by Winchester.
Buckshot - coarse lead shot used in shotgun shells. Lead
pellets
ranging in size from .20 inches to .36 inch diameter normally
loaded in shotshells.
Buffer -  in a firearm, any part intended to absorb shock and
check
recoil.
Bullet - a projectile propelled from the firearm. A metallic or
non
metallic cylindrical projectile. Originated from the French
word
“BOULETTE”, a small ball. In common police par lane, a
bullet maybe
called “SLUG”.
    
      Two Basic Types of Commercial Bullets in Common
Used Today.
      1. Lead Bullets - are used in almost all revolver
ammunition
         and in some low or medium powder rifle cartridges.
         Are produced in automatic swedging machine from
extruded wire
         containing the proper percentage of tin and antimony for
         hardening.
      2. Jacketed Bullets - are used for automatic pistols
ammunition
         and medium and high power rifle ammunition. The most
common
         are those from the blowback- .25 ACP, .380 ACP, 9mm
luger,
         .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol) and several types of
high
         velocity .30s. These are all made automatically by
swedging
         a cup of metal around a lead core.
      Armor-Piercing Bullets - is pointed flat base bullet with
      gliding metal jacket. The core is of pointed, boat-tailed
shape
      and is made of harden tungsten, chrome steel and has a
blackened
      tip. Used to penetrate armored cars and vehicles.
      Tracer Bullet - when fired, emit a light red flame from its
base,
      there by showing the gunner the trace of flame, the path as
well
      as the striking point of the bullet, the flame continuing to
burn
      and trace for about 600 yards. These are intended
primarily for
34
      machine gun use and can be seen by day and night. The
point of
      the bullet colored red is for identification. These are used
only
      in the military service, and were never sold to individuals.
      Should an individual obtain one or more of these
cartridges,
      he should at once return it to military control or else
dispose
      of these by throwing into a deep river or lake, as they are
      exceedingly dangerous to have around. This should never
be
      “Monkeyed” with, and particularly no attempt should be
made to
      unload them for examination, as these may ignite and
cause
      exceedingly serious burn or fire. The ingredients used in
tracer
      and igniter mixtures are confidential.
      Incendiary Bullet - is similar in construction to a tracer
bullet,
      but the composition contained in the cavity burns fiercely
impact
      with a very hot flame which will quite reliably ignite
anything
      that the bullet strikes. For identification purposes the
      incendiary bullet has a light blue color. The same
precaution
      should be observed as with tracer cartridges.
      Dum-Dum Bullet - this word and type of bullet were
invented by
      British Ordinance force stationed at their arsenal at Dum-
Dum,
      India. The British army was engaged in extensive Punitive
      expedition on the Northwest Frontier of India, fighting
against
      Afghan and Pathan tribesmen. It soon develop that such a
full
      jacketed bullet was of no practical effect against primitive
      natures. So the English made some of these bullets
expanding
      by grinding of the nose of the jacketed bullet. These are
now
      known as Hallow Point bullet and Soft Point Bullet.
      Gas Check Bullet - to prevent the melting of the base,
lead
      bullets intended to be fired at higher velocity have their
gases
      protected with a small copper cups. The bullet is casts with
a
      slightly tape-ring base, and the copper gas chock is then
pressed
      lightly on the bore, the cup remaining on the bullet when it
      is fired.
      Wad Cutter Bullet - a cylindrical bullet design having a
sharp
      shouldered nose intended to cut target paper clearly to
      facilitate easy and accurate soaring.
      Wax Bullet - a bullet made from paraffin and other wax
      preparation usually used for short range indoor target
shooting.
      Marks Found Of Fired Bullets
      1. Landmarks -  depressed portion caused by the lands.
      2. Groove Marks -  raised on elevated portions caused by
the
         grooves.
      3. Skid Marks -  when the bullet enters the rifled bore from
         a stationary position and is forced abruptly into the
         rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight toward
         before encountering the regular rifling twist.
      4. Slippage Marks -  bullets fired from a worn-out barrel,
         oily barrels and slightly oversized bullets.
      5. Shaving Marks -  most commonly these marks are found
on the
         bullets  fires from  a revolver due to a poor alignment of
         the cylindrical with the bore.
      Identification of a Bullet - Principles
      1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the
surfaces
         of their bores all possess individual and characteristics
         on their own.
      2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes
         engraved by the riflings and this engraving will vary in
         its minute details with every individual bore. So it
happens
         that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel
will
         be different from that on a similar bullet fired from
another
         barrel. And conversely the engraving on bullets fired
from
         the same barrel will be the same.
      3. Every barrel leaves its thumb marks on every bullet
which
         is fired through it, just as every breech face leaves its
         thumb marks on the base of every fired cartridge case.
      Test Bullet - a bullet fired from a bullet recovery system
for
      comparison analysis.
Bullet Recovery System - Any method which will allow the
undamaged
recovery of a fired bullet. Differing systems are needed for
different
cartridges depending upon bullet composition, jacket
thickness, and
velocity. Water tanks and cotton boxes are most commonly in
use.
Bullet Splash - The spatter and fragmentation of a bullet upon
impacting a hard surface.
Bullet Wipe - The discolored area on the immediate periphery
of a
bullet hole, caused by bullet lubricant, lead, smoke, bore
debris,
or possible jacket material. Sometimes called "Burnishing" or
"Leaded Edge".
Button – a hardened metal plug, called a button, with a rifled
cross
section configuration. It is pushed or pulled through a drilled
and
reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves to the
desired
depth and twist. When the carbide button was first introduced
it was
described as a SWAGING PROCESS or SWAGED
RIFLING.
Caliber - the diameter of the bore of a rifled firearm. The
caliber is
usually expressed in hundredths of an inch or millimeters.
      Land to Land - the way to determine the caliber of a gun
is to
      measure the diameter of the bore from land to land.
Cane gun, Knife pistols - many devices primarily designed
for another
35
purposes will have a gun mechanism incorporated in them.
(also known as FREAKISH DEVICE)
Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled
or plain
appearance on a bullet or cartridge. These three uses including
crimping, lubrication and identification.
Cartridge - a term to describe a complete un-fired unit,
consisting
of bullet, primer, cartridge case and gunpowder.
      Test Cartridge Case - a cartridge case obtain while test
firing
      a firearm in a laboratory to be used for comparison or
analysis.
      Function Of Cartridge Cases
      1. It holds the bullet gunpowder and primer.
      2. It serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
      3. It prevents the escape of gases to the rear.
      Marks Found on Cartridge Cases
      1. Firing pin impression – the indentation in the primer of
a
         tentative cartridge case or in the rim of a rimface
         cartridge case cause when it is struck by the firing pin.
      2. Breechface Markings – negative impression of the
breechface
         of the firearm found on the head of the cartridge case
         after firing.
      3. Chamber Marks – individual microscope marks placed
upon a
         cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any of
         the following:
               a. Chambering
               b. Expanding during firing
               c. Extraction
      4. Extractor Marks – toolmarks produced upon a cartridge
case
         form contact with the extractor. These are usually found
on
         or just ahead of the rim.
      5. Ejector Marks – toolmarks produced upon a cartridge or
         cartridge case on the head, generally at or near the rim,
         form contact with the ejector.
Cape Gun – a doubled-barreled shoulder arm with barrel side
by side :
one being smooth bore and the other being rifled.
Case Head - The base of the cartridge case which contains the
primer.
Cast-Off - the off-set of the butt of a firearm to the right
handed
shooter and to the right for a left-handed shooter.
Cast-On - the offset of the butt of a firearm to the left for a
right-handed shooter and to the right for a left handed shooter.
Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been
formed to
accept a specific cartridge. Revolver cylinders are multi-
chambered.
Cock -  place a firing mechanism under a spring tension.
Raise the cock
of (a gun) in order to make it ready for firing.
      Full Cock - the position of the hammer or strike when the
      firearm is ready to fire.
Compensator - (MuzzleBrake) a device attached to or
integral with the
muzzle end of the barrel to utilize propelling gases for
counter-recoil.
CETME - Centro dos Studios Technicos de Materiales
Especiales. This
is Spanish government weapon development agency, based in
Madrid.
Class Characteristics - Are those characteristics which are
determinable
only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are
characteristics
whose existence is beyond the control of man and which have
random
distribution. There existence in the firearms is brought about
by
the tools in their normal operations resulting through wear and
tear,
abuse, mutilation, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous
causes.
Classification of Cartridge According to Rim
      1. Rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim is greater than
the
         diameter of the body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber
         .38 and caliber .22.
      2. Semi-Rimmed Type- the diameter of the rim is slightly
         greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge
case.
         e.g. caliber .25. 32 auto. Super .38.
      3. Rimless Type - the diameter of the rim is equal to the
body
         of the cartridge case. e.g.
caliber .5.56mm, .30, .9mm, .45.
      4. Rebated Type- the diameter of the rim is smaller than
the
         body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber 8mm x 59.
      5. Belted Type - there is a protruding metal around the
body
         of the cartridge case near the rim. e.g. caliber 338
magnum
         13.9 x 39
Colt - Samuel Colt was born on July 1814 in was to be
instrumental
in making the revolver a practical type of pistol.
Cylinder - storage for ammunition in a revolver, the cylinder
rotates
as the action is cocked.
DAMSCUS - an obsolete barrel making process the barrel is
formed by
twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars.
Sometimes
called LAMINATED BARREL.
Derringer, Henry - born in the beginning of 19th century.
Worked at
Philadelphia where he manufactured Pocket Pistol.
Drilling - refers to a combination gun that has three barrels.
Ejector Rod - metal rod used to help with the removal of the
cartridges.
Energy Bullet - the capacity of  a projectile to do work.
Firearms Identification - a discipline mainly concerned with
determining
whether a bullet or cartridge was fired by a particular weapon.
Firing Pin - is a lightweight part, which serves to transfer
36
energy
from a spring-loaded hammer to the primer, while a striker is
usually heavier, and is directly connected to the spring
providing
the energy to impact the primer.
Flare guns - used in cases such in sending signals and
enabling to
see enemies in the dark.
Forensic Ballistics - A scientific study of firearm
identification
with the use of laboratory examination. The subject gives
emphasis
on the study of ammunitions, projectiles, gunpowder, primer
and
explosives, including the use of the bullet comparison
microscope.
It also deals with the principles in the microscopic and
macroscopic examination of firearm evidence and the
preparation of
reports for legal proceedings in the solution of cases involving
firearms.
      Types of Problems in Forensic Ballistics
      1. Given a bullet to determine the caliber and type of
firearm
         from which it was fire.
      2. Given fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and
         type of firearm from which it was fired.
      3. Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine
whether
         or not the bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
      4. Given a fired cartridge case a suspected firearm, to
determine
         whether or not the cartridge was fired from the suspected
         firearm.
      5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not
they
         were fired from only one firearm.
      6. Given two or more cartridge cases, to determine
whether or
         not they were fired.
      Equipments used In A Ballistics Laboratory
      1. Comparison Microscope - This valuable instrument is
specially
         designed to permit the firearm examiner to determine the
         similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or
         two fired cartridge cases by simultaneously observing
their
         magnified image. It is actually two microscope couple
together
         with a single or two eye piece, so that when one looks
through
         this comparison eye piece, he is seeing one half of what
is
         under the other – in other words, half of the evidence
bullet
         and half of the test bullet.
      2. Stereoscope Microscope - This is generally used in the
         preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells.
         To determine the location of the extractor marks and
ejector
         marks for orientation purposes. It can be used also in one
         close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of
firearms.
      3. Comparison Projector - CP6 This is generally used in
the
         preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells.
         To determine the location of the extractor marks and
ejector
         marks for orientation purposes. It can be used also in one
         close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of
firearms.
      4. Bullet Recovery Box - For obtaining best fired bullet or
         test fired cartridge cases from the suspected firearms
         submitted to the ballistics laboratory. In test firing
         suspected firearms, it is standard procedure to used
         ammunition that are of the same caliber, make or brand
and
         manufactured in the same year with that of the evidence
         bullet or shell.
         Water is one of the means to obtain test bullets and test
         shells because the microscope marks on the cylindrical
or
         peripheral surface of the bullets are preserved for good
         used. The same is true with cotton.
      5. Measuring Projector - MP6 This projector determines
the
         width of the lands, width of grooves, diameter and twist
         of fired bullets.
      6. Verneir Caliper - This instrument determines the bullet
         diameter and barrel length.
      7. Analytical Balance - This more or less determines the
weight
         of the bullets, shots and pellets for possible type, caliber
         and make for firearm from which they were fired.
      8. Taper Gauge - Used for determining the diameter of the
bore
         of the firearms.
      9. Onoscope - For examining the interior surface of the
barrel.
      10.Helixometer - For measuring the pitch of the rifling.
Pitch
         of rifling is the distance advanced by the rifling in one
         complete turn or a distance traveled by the bullet in one
         complete turn.
      11.Chronograph - For determining the speed of the bullet
or
         the muzzle velocity of the bullet.
Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of  a
firearm
after firing.
Garand, John C. - was born in North Carolina in 1818.
Developed the
hang-ranked machine gun. A development of Duver Gatling
type of
machine gun.
Gas Guns – these will be found in all shapes and sizes and
used for
firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gases.
Gas Operated - an automatic or semi-automatic firearm in
which the
propellant gases are used to unlock the breech bolt and then to
complete the cycle of extracting and expecting.
Gas Port - an opening  in the wall of  a barrel to allow gas to
operate a mechanism or reduce recoil.
Grip - handle of the handgun.
Gunpowder - any of the various powder used in firearms as
propellant
charge.
      Types of Gunpowder
      1. Black powder - consists of the jet black and rather shiny
         grains. Although black powder has been in used for
about
         six centuries, and although methods of manufactured are
         naturally led to greater efficiency in action, its
         composition has remained practically the same in all
         countries.
37
      2. Smokeless Powder - a mixture of nitrocellulose 60 parts,
         nitroglycerine 35 parts and Vaseline 5 parts. These
         substances are almost entirely smokeless in action. They
are
         all given the generic term of nitro powders and are
legion in
         number. All nitro powders used 2. in rifles, pistols, and
         revolvers are a gelatinized powder that is they are made
by
         forming dough into sticks or grains. The identification of
         partially burnt powder grains may become a matter of
vital
         importance, since such grains maybe found around the
entrance
         hole of a wound, and it will obviously help if the type of
         powder can be identified from these unburnt grains.
Hammer - part that strikes the primer to cause ignition.
Hammerli, Johann Ulrich - hammerli weapons has always
been the
epitome of Swiss precision Engineering ability.
Handgun - a revolver or a pistol.
Harpoon Guns - barbed spear in hunting large fish.
Headspace - is the distance measured from the part of the
chamber
that stops forward motion of the cartridge (the datum
reference) to
the face of the bolt.
Headstamp - numerals, letters and symbols stamped into the
head of
the cartridge case or shotshell to identify the manufacture
caliber
gauge or give additional information.
Heckler and Kock – Edmond Heckler has been a plant
manager with
Mauser, and Alex Siedel a designer with Mauser.
Hook – a cutting tool which cuts has hook shape and only cuts
one
grooves at a time.
Keyhole - an oblong or an oval hole in a target that is
produced by
an unstable bullet striking the target at an oblique angle to the
bullets. Longitudinal axis.
Leading - the accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm
from the
passage of lead shot or bullet. Also called METAL
FOULING.
Lever Action Type – a design wherein the breech mechanism
is cycled
by an external lever generally below the receiver.
Liberator – made by the US government for use in occupied
countries
in Europe during the recent war and fired the .45ACP
cartridge,
single shot and smooth bore.
Lubaloy - is a wrought copper alloy that is composed mainly
of copper
and zinc. In 1922, the Western Cartridge Company introduced
a
copper-washed bullet jacketing called Lubaloy which stands
for
lubricating alloy. Lubaloy replaced standard bullet jacketing
which
had been cupro-nickel coated steel or solid cupro-nickel.
Luger, George - was born in Australia in 1849. he did lasting
designed
work in connection with 9mm Parabellum cartridge.
Machine Gun Type – primarily used only in military combat
and will
seldom be encountered by the firearms technician.
Machine Markings - a cross section of a gun barrel will show
small
grooves or striations all along the lands and grooves.
Marlin, John Mahlon - New Haven, Connecticut
manufacturer of lever
action rifle, 1800’s.
Mauser - Paul and Wilhelm brothers produced parts of the
rifle which
had been adopted by the German government in 1871.
Mossberge, Oscar - born in Sweden in 1866 and went to the
United
States. The maker of high quality .22 rifles. Sporting rifles and
pump action shotguns.
Mossin, Sergei - Colonel of Russia Army. Designated in
Russian Service
Rifle in 1891.
Multi –Barreled guns – in particular one will find guns
having the
three or four barrels are mounted in one receiver. Some may
have
a combination of several different gauges of shotguns, or a
combination of shotgun barrels and rifle barrel.
Muzzle - the end of the barrel through which the bullet exits.
Muzzle Energy - is the kinetic energy of a bullet as it is
expelled
from the muzzle of a firearm. It is often used as a rough
indication
of the destructive potential of a given firearm or load.
Nambu, Kijiro - an army gun officer designer. His first
design was
produced by the Kayoba Factory in 1904.
Paradox - an obsolete barrel designed in which the major
length of
the barrel is smooth and last few inches are rifled.
Pen Gun -  a small caliber firearm shaped like a pen or pencil.
Powder - commonly used term for the propellant in a
cartridge or
shotshell.
Pressure - in a firearm, the force developed by the expanding
gasses
generated by the combustion of the propellant.
Primer - The ignition components of cartridge primers are
used for
igniting prominent. A blow from the firing pin of the firing
cup
compresses the priming composition to detonate. This
detonation
produces a flame which passes through the vent of flesh hole
in the
cartridge case, igniting the gunpowder.
38
      Composition of a Primer
      1. Potassium Chlorate - 45%
      2. Antimony Sulfide         - 23%
      3. Fulminate of Mercury - 32%
Proofmark - a distinctive symbol stamped into the metal of
the barrel
or other part of a firearm to indicate that testing of the part
bearing
the stamp by firing proof loads has been carried out.
Proof Test - is a form of stress test to demonstrate the fitness
of a
load-bearing structure. The firing of a deliberate overload to
test the
strength of a firearm barrel an action.
Rachet - a notched wheel on the rear of a revolver cylinder to
rotate
when a force is applied by a level hold a hand.
Recoil - (often called knockback, kickback or simply kick) is
the
backward momentum of a gun when it is discharged. In
technical terms,
the recoil caused by the gun exactly balances the forward
momentum of
the projectile and exhaust gases (ejecta), according to
Newton's third law.
Reload - a cartridge, which have been reassembled with a new
primer,
powder and or other components.
Repeating Arms – this type is loaded with more than
cartridge into
the chamber when it is fired rather having to perform this
operation
by hand.
Resizing - the reduction in diameter of  a fire cartridge case to
unfired diameter by forcing it into die of smaller size than the
fired case.
Ricochet - is a rebound, bounce or skip off a surface,
particularly in
the case of a projectile.
Rifling - refers to helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or
firearm, which imparts a spin to a projectile around its long
axis.
      Types of Riflings
      1. Steyr Type - four lands, four grooves, right hand twist
and
         lands or equal widths ( 4-R-G=L) used in earlier
         self-loading pistols.
      2. Smith and Wesson Type - five lands and five grooves,
right
         hand twist and lands of equal width (5-R-G=L)
      3. Browning Type- six lands, six grooves, right hand twist,
         narrow lands and broad grooves. (6-R-G-2x)
      4. Colt Type- six lands and six grooves, left hand twist,
narrow
         lands and broads grooves. (6-L-G-2x)
      5. Webley Type- seven lands, seven grooves, right hand
twist,
         narrow lands and broad grooves. (7-R-G3x)
      6. Army Type- four lands and four grooves, right hand
twist,
         narrow lands and broad grooves. ( 4-R-G3x)
Round -  a military term for a cartridge.

Scrape – a cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a
time.
Shocking Power - the ability of a projectile to dissipate its
kinetic
energy effectively in a target.
Shot - a small ball or pellet of lead, a number of which are
loaded
in a cartridge and used for one charge of a shotgun.
      Birdshot - the smallest size of shot for sporting rifles or
      other guns.
Shotshell - a cartridge containing projectile designed to be
fired
in a shotgun. The cartridge body maybe metal, plastic or
paper.
Semi-Automatic Type – A firearm requiring a separate pull
of the
trigger for each shot fired, and which uses the energy of
discharge
to perform a portion of the operating or firing cycle.
Serial Number - a number applied to a firearm in order to
identify the
individual firearm.
Shell - an explosive artillery projectile or bomb.
      Identification of Shells - Principles
      1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave
         microscopically individualities of their own.
      2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark”
on
         every cartridge case which it fires.
      3. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact
         that since the breech face of every weapon must be
         individually distinct, the cartridge cases which it fires are
         imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all
cartridge
         cases fired from the same weapon are always the same,
those
         on cartridge cases fired form different weapons must
always
         be different.
Shotgun - a smooth-bore gun for firing small shot at short
range.
   a. Single Barreled shotgun – it is loaded with a single
shotgun
      cartridge, closed. Fired and then re-loaded by the shooter.
   b. Double barreled shotgun – the two barrels may be side by
side
      or they may be one over the other. Each barrel may have
its
      own trigger.
   c. Pump action shotgun - operates in the same manner as a
slide
      action rifles, by means of sliding lever under the barrel.
   d. Auto loading shotguns - these are the same as auto-
loading or
      self-loading rifles in that the recoil action reloads the gun
      form the magazine without any effort on the part of the
shooter.
SIG - (SCHWEIZERISCHE INDUSTRIE CESSELSHALF)
adopted by the Swiss
government as their standard service weapon. The company
started to
produced railway engines and carriage in 1853.
39
Sidelock – A design in which the firing mechanism is attached
to a
sideplate rather than being integral with the frame.
Sight - device used for aiming.
Silencer - a device attach to the barrel of the  firearm to
reduce
the noise of discharge. Also called SOUND SUPPRESSOR.
Single Shot Firearms – those type of firearms that is
designated to
shoot only one shot.
Slide Action Type – a firearm which features a movable
forearm which
is manually actuated in motion parallel to the barrel by the
shooter.
Forearm motion is transmitted to a breech blot assembly
which performs
all the function of the firing cycle assigned to it by the design.
Also known as PUMP ACTION.
Sling - a strap fasten to a firearm to assist in carrying or to
steady it during firing. A sling may also refer to a projectile
weapon typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as a
stone,
clay or lead "sling-bullet".
Slug - a projectile generally fired from a shotgun either one
large
piece of lead or several smaller caliber pieces.
      Rifled Slug - a simple projectile in spiral grooves and
hollow
      base, intended to use in shotgun. The slug will rotate, and
      thus, reach its target much more accurate.
Smith and Wesson - Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson
formed a
partnership in 1852. They manage by producing what is
probably the
best double-action revolver in the world. (Daniel Wesson left
the
company to set up his own firearm business).
Smoke Ring - the circular gray deposits around the face of the
chamber
of a revolver produce by gun powder residues upon discharge.
Stock - also known as a shoulder stock, a buttstock, or simply
a
butt is a part of a rifle or other firearm, to which the barrel and
firing mechanism are attached, that is held against one's
shoulder
when firing the gun.
Striations - (Striae) When a bullet is fired through a rifled
barrel,
the raised and lowered spirals of the rifling etch fine grooves
called
"striations" into the bullet.
      Characteristics of Striations Depend Upon The ff: Factors
      1. The size and shape of the microscopic irregularities on
         the acting tool.
      2. The original surface smoothness of the object acted
upon.
      3. Relative hardness of the two materials.
      4. Speed of application or rate of relative motion.
      5. Pressure areas involved
      6. Texture and uniformity of material acted upon.
Submachine Type – is alight, portable machine gun which
uses pistol during
size ammunition. It differs from a pistol in it that has a          the application may scraped over the jamb of a door,
shoulder leaving
stock which may or may not fold but is designed to be fired by          striate. Tin Snips or Bolt Cutter have blades which
the frequently
use of both hands.          leave striate on the edges of metal cut. An axe will leave
         striate on wood chips, as well as the auger or blade of a
Swage – an internal mandrel with rifling configuration which          plane. Mechanical tool as a planner, joiner, and lathe all
forms          have blades and edges which leaves striate on chips,
rifling in the barrel by means of the external hammering. Also shaving
known          and stock being worked. Many examples should be
as HAMMER FORGING. given but
         these are typical if the tool most commonly encountered
Tattoing - small hemorrhagic marks on the skin produce by in
the impact          the criminal investigations. Striated marks are often
of gun powder particles also called STRIPPLING. referred
         to a “friction marks”, abrasion marks or “scratched
Thompson, John - born in 1860 in Newport, Kentucky. marks”.
Designed the
Thompson submachine gun in 1920. Tools – there are a number of tools using cartridges which are
designed to drive studs, punch holes or cut tables. Such tools
Thumb Rest -  a ledge in the grip area of a rifle or hand gun may
in which be encountered in the investigation of an accident.
to rest the thumb of the trigger hand.
Traps – these are designed to be set in the woods and left
Trailing Edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a where
fire animals will encounter them. They may fire a bullet or a
bullet which is opposites the driving edge of the same land or poison
groove impressions. charge, depending on their construction.

Trajectory - the curved path of a projectile from muzzle to
target.
Trap Door – An action in which a top hinged breechblock
pivots up
and forward to open. Locking on this action is accomplished
by a
cam located at the rear of the breechblock that fits into a
mating recess. Also known as a CAM LOCK.
Trigger - is a mechanism that actuates the firing of firearms.
Trigger Guard - trigger guard is a loop surrounding the
trigger of
a firearm and protecting it from accidental discharge.
Trigger - small lever that is pulled or squeezed to start the
firing
process.
Trigger Guard - piece that surrounds the trigger to protect it
from
being accidentally squeezed or bumped.
Velocity - the speed of the projectile at a given point along its
trajectory.
Vierling - A four-barreled gun, typically with two identical
shotgun
barrels and with two rifle barrels of differing calibres. Built
primarily in Germany and Austria.

Trigger Pull - the amount of force, which must firearm to Walther, Carl - developed a reliable small caliber automatic
cause sear pistol
release. in 1866.

Tokarev, Fedor - born in Egorlikshaya in 1971. Designed the Walker Test - the original chemical test for the detection of
service spatial
pistol of the Soviet forces. distributions of nitrites in gun powder residue.

Tool Marks Identification - is a discipline of forensic science Winchester, Oliver - he led the formation of the Winchester
which Company.
has, as its primary concern to determine if a tool mark was
produced Types Of Cartridge Case According To Location Of
by a particular tool. Primer
1. Pin-Fire Cartridge - the pin extent radially through the bead
      Two General Type of Tool Marks of
      1. Impression Type - which as its name implies a little    the cartridge case into the primer. This type of cartridge is
more than no longer use.
         a bent. A pry-bar may leave an impression type-mark on 2. Rim-Fire Cartridge- the priming mixture is place in the
a window cavity
         frame to which is applied. The shape and the size of the    formed in the rim of the head of the cartridge case.
mark, 3. Center-Fire Cartridge- the primer cup is force to the middle
         plus irregularities cause by nicks or breaks in the pry-    portion of the head of the cartridge case.
bar, 4. Percussion - a means of ignition of propellant change by a
         may be such as to permit a positive statement as to its    mechanical blow against the primer or percussion cap.
source.       a. Low Power - a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of less
      2. Striated Tool Mark- is left by a tool scrapping over an          than 1850 ft/sec.
object       b. High Power- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of
         or surface softer than him. Thus, a pry-bar which slips between
40
          1925 and 2500 ft/sec.
      c. High Intensity- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity over     exodus of 1847.It was in his   fathers shop that he learned
         2500 ft/sec. the
    art and secrets of gunsmithing.He passed away in
Yaw - the angle between longitudinal axis of a projectile and Liege,Belgium in
the     1926 due to heart failure.He is famous for designing
line of the projectile trajectory.     many firearms but the most famous of his design is the
colt's 45
Zip guns - these may be in any form, since the name has been
    ACP M1911 government model and FN Browning high
applied
power model
to all homemade guns. A great many of this class will be
found to     P-35 in 9mm parabellum.He is a person who invented more
be exceedingly clever mechanisms and most effective weapon.     firearms than any other gun  maker in the history of the
world.
Zwilling - European term for a double barreled shoulder arm
with one 2. Richard Jordan Gatling - He is the inventor of the Gatling
rifle and one smooth bore barrel. gun.He
    was born on September 12, 1818 at Maney's Neck,NC.He
died in
The Basics of Firearms and     New York city on February 26, 1903.He has a medical
degree in
Ammunition     Ohio medical college.He conceived the idea of the rapid fire
There are 5 General categories of small arms     machine gun which is associated with his
1. Handguns     name.He succeeded in perfecting the Gatling gun in 1862
2. Rifles capable
3. Shotguns     of discharging 350 shots per minute.
4. Sub-machine guns
5. Machine guns 3. Samuel Colt - He was born at Hartford,Connecticut in 1814
and
sub     died there in 1862.After leaving school,he worked at his
handgu rifle shotgu machin
machin father's
n s n e gun
e gun     textile mill.He spent his spare time disassembling and
There are 4 Basic Types of Handguns reassembling
1. Single shot pistols     his father's guns.In 1829,he became a sailor.In 1835,he
2. Derringers patented
3. Revolvers     his five shot revolver that transformed firearm into a multi-
4. Auto-loading pistols shot
    device.
   
Revolv 4. John Cantius Garand - He was born on January 1, 1888 in
Auto Saint
er
single shot pistol loading     Remi, Quebec in a french Canadian family.He died On
pistol February 16,
Related     1974 in Springfield,Massachusetts.He was 11 years old
Readings: when he
Ammuniti     came to America speaking little English but fluent in
on French.He
Headsta     quit school and went to work at a textile mill and later
mp became a
Primers     machinist at a precision tool company.He took
Firearms Correspondence
Terminol     course in engineering.He is best known for creating the first
ogy     successful semi-automatic rifle,the M1 Garand,to be widely
History of used
Firearms     in active military service.
(timeline)  
Definition 5. Horace Smith - He was born in Cheshire,Massachusetts on
of Terms     October 28,1808 and died on January 15, 1893.He was a
Commonl     gunsmith,inventor, and Businessman.He moved to
y Asked Springfield at
Question     age four.He joined his father working in the U.S. armory as
s an
● Histories     apprentice.He worked his own gun manufacturing
● Online Course business.He
● Reviewer     patented an improvement of the breech-loading
● Web Designs     rifle in 1851 a year before he met Wesson through their
Great American Firearms Inventor work at
    Allen,Brown,and Luther barrel manufacturers.He together
1. John Moses Browning - He was born on January 23, 1855 in with
    Daniel Wesson patented a pistol that used a cartridge with
    Ogden,Utah U.S. where his father settled after the Mormon      powder and lubricant and had a new repeating action which
41

    became the basis for the famous Winchester rifle.
  
6. Daniel Baird Wesson - He was born on May 18, 1825 in
    Worcester, MA and died on August 4, 1906 at Springfield,
MA due
    to heart failure.He apprenticed as a gunsmith under his
elder
    brother Rufus and later worked with another gunsmith  September
    brother,Frank before partnering with Horace Smith
    in establishing the Smith and Wesson arms company in
1852.He
    developed a lever-action pistol with a repeating action and
the
    first practical self-primed metallic cartridge.The pistol was
    powerful enough that it was quickly nicknamed volcanic
followed
    by the more famous volcanic rifle.
7. David Marshall Williams - He was born on November 13,
1900 in
    Cumberland County,North Carolina and he died on January
8, 1975
    in Raleigh,North Carolina.He built his first pistol with a reed
    barrel when he was 10 years old.He was imprisoned in
Halifax
    County.After 8 years,he was pardoned.When
    World War II broke out,he was working for Winchester
Repeating
    Arms Company in Connecticut.He was famous for designing
a rifle
    with a short stroke gas piston which he had worked in
prison.He is
    best remembered for the gun that gave him his
nickname,the M1
    carbine.
    
8. John Taliaferro Thompson - He was born on December 31,
1860
    in Newport,Kentucky and he died on June 21, 1940.He was a
    soldier and a United States Military Academy graduate.He
    graduated in 1882.He invented and
    developed the Thompson sub-machine gun.After his death
in
    1940,the Thompson sub-machine gun began to be used for
its
    creator's original intended purpose as highly effective and
easily
    carried weapon in trench warfare.
9. Earle Harvey - He designed the T25 rifle while working at
    Springfield armory.The T25 was later renamed T47.Later on
T44
    was created as an alternative to T47.In 1957,U.S. formally
    adopted the T44 as the U.S. infantry service rifle,designated
    M14.He is also known as the father of the 7.62 mm NATO
    cartridge.
10.Eugene Morrison Stoner - He was born on November 22,
1922
    in Gosport,Indiana.He died on April 24, 1997 due to
cancer.He is
    the man most associated with the design of the AR15
    rifle,adopted by the U.S. military as M16.
 
11.Christian Sharps - He was born on January 2, 1810 in
    Washington,New Jersey.He died on March 12, 1874 at his
home in
    Vernon,Depot due to tuberculosis.He was the inventor of
42
the first
    commercially successful breech-loading rifle.At the onset of
the
    American Civil War,Sharp's rifle was produced in large
quantities.
12.Arthur William Savage - He was born on May 13, 1857 in
    Kingston,Jamaica, British West Indies and he died on
    22, 1938.He committed
    suicide.He is the inventor of the Savage model 99 lever-
action
    rifle.
  
13.William Batterman Ruger - He was born on June 21, 1916
in
    Brooklyn, New york and he died on July 6, 2002 in
    Prescott,Arizona.In 1938,he came up with a design for what
    eventually became a light machine gun for the United States
    army.
14.Eliphalet Remington - He was born on October 28, 1793 in
    Suffield, Connecticut and he died on August 12, 1861 in
Ilion,New
    York due to heart failure.He was a blacksmith.He can not
afford
    to purchase a rifle which he need so he made his own from
scrap
    iron in his smithing shop and soon hired by neighbors as
rifle
    maker and by 1820,Remington's rifle were sold throughout
New
    England.He introduced America's first gun barrel made from
solid
    steel,the popular beal revolver,and the breech-loading gun
that
    superseded the conventional muzzle-loading rifle.
  
15.Robert Parker parrot - He was born on October 5, 1804 in
    Lee,New Hampshire and he died on December 24, 1877 in
Cold
    Spring,New York.He is a product of the U.S. Military
Academy
    class of 1824.During 1860, he produced the Parrot rifle
gun,an
    innovative rifled cannon which was manufactured in several
sizes
    the largest, the 300 pounder version weighed 26000 lbs.
and its
    projectile weighed 300 lbs.Parrot guns was extensively
    used during the American Civil War by Union and
Confederate
    armies.
 
16.Hiram Maxim - He was born on February 5, 1840 in
Sangerville,
    Maine and he died on November 24, 1916 in London.He was
the
    inventor of the Maxim gun, the first portable fully automatic
    machine gun.
17.John marlin - He was born in 1836 in Connecticut and he
died in
    1901. He apprenticed as a tool and die maker. During the
civil war,
    he worked at the Colt plant in Hartford and in 1870,
manufactured
    his own line of revolvers and derringers. He was able,
 together and America during the colonial period. Basically it consisted
    with outstanding team of inventors,enduring firearms of
models melting metal and then pouring the molten liquid into a mold
    known today as models 39 and 336, they are the oldest having
shoulder a reservoir in the shape of a coin.
    arm designs in the world still being produced.
  Class Characteristics - common to a group of people.
18.Benjamin Tyler Henry - Born in 1821 and he died in 1898. Learned from
school or from an individual's parent or tutor.
He
Class Characteristics are similarities between individuals who
    was a gunsmith and inventor of the Henry rifle, the first
learned
reliable the same type of writing systems.
    lever-action repeating rifle
      Individual Characteristics - highly personal or peculiar
to a
Questioned Document Examination       particular writer. Influenced by habit, mindset, personal
      preference. It identifies an individual from other writers.
Reviewer
      Types of Individual Characteristics
3rd Century A.D. - The earliest handwriting examination       1. Skill level - the way a writing looks.
cases reported.       2. Slant - is the angle of writing.
      3. Form - is the way a writer makes a letter or movement
6th Century - the Roman Emperor Justinian dictated of
guidelines for the          letters. Most basic individual characteristic and is very
use of handwriting comparisons in Roman courts.          important to QDE.
      4. Movement - is the way a pen moves in order to make a
1873 - the year in which the first commercially successful mark or
typewriter was introduced.          form a letter. This can help distinguish the difference in
         form. 2 letters can be the same, but made in a different
Addition - inserting or modifying clause or sentence in a way.
document       5. Proportions - is the symmetry of an individual letter.
to alter its meaning.       6. Height - is comparing the height of one letter to another.
         Height, proportions are usually habits found in a
      Substitution - replacing original entries or writing with          specific writer.
      another.       7. “I” Dot
      8. “t” Crossing
Albert Sherman Osborn - became the pre-eminent American       9. Loops - are similar to proportions.
pioneer in       10.Pressure - is the difference in ink or pencil in width or
the field when he authored "Questioned Documents," a          shade. Helps show direction of movement.
seminal work in       11.Baseline Alignment - The value of this show the
scientific document analysis that remains in print and in use. questioned
He          writing in correlation to the baseline. Helps QDE
founded the American Society of Questioned Document examiners
Examiners in 1942.          determine whether the writing was altered or is
consistent
Alfred Dreyfus - A French army officer, accused of treason          with the rest of the writing or other examples.
through       12.Pen Lifts - Pen lifts are when the pen or pencil is lifted
letters found attempting to sell French secrets to Germany.          from the paper and reapplied to finish a word or
Later found that Dreyfus did not write the letters. sentence.
      13.Speed - The speed of a writer is a key indicator for
Alignment - relation of successive characters or letter of a QDE in
word,          the examination process. Fast and slow speeds are
signature or line of writing to an actual or imaginary base line. difficult
         to duplicate leaving behind inconsistencies in the
Alphabet - is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols writing.
or       14.Embellishments - decorate writing. Usually found in
graphemes) which is used to write one or more languages the
based on the          beginning of word, but can be seen other places.
general principle that the letters represent phonemes (basic       15.Entry/Exit Strokes -  is the way a writer begins certain
significant sounds) of the spoken language.          letter or words and can be very specific to an individual.
         Also includes the idea of connecting stokes.
Alteration - any change made on a document before, during,       16.Retracing - is considered fixing a portion of writing that
or after          is not readable or pleasing to the writer. In some cases,
its original execution.          this can indicate forgery but is very common in normal
         handwriting to retrace letters or words.
      Methods of Alteration        17.Spelling - is an individual characteristic because of
      1. Mechanical          education or habits and can be an easy fix to eliminate or
      2. Chemical          pin point suspects.
      18.Spacing - is the area between letters or words and is
Arrangement - habitual placing and positioning of letters and usually
words.          specific to the writer.
      19.Format - is the habit in which a writer uses to depict
Casting - was one method used to produce counterfeit coins in simple
Britain          things like; Dates, numbers, abbreviations.
43
         Example: The way people write checks
      20.Case - is a characteristic of a writer who might use
upper
         case letters where a lower case should be present.
Coin Clipping - shaving off a small portion of a precious
metal coin
for profit.
Coin Mutilation - cutting a portion of a coin.
Collected Standard - (Procured Standard)obtained from files
executed
in the course of everyday routine.
      Requested Standard - document requested by an
investigator for
      the purpose of comparative examination.
Color Shifting Ink - ink that changes color when viewed in
different
angles.
Connections - links which connect a letter with the one
following it.
Counterfeiting - imitate fraudulently for gain. To make a
copy of,
usually with the intent to defraud; forge: counterfeits money.
Cuneiform - denoting or relating to the wedge-shaped
characters used
in the ancient writing systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and
Ugarit,
surviving mainly on clay tablets.
Cutting - skillful cutting away of some portions and then
inserting
new one to fill the gap.
         transmitted through it.
      2. Light Microscope - light microscope works like a
refracting
         telescope except that the object is very close to the
         objective lens.
      3. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) - is an apparatus
which can:
         a. Analyse and compare inks: reveal alterations on a
document;
         b. Visualize security features printed into papers;
         c. Use the spectrometer and various built-in light sources
for
            U.V., visible spectrum and I.R. examinations of ink
and
            documents to visualise fluorescence; examination with
            transmitted light or low angle light, and
recording/comparing
            differences in reflectance, and absorption under
variable
            wavelengths of light and with various filters which will
            discriminate between different inks.
      4. Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA) - is an
apparatus
         which can:
         a. Produce an evidential record of any indentations
(writing
            impressions) which are present upon a page, resulting
from
            previous pages of over-writing in a writing pad,
notebook,
            or upon a letter placed inside an envelope which was
            then addressed.
         b. Visualise and record any other transmitted impression,
such
            as from a machine postal stamp upon an envelope; or
            visualise and record any paper edge impressions of a
            page-portion that was torn from a page within a note-
pad,
            even if the page was removed some time later.

Disguised Writing - is any deliberate attempt to alter one's Erasure - the removal of writing, recorded material, or data.
handwriting to prevent recognition.
EURion Constellation - is a pattern of symbols incorporated
Document - any material that contains marks, symbols, or into a
signs either number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996. It is
visible, partially visible or invisible that may present or added
ultimately to help imaging software detect the presence of a banknote in
convey a meaning or message to someone. a
digital image.
      Document May Be Questioned With Respect To Its 
      1. Authenticity Exemplars -  Handwriting used as a standard for comparison
      2. Identity with the
      3. Origin document in question. Known authentic writing samples.
      4. Relation among its parts
      5. Relation to other things       Two Types of Exemplars
      1. Requested Writings - (Dictated) are writing samples
      Types of Document Examination taken
      1. Handwriting Comparisons          from someone for the purpose of comparison with a
      2. Ink Examinations questioned
      3. Indented Writing          document.
      4. Alterations       2. Non-Requested Writings - (Undictated)(Collected) these
      5. Paper Analysis are
      6. Photocopy Analysis          examples of the subject's writings that are taken in the
      7. Typewriting          normal course of business or personal transactions.

      Instrument Used In A Questioned Document QD Forensic Document Examination - the practice of the
Laboratory application of
      1. Stereo Microscope - The stereo or stereoscopic or document examination to the purposes of the law.
dissecting
         microscope is an optical microscope variant designed for Graphology - is the study of handwriting to identify the
low writer's
         magnification observation of a sample, typically using personality traits.
light
         reflected from the surface of an object rather than Graphologist - Profiles character or personality by drawing
44
conclusions
from certain types of characteristics in the handwriting Juxtaposition - an act or instance of placing close together or
sample. side
by side, especially for comparison or contrast.
Handwriting  - refers to a person's writing created with a
writing Lindbergh Baby Case - a sensational case of kidnapping for
utensil such as a pen or pencil. ransom
resulting in murder of a baby where questioned document
      Handwriting Comparison Characteristics examination is
      1. Spacing between letters the center piece of the investigation and the reason for the
      2. Spacing between words arrest
      3. Relative proportions between letters and within letters of the perpetrator.
      4. Individual letter formations
      5. Formations of letter combinations Manuscript - is any document written by hand, as opposed to
      6. The overall slant of the writing being printed
      7. Connecting strokes or reproduced in some other way.
      8. Pen lifts
      9. Beginning and ending strokes Microprinting - is one of many anti-counterfeiting techniques
      10.Unusual flourishes used
      11.Pen pressure most often on currency and bank checks, as well as various
other
      Character of handwriting items of value. Microprinting involves printing very small
      1. No single handwriting characteristic can in itself be text,
taken usually too small to read with the naked eye, onto the note or
         as the basis for a positive comparison. item.
      2. The final conclusion must be based on a sufficient
number Obliteration - obscuring a document by a series of x-types,
         of common characteristics between the known and haphazard,
questioned lines, blots, and smears.
         writing samples.
      3. There are no hard and fast rules for a sufficient number Offset printing - or web offset printing is a commonly used
of printing
         personal characteristics; it is a judgment call made by the technique in which the inked image is transferred (or "offset")
         expert examiner in the context of each case. from
a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface.
Henry Mill - was an English inventor who patented the first
typewriter       Letterpress printing - is a technique of relief printing
in 1714. using a
      printing press. A worker composes and locks movable type
Hieroglyph - (Greek for "sacred writing") is a character of the into the
ancient       bed of a press, inks it, and presses paper against it to
Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are transfer
pictographic in       the ink from the type which creates an impression on the
form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also paper.
sometimes
called "hieroglyphs". Pellegrino Turri - an Italian inventor, invented a mechanical
typing
Hologram - a three-dimensional image formed by the machine, one of the first typewriters in 1801 for his blind
interference of lover
light beams from a laser or other coherent light source. Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano. He also invented
carbon
Indented Writing - (second page writing), is the impression paper to provide the ink for his machine.
from the
writing instrument captured on sheets of paper below the one Pen Lift - is the practice of lifting the tip of a pen from a
that writing
contains the original writing. surface. It comes in the form of a disconnection between
letters and
      Electrostatic Detection - indented writing may be letter combinations.
recovered
      using this method. Pen Pressure - the proportions of strokes to each other in
width as
Ink - a coloured fluid or paste used for writing, drawing, affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis.
printing,
or duplicating. Penmanship - is the technique of writing with the hand using
a
      Microspectrophotometer - A nondestructive approach to writing instrument. The art or practice of writing with the pen.
comparing
      ink lines. It is accomplished with a visible-light Pictograph - a pictorial symbol for a word or phrase.
      microspectrophotometer. Pictographs
were used as the earliest known form of writing, examples
      Thin-layer chromatography is also suitable for ink having been
comparisons. discovered in Egypt and Mesopotamia from before 3000 BC.

Interlineation - insertion between lines or paragraphs. Questioned Document - is any signature, handwriting,
45
typewriting, or brought by
other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or variations in writing pressure.
doubtful.
Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer - the first commercially
      Most Common Questioned Document successful
      1. Letters typewriter.
      2. Checks
      3. Drivers License Signature - a person's name written in a distinctive way as a
      4. Contracts form of
      5. Wills identification in authorizing a cheque or document or
      6. Voters Registration concluding
      7. Passports a letter. From the latin word "signare" which means "to sign".
      8. Petitions
      9. Threatening Letters       Kinds of Signature
      10.Suicide Notes       1. Formal Signature - signature used on official documents
      11.Lottery Tickets such
         as will or deed of sale.
      Rules in Collecting Questioned Documents       2. Informal Signature - signature used in routine
      1. Original Document Preferred correspondence
      2. QDE must mark all evidence - initial and date.          such as personal letters and other documents where you
         If document cannot be marked it should be placed in want
enveloped          the reader to recognize the signature but the exact
         and sealed with initial and date. spelling
      3. Maintain chain of custody.          of the name isn’t important.
          3. Stylistic Signature - signature used in signing checks,
Questioned Document Examination - The scientific methods credit
of          card receipts, etc. This is also like the famous
identification and examination of questionable documents, “physician’s
handwriting          signature” on a prescription. It is often highly stylistic
examination, detection of forgery, falsification and          and looks like a scribble with little that would be
counterfeiting of          recognizable as a signature.
documents which stress the procedures of restoring and
deciphering Signature Forgery - refers to the act of falsely replicating the
erasures and obliteration's; examination of documents by signature of another person.
means of
visible light, ultra-violet light and ultra-red radiation and       Popular Methods of Forging Signature
colored       1. Freehand Method -  whereby the forger, after careful
powders; recognition and selection of standards; and practice,
examination of          replicates the signature by freehand. Although a difficult
questionable typewriting, computerized documents and other          method to perfect, this often produces the most
forms of convincing results.
modern printing.       2. Trace-Over Method - the sheet of paper containing the
genuine
Retracing - any writing stroke which goes back over another          signature is placed on top of the paper where the forgery
writing is
stroke.          required. The signature is traced over, appearing as a
faint
Rhythm - the balanced quality of movement, producing a          indentation on the sheet of paper underneath. This
natural result indentation
not constrained nor artificial.          can then be used as a guide for a signature.

Rubric and Embellishment - the additional and unnecessary             Methods of Signature Tracing
stroke             1. Carbon Outline Method - carbon paper inserted
incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes. between
               original and false document.
Samuel Willard Soulé - (January 25,1830-July 12,1875)             2. Indentation Process - original document is placed
along with over
Christopher Sholes and Carlos Glidden invented the first                false one under it, to be traced later using a pen or
practical                pencil.
typewriter at a machine shop located in Milwaukee,             3. Transmitted Light Process - a light source is placed
Wisconsin,                under a light, the original document is placed under
in 1869. the
               false one. The light source will illuminate both
Security fibers - are embedded in the paper during                documents so that the writings on the original
manufacture and document
are non-reproducible.                will be seen and traceable on the false one.

Security Thread - is a security feature of many banknotes to       Characteristics That May Suggest Presence of Forgery
protect       1. Shaky handwriting
against counterfeiting, consisting of a thin ribbon that is       2. Pen lifts            
threaded       3. Signs of retouching
through the note's paper.       4. Letter proportions
      5. Very close similarity between two or more signatures
Shading and Pen Position - the increase in width of stroke
46
      Kinds of Forgery of Signatures       Elite - 12 characters per inch
      1. Simple Forgery - (spurious forgery) signing of a
document in       Types of Typewriters
         his own or in a modified handwriting. Easy to detect       1. Keyboard typewriter - is the simplest kind of typewriter,
once          functioning from the QWERTY formation of letters and
         standards of genuine signatures are obtained. having
      2. Simulated Forgery - (freehand forgery) the copying or          a type (a metallic cast with letters molded into it) that's
imitation          attached by a bar or rod.
         of a signature.       2. Single-element typewriter - enable the user to print data
in
      Indicators of Forgery           different languages or fonts. Instead of using a bar mold
      1. Blunt starts and stops for
      2. Pen lifts and hesitations          the type (called a type bar), single-element typewriters
      3. Tremor use
      4. Speed and Pressure          type wheels, type sleeves or type shuttles for molds. The
      5. Patching          most popular single-element was the Hammond type-
      shuttle
Slant - slope of writing in relation to the base line.          typewriter produced in 1884.
      3. Type-bar typewriters, as the name suggests, use type
Spacing -  is a blank area devoid of content, serving to bars,
separate words,          or molds of iron shaped like bars, for their types. Type
letters, numbers, and punctuation. bars
         are the most common kind of typewriter and the original
Striking - (stamping) making an impression of a coin on a          invented by Sholes, Glidden and Soule was a type-bar
metal blank          typewriter.
by pressure using steel dies.       4. Index typewriters - were far less costly in the pre-
modern
Superimposition - placing or laying of one document over          era, but also less useful. An index typewriter required
another that
in a way that it appears as a single image. The placement of an          users first input what key they would like, and then
image or video on top of an already-existing image or video, perform
usually          another action (usually pressing a lever) to print the
to add to the overall image effect, but also sometimes to letter
conceal something.          to a page. Usually these didn't use type bars, but instead
         type wheels, type shuttles, type plates and even more
Terminal - The end of a writing stroke. novel
         types. Examples of the index typewriter are the
      Initial Stroke - the beginning of a writing stroke. American
         Visible, first manufactured in 1901, and the French
Tremor - deviation from uniform stroke brought about by Virotyp
lack of          of 1914.
smoothness.       5. Teletype Typewriters - (Teleprinters) came on the scene
in
      Kinds of Tremors           the mid-1950s and peaked in popularity in the 1960s.
      1. Genuine Tremors - caused by age, illiteracy, weakness. They
      2. Tremor of Fraud          were used mostly for communicating information from
point
Typebar - one of the bars on a typewriter that bears type for          to point, much as modern fax machines are used. Most
printing. non-IBM
         computers had teletype terminals. Teletypes were
Typewriter - is a mechanical or electro-mechanical machine completely
for writing          mechanical and thus required regular lubrication; they
in characters similar to those produced by printer's movable didn't
type          have type bars in the strictest sense and instead used
by means of keyboard-operated types striking a ribbon to          plastic gears to print messages.
transfer       6. Electric Typewriters - The most modern typewriter, still
ink or carbon impressions onto the paper.          used today, is the electric typewriter, most notably IBM
         models such as the Selectric. The electric typewriter
      Carriage Return -  referred to a mechanism or lever on a          minimized the force necessary to print out a message by
typewriter.          using a motor and type ball to print letters on paper.
      It was used after typing a line of text and caused the
assembly Vignette - a small illustration or portrait photograph which
      holding the paper (the carriage) to return to the right so fades
that into its background without a definite border.
      the machine was ready to type again on the left-hand side
of Watermark - a faint design made in some paper during
      the paper (assuming a left-to-right language). manufacture that
is visible when held against the light and typically identifies
      Typeface - the printing surface of the type block. The the maker.
most
      popular type are pica and elite. Writing - is a medium of communication that represents
language
      Pica - 10 characters per inch through the inscription of signs and symbols.

47
      Cursive Writing - also known as script, joined-up writing, the
      joint writing, running writing, or handwriting is any style "combined motor method" for diagnosing individual subject's
of thought
      penmanship in which the symbols of the language are processes. He did not use an instrument in his study.
written in
      a conjoined and/or flowing manner, generally for the Ancient Methods of Lie Detection
purpose of
      making writing faster.       Ancient Rome - bodyguard candidates were asked
provocative
      Writing Speed - Classified Into 4 Divisions       questions. Those who blushed were selected for the job. It
      1. Slow and Drawn was
      2. Deliberate       believed that if a person blushed in response to
      3. Average provocative
      4. Rapid       questions, he would not participate in plots.

      Ancient Sparta - Before being admitted to certain schools

Polygraphy (Lie Detection) Reviewer
1875 - The earliest attempt at a scientific approach to the
development
of diagnostic instrumentation for lie detection, when the
Italian
physiologist, Angelo Mosso (1846-1910), began studies of
fear and its
influence on the heart and respiration. The fear of being
detected was
considered an essential element of deception. Through his
research
Mosso demonstrated that blood pressure, blood volume, and
pulse
frequency changed depending on changes in emotions of a
tested
subject. From records of pulsation, Mosso was able to
distinguish
persons who were afraid from those who were tranquil.
1915 - the year Dr.Marston developed the discontinuous
systolic blood
pressure test which would later become one component of the
modern
polygraph.
1992 - the polygraph made its official entrance into the
computer age.
Spartan
      young men were required to pass the selection criteria. The
      young men were ordered to stand on the edge of a cliff,
and were
      asked if they were afraid. The answer was always
negative;
      however its integrity was determined by the men’s
complexion.
      It was concluded that the pale young men lied and they
were
      pushed from the cliff.
      Nervous Behavior - if the subject look down and moved
his toe
      in a circular motion while being interrogated, he was
thought
      to be deceptive. This was later diagnosed as nervous
behaviorism.
      Nervous individuals were stereotyped as being deceptive.
      The Ordeal of Rice - was commonly utilized as a lie
detector in
      ancient China. Suspect was required to chew a mouthful of
dry
      rice and then spit it out. If the rice was moist, the suspect
      was judged innocent. If the rice was dry, the suspect was
judged
      guilty. The tension of guilt supposedly caused a cessation
of
      salivary glands secretion of fluids.

1997 - considered the year of birth of lie detection in Ukraine.
18th Century - the era conducive to developing technical
means of
detecting deception, subsequently named: lie detector,
variograph,
polygraph, emotional stress monitor, deceptograph, to name a
few.
African Tribes - have utilized their own method of detecting
a guilty
person. While performing a special dance around a suspected
individual,
a sorcerer intensely sniffed him. The "investigator" made a
conclusion
whether the suspect committed the crime based upon the
intensity of
his body odor.
Alexander R. Luria - (1902-1977) a Soviet
neuropsychologist, who
initiated  the research on the psycho-physiological diagnostic
instrumentation methods in criminal investigations which
began in
the 1920s. He used reaction time measures to study thought
processes
and developed a psychodiagnostic procedure he referred to as
48
      The Ordeal of the Hot iron - in Africa, the suspect had a
hot
      iron placed on his tongue, if the suspect's tongue was not
      burned, he was judged innocent, if the suspect's tongue
was
      burned, he was judged guilty. The tension of guilt
supposedly
      caused a cessation of salivary secretions which would
allow the
      tongue to be burned.
      The Ordeal of the Sacred Donkey - around 1500 BC in
India,
      Indian priests paints a donkey's tail with carbon residue
from
      an oil lamp and placed the animal in a dark tent. The
suspects
      were sent into the tent and told that pulling the "magic"
      donkey's tail would reveal the liar (if a guilty man pulls his
      tail, the donkey will bray). When the suspects came out,
the
      priests examined their hands. Those with clean hands had
not
      touched the donkey's tail. It was assumed that this was due
      to the suspects’ fear of their guilt being discovered,
proving
      they were liars.

Angelo Mosso - an Italian Physiologist, he used an instrument
called
plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear in
subjects
undergoing questioning and he studied the effects of these
variables
on their cardiovascular and respiratory activity.
      Plethysmograph - from the Greek word "Plethysmos" -
increase or
      enlargement and "grapho" - write or record, is an
instrument for
      recording and measuring variation in the volume of a part
of
      the body, especially as caused by changes in blood
pressure.
Anti–Climax Dampening - The principle of psychological
focus which
holds that a person will establish an emotional priority for that
stimulus which he perceives to represent the greatest threat to
his
well being.
Anxiety - A state of mental uneasiness or concern. Abnormal
apprehension
or fear, often accompanied by psychological signs, behavior
symptoms or
doubt concerning the nature and reality of a threat; real or
imagined.
Unfounded self–doubt.
Apnea - The transient cessation of breathing which follows
forced
breathing. On a polygraph chart, apnea is generally
represented by
a blocking pattern in the pneumograph tracing.
Applied Stimulus - An intentionally applied external
stimulus,
normally in the form of a question, directed to a person under
going
a polygraph examination. An applied stimulus may be
employed for the
purpose of demonstrating a persons response capabilities at
the time
the stimulus is applied.
Associated Research Inc. - in Chicago, manufactured the 1st
commercial
polygraph instrument for Leonarde Keeler.
Autonomic Nervous System - That part of the peripheral
nervous system
consisting of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous
system.
Axon - The central core which forms the essential conducting
part of
a nerve fiber. An extension from and a part of the cytoplasm
of some
nerve cells.
Backster Zone Comparison Technique -  a polygraph
technique which
primarily involved an alteration of the Reid question
sequencing.
Basic Polygraph Examination Requirements
1. The Examining Room - Polygraph examinations should be
conducted in
   a quiet. private room. Under normal circumstances only the
   polygraphist and examines are permitted in the examining
49
room.
2. Pre-Test Interview - The examination actually begins with
the first
   contact between the examinee and the polygraphist. The pre-
test
   interview is vital to a proper polygraph examination. and no
   examination will be administered by any AzPa member
without an
   adequate pre-test interview.
3. Question Formulation - Question formulation should be
conduced in
   accordance with established standards and techniques.
Unless
   specifically required by the nature of the issue being
resolved,
   no questions regarding morals or the intimate details of a
person’s
   personal life will be asked.
4. Test Construction - The use and placement of test questions
within
   the question sequence must adhere to and be in accordance
with
   those techniques generally recognized and widely accepted
within
   the polygraph profession.
5. Stimulation Test - The “stim” test is optional. It may be
   conducted either as the first polygraph chart or inserted
between
   polygraph charts. The fact that an individual has been
previously
   examined, perhaps even by the same polygraphist], does not
negate
   the use of the “stim” test.
6. Review of Test Questions - Under no circumstances will
any test
   be administered without a prior, thorough review of all test
   questions with the examinee.
7. Administering The Polygraph Charts
      a. After applying pressure to the blood pressure cuff at the
         time of the test, the polygraphist should be able to
announce
         the beginning of the test with minimum delay.
      b. Test questions should be usually spaced at not less than
         15 second intervals.
      c. The administering of the polygraph examination shall be
         conducted in accordance with established standards and
         techniques which are taught by the accredited schools.
8. Chart Interpretation - Chart interpretation is the final key to
   a valid polygraph examination. Under no circumstances is it
   permitted that a AzPa polygraphist overlook or ignore the
   established, basic concepts of chart interpretation taught in
   all accredited polygraph schools.
Behavior Symptoms - Those subjectively observable non-
verbal
manifestations of a person at the time of an applied stimulus
which
may or may not be indicative of that person’s veracity.
Blood Pressure Change - The visual representation of an
increase or
decrease in blood pressure or volume on a polygraph chart by
the
cardio component of a polygraph instrument.
Cardio-Sphygmo-graph - Heart/pressure/recording. The
tracing on a
polygraph chart, made by a pen moved by a bellows device in
connection
with a closed air pressurized circuit and an in-line
cardiosphygmomanometer, which reflects blood pressure and
radial pulse
in response to an applied stimulus.
Cardiosphygmomanometer -  An in-line pressure dial in a
closed air
pressurized circuit capable of representing the pressure in that
circuit in units of millimeters of mercury.
Cardiovascular System - Those portions of an organism
which contain
the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. The functional means
by
which blood is transported throughout the body.
Cerebellum - That portion of the brain which projects over
the medulla
and is especially concerned with the coordination of muscular
activity
and body equilibrium.
Cerebrum - The enlarged front and upper part of the brain
which contains
the higher nervous centers.
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) was the first in 1895 to
experiment with a
device, measuring blood pressure and pulse, to detect
deception in
criminal suspects and noted increased blood pressure
following
relevant questions when put to some subjects. He called it a
Hydrosphygmograph.
Chart - The graphic recorded representations of a persons
psychophysiological responses to a set of carefully controlled
stimuli presented to him in the form of a valid and reliable
question
structure.
Christian Hans Stoelting - founded the stoelting company,
now a
Manufacturer and distributor of research instrumentation
including
physiology and biofeedback for scientific research plus
psychological
and educational tests.
      Stoelting Company - Stoelting invented the first modern
      polygraph in 1935.
Chart Identification - Any information placed on a polygram
which
identified the person examined, the polygraphist conducting
the
examination as well as any other data, time and place of the
examination, including the signature of the examinee, if
obtainable.
Cleve Backster -  he founded the CIA's polygraph unit shortly
after
World War II. He also founded the longest running polygraph
school
in the world. He developed the Backster Zone Comparison
Technique
(ZCT).
Control Stimulation Test -  A modified peak of tension test
used to
relax the non-deceptive examinee and stimulate the deceptive
examinee
by empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the polygraph
technique.
Control Question - That question within a structured
technique which
is broad in scope and depth, generally limited by mutually
exclusive
50
time parameter, which relates to a wrong doing of the same
general
nature as the one under investigation, and one to which the
examiner
will, in all probability, lie or to which his answer will be of
dubious validity in his own mind.
      - A question to which the examinee’s answer will be a
known lie
or a probable lie. This question is similar in nature but not
related
to the issue being resolved, and should be of slightly less
weight
than the relevant questions.
Control Question Technique (CQT) - a polygraph technique
that
incorporated control questions (comparison) which were
designed to be
emotionally arousing for non-deceptive subjects and less
emotionally
arousing for deceptive subjects than the relevant questions
previously used.
Counter Measures - Deliberate chemical, mental or physical,
attempts
by an examinee to affect the polygraph tracings or the final
outcome
of a polygraph examination.
Cuff pressure - The air pressure in the inflatable bladder in
the
blood pressure cuff as indicated on the sphygmomanometer of
the
polygraph instrument in units of millimeters of mercury.
Daniel Defoe - a British novelist who in 1730 wrote an essay
entitled
"An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street
Robberies
and Suppressing all Other Disorders of the Night", wherein he
recommended that taking the pulse of a suspicious fellow was
a
practical, effective and humane method for distinguishing
truthfulness
from lying.
Deception - the act of making someone believe something that
is
not true.
Dendrites - An extension or process of a neuron which serves
to conduct
impulses toward the cell body.
Dick Arther - refined the Reid Control Question Technique
with his
known Lie and Probable Lie Question Technique and the Guilt
Complex
Question. This Became known as Arther's Technique.
Dicrotic Notch - graphic representation within the cardio
tracing on
a polygraph chart caused by a backward surge of blood against
the
semi-lunar valve in the left ventricle of the heart.
Distortion - change in polygraph tracings caused by artifact
stimulus.
A disturbance of normal polygraph tracings not attributable to
an
intended stimulus within a test structure.
Dr. Joseph F. Kubis - of Fordham University in New York
City, was the
first researcher to use potential computer applications for the
purpose of polygraph chart analysis in the late 1970's.
Dr. Marie Gabriel Romain Vigouroux (1831-1911) a
French electrotherapy
specialist was first to discover in 1879 the phenomenon we
now know
as Electrodermal Response.
      Electrodermal Response - human body phenomenon in
which the body,
      mainly the skin, involuntarily changes resistance
electrically
      upon the application of certain external stimuli.
      Scientists Who Contributed to the electrodermal
response research
      1. Ivan R. Tarchanoff (1846-1908) Georgian
      2. Charles Samson Fere (1852-1907) French
      3. Georg Sticker (1860-1960) German
      4. Otto Veraguth (1870-1944) Swiss
Dyspena - Abnormal breathing characterized by either labored
breathing,
shortness of breath, suppression or serrated exhalation.
Efferent Nerve Fibers - Those neural fibers which carry
impulses away
from the central nervous system.
Ego Defense Mechanism - Those psychological defenses
used by a person
to shield himself against that which he perceives to represent a
threat to his immediate well-being.
Endocrine Glands - Those ductless glands which discharge
their
secretions directly into the blood stream. In general, the
endocrine
glands coordinate and control body activities at a slower rate
than
the nervous system and thus promote long term adjustments.
Enveloping Question - A question used at the beginning and
end of a
searching peak of tension test which deals with an issue or
subject
which is beyond the realm of possibility of the information
being
sought.
Eupnea - Regular or normal breathing.
Examinee -  An individual who has volunteered for and
undergoes a
polygraph examination.
Excitability - The potential ability of a neuron to respond to
any
given stimulus.
Expert Opinion - A statement reflecting the results of the
evaluation
of a polygraph chart.
Extrasystole - A premature contraction of the heart which is
independent of the normal rhythm and which arises in
response to an
impulse in some part of the heart other than the sino-auricular
node,
or from some abnormal stimulus. An extra systole appears in
the cardio
tracing of a polygraph chart as a break in the normal rhythm of
the heart.
51
Fight or Flight Syndrome - The activation of involuntary
sympathetic
neural activity upon conscious recognition of a threat to the
immediate well-being of an organism. A group of neural
symptoms which
enable an organism to cope with a stressful or threatening
situation
by taking that organism from a normal relaxed state to an
emergency
state of preparedness for the sake of survival.
Forensic Psychophysiology -  Modern term for polygraph
examination.
Galvanograph - elecrtrical Current recording, known as the
GSR, galvanic
skin response and galvanic skin conductance.
Galvanometer - measures the small differences in electrical
resistance and any shifts in a subject’s anxiety.
Ganglia -  Groups of nerve cell bodies found in the autonomic
plexuses
composed primarily of sympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Guilt Complex -  A group of associated ideas or attitudes
which have a
common emotional tone of feelings of universal responsibility.
these
ideas or attitudes may be conscious or unconscious; however,
they
may significantly influence an individuals behavior or
psychophysiological responses when confronted with an
accusation.
      Guilt Complex Question - A question included in a
structured
      polygraph test designed to identify a person who may be
      inappropriately responding to relevant and control
questions
      due to a guilt complex. This question is usually one which
      concerns a nonexistent crime or circumstance which an
examinee
      is led to believe did exist in which he is suspect but which
      he knows he could not have committed.
      Guilt Complex Question -  A question about a fictitious
incident
      of individual. and of a similar nature and weight as the
issue
      being resolved.
Sticker - one of the first to suggest the use of EDA, galvanic
skin response as an indicator of deception.
Hidden Key - An item of evidence known only to the victim,
perpetrator,
investigator and polygraphist.
Homestasis - The tendency of an organism to maintain a state
of
equilibrium between interrelated psychological and
psysiological stimuli.
Hydrosphygmograph - (water pressure recording) a device
consisting
of a cylinder containing water and connected with a
registering tube,
used to record the amount of blood forced with each pulsation
into a
limb in cased in the apparatus.
Hypnosis - alteration of consciousness and concentration,
subject
manifest heightened suggestability, not admissible in court.
Hypothalamus - That portion of the brain which contains
centers for
the regulation of body temperatures, sleep and water balance.
It
also appears to be the center for the integration of emotions,
visceral activity and neural impulses which trigger the
sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system.
Irrelevant Question - is intended to be an innocuous.
harmless
question, having no particular relationship to the issue being
resolved and which can unequivocally be answered truthfully.
      Primary Relevant Question - The key question regarding
the direct
      act of committing an offense.
      Secondary Relevant Question - A question pertaining to
pertinent
      aspects of the issue. to which a guilty or knowledgeable
person
      would be expected to respond significantly.
Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval (June 8,1851–December
31,1940) was a French
physician, physicist, and inventor of the moving-coil
D'Arsonval
galvanometer and the thermocouple ammeter. D'Arsonval was
an important
contributor to the emerging field of electrophysiology, the
study of
the effects of electricity on biological organisms, in the
19th century.
John Augustus Larson - was a Police Officer for Berkeley,
California,
United States, and famous for his invention of modern
polygraph used
in forensic investigations. He was the first American police
officer
having an academic doctorate and to use polygraph in criminal
investigations.
John E. Reid - a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed the
Control
Question Technique (CQT) in 1947. Also called the "father of
Controls".
      Reid Control Question Technique - inserted a surprise
control
      question in the relevant/irrelevant technique.
Keeler Polygraph - It became the most widely used
polygraph in the
world for the next three decades.
Known Peak of Tension Test - This is a series of similar type
questions
containing only one relevant question. known to the
polygraphist.
      Searching Peak of Tension Test - A series of questions
wherein
      the relevant questions are not known to the polygraphist.
Kymograph - An instrument for recording variations in
pressure, as
of the blood, or in tension, as of a muscle, by means of a pen
or
stylus that marks a rotating drum at a constant speed.
52
Lafayette Instrument Company - founded in 1947 by Max
Wastl
(1915-1990), located in Lafayette, Indiana, USA, dominates
the
international polygraph market. It is the unconditional global
leader
in the manufacture and sale of lie detectors.
Leonarde Keeler - in 1926, modified the polygraph
instrument designed
by John Larson by adding a device that measured electrical
skin
conductivity or electrodermal response. He also  founded the
world's
first polygraph school, the Keeler Polygraph Institute in
Chicago,
Illinois in 1948. Considered the father of modern polygraph.
Lie - is an intentionally false statement to a person or group
made
by another person or group who knows it is not wholly the
truth.
      Kinds of Lie
      1. White or Benign Lie - lie to preserve harmony of
relationship.
      2. Pathological Lie - can not tell right from wrong.
      3. Red Lie - communist propaganda
      4. Black Lie - lie to dishonor or to discredit
      5. Malicious/Judicial Lie -misleading or lie to obstruct
justice.
      6. Fabrication - misrepresentation of truth
      7. Bold-Face Lie - obviously lying
      8. Lying by Omission - omission of important facts
      9. Lie to Children - to gain acceptance to children
      10.Noble Lie - to maintain law and order
      11.Emergency Lie - to prevent harm to third party
      12.Perjury - false testimony under oath
      13.Bluffing - pretense of capability/intention one does not
possess
      14.Jocose Lie - meant to be jest, teasing and sarcasm
      15.Contextual lie - stating part of truth out of context
      16.Promotion lie - incredible advertisements
      Type of Liars
      1. Panic Liars
      2. Occupational Liars
      3. Tournament Liars
      4. Psychopathic Liars
      5. Ethological Liars
      6. Pathological Liars
      7. Black Liars
Luigi Galvani - an Italian Physician and Physiologist who in
1791,
accidentally discovered that a dissected frog leg would twitch
and
contract at the touch of a scalpel charged with electricity. He
discovered that current or galvanic electricity flowed through
animal
tissue.
Mechanical Adjustment - The manual centering of the ink
pens on a
polygraph instrument in order to maintain the individual
component
tracings within their appropriate physical parameters.
Medula Oblongata - The lowest or hindmost part of the brain
continuous
with the spinal cord. Contains centers of respiratory, cardio
inhibitory,
cardio acceleratory, vasoconstrictor, vasodilator, swallowing,
salivary
and vomiting.
Midbrain - The middle segment of the brain containing the
centers for
certain visual and auditory reflexes.
Middle Ages - a suspect's pulse rate readings were collected
for
determining his or her guilt. This method was employed for
exposing
unfaithful wives and their lovers. The testing technique was
very
simple. A trained individual placed a finger on a wrist of a
woman
suspected of infidelity, while mentioning names of the men,
who could
have had an intimate relationship with her. The examinee's
pulse
accelerated when she heard and, consequently, reacted to the
name
of her lover.
Name Test - A controlled peak of tension test utilized to
establish
an examinee’s response capability to a known lie in which the
name
of a person upon whom the examinee places emotional
significance is
used as a known peak of tension.
Nerves - Those strands of tissue which specialize in the
transmission
of impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord and all parts
of
the body.
Neuron - A single nerve cell.
Neutral Question - A question which does not pertain to the
issue under
investigation the answer to which recognized as universally
correct
by both the examinee and the polygraphist. A neutral question
is
intended to elicit a minimal response from the examinee and
provide
the polygraphist with a valid graphic representation of the
examinee’s non-stress response patterns.
Numerical Evaluation - A valid and reliable system of
numerical
evaluation which employs a consistent set of values to
describe the
observable physiological responses graphically represented on
a is formed.
polygraph chart.
Opinion - The expert conclusion expressed by a qualified
polygraphist
concerning the veracity of the statements made by examinee.
Otto Veraguth - was a Swiss neurologist. In the 1900s he
published a
study of a phenomenon he called "psychogalvanic reflex"
associated
with observed changes in the electrical properties of the skin.
In
his research he noticed that emotional stimuli caused greater
deflections (higher readings) on a galvanometer that was
connected
to the skin via electrodes than did neutral stimuli. He used the
galvanomenter in conjunction with word-association tests.
53
      Psychogalvanic Reflex - also called galvanic skin
response, a
      change in the electrical properties of the body following
noxious
      stimulation, stimulation that produces emotional reaction
and to
      some extent, stimulation that attracts the subject's attention
      and leads to an aroused alertness.
Outside Issue - A circumstance unrelated to the primary issue
which
poses a greater threat to the immediate well-being of the
examinee
than does the primary relevant issue.
Padding Questions - Those questions placed before and after
the known
relevant question in a known peak of tension test. Padding
questions
are similar in nature to the known relevant question and fall
within
the realm of possibility of the information being sought.
Parasysmpathetic Nervous System -  That part of the
autonomic nervous
system which tends to induce secretion, to increase the tone
and
contractibility of smooth muscle and to channel the dilation of
blood vessels. That division of the autonomic nervous system
responsible for the normal “house keeping functions of the
body;
i.e. digestion and body temperature.
Peripheral Nervous System - That portion of the nervous
system lying
outside the central nervous system.
Plethsysmograph - The tracing on a polygraph chart made by
a pen moved
by a photo-optical system controlled by an examinee’s
psychophysiological responses to controlled stimuli.
Pneumograph — breathing/recording, from the Greek word
"Pneuma" - air
or breath and "Grapho" - write or record, a device that
recorded a
subject's breathing patterns.
Polygram - One or more polygraph charts. The cumulative
recorded
representations of an examinee’s psychophysiological
responses to a
set of controlled stimuli presented to him in the form of a
properly
constructed question technique upon which an expert opinion
Polygraph - a machine designed to detect and record changes
in
physiological characteristics, such as a person's pulse and
breathing
rates, used especially as a lie detector.
      Polygraph Machine Measure and Record the ff:
      1. Blood Pressure
      2. Heart Rate
      3. Respiration
      4. Skin Conductivity
Polygraphist - An individual who, by virtue of his education,
training
and experience, is capable of conducting a valid and reliable
polygraph examination for the purpose of determining whether
or not
an examinee honestly believes that his own statements and polygraph
answers chart by a pen attached to a galvanometer driven by the
concerning a questioned issue are in fact truthful. variations
of electrical conductivity introduced into a Wheatstone Bridge
Polygraph Examination - The entire environment within by
which a the body tissues of an examinee.
qualified polygraphist renders an expert opinion as to the    
veracity Psychogalvanometer — a component that measured changes
of an examinee’s statements concerning the primary issue of in a subject's
the galvanic skin resistance during questioning, and in doing so,
matter under investigation. thus
signaling the birth of the polygraph as we know it today.
Polygraph Examiner - interpret the charts generated by the
polygraph Psychological Set - The theory which holds that a person’s
machine. Polygraph came from the Greek word "polys" - fears,
many writings anxieties and apprehensions will be directed toward that
and "grapho" write. situation
which presents the greatest immediate threat to his self-
Polygraph Chart - is one continuous set of test questions preservation
recorded on or general well-being; generally to the exclusion of all other
paper by the polygraph instrument. less
threatening circumstances within his environment.
PolyScore - a software program which used a sophisticated
mathematical Psychosis - A form of sever personality disorder involving
algorithm to analyze the polygraph data and to estimate a loss of
probability contact with reality, generally characterized by delusions and
or degree of deception or truthfulness in a subject. hallucinations.
      - is a computerized polygraph chart scoring algorithm that
uses Question Spacing - The elapsed time (not less than 15
statistical probability to arrive at truthfulness or deception. It seconds) between
has been shown that validated algorithms have exceeded 98 an answer given by an examinee and the following question
percent asked by
in their accuracy to quantify, analyze and evaluate the the polygraphist during a polygraph test.
physiological
data collected from polygraph examinations administered in Receptors - Those specialized cells sensitive to incoming
real stimuli.
criminal cases.
Reflex Action - The cumulative product of stimulus, receptor,
      Dr. Dale E. Olsen and John C. Harris - statisticians at afferent
Johns nerve, connecting neuron, efferent nerve and effector action. A
      Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in simple
Maryland, reflex arc.
      completed a software program called PolyScore in 1993.
Refractory Period - That period of time in which a neuron is
Pons - A band of nerve fibers in the brain connecting the lobes unable
of the to conduct an impulse.
cerebellum, the medulla and the cerebrum.
Reid Polygraph - was the first instrument to use a movement
Pre-Employment Examination - An examination in which sensor to
an individual is detect subject movement during the examination. Besides
tested regarding the truthfulness and accuracy of an recording
employment blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR, this new
application. along with other background areas, which aids the polygraph
employer in selecting the most qualified individual for a recorded muscular activity in the forearms, thighs, and feet
position thanks
within the organization. to metal bellows placed under the arms and seat of the
polygraph
Pre-Examination Interview - That portion of a polygraph chair.
examination
during which information is obtained by the polygraphist from Relevant Question - That question within a structured
the polygraph test
examinee regarding the facts and circumstances which from which pertains directly to the matter under investigation.
the basis
of the examination and from which the polygraphist develops       Irrelevant Question - is intended to be an innocuous,
appropriate questions for the polygraph technique to be harmless
employed.       question, having no particular relationship to the issue
being
Psychogalvanic Skin Response - The recordable changes of       resolved. and which can unequivocally be answered
body tissue truthfully.
polarization (neural discharge), sweat gland activity or
circulatory       Primary Relevant Question - The key question regarding
variations which occur as the result of work, emotion or a the direct
combination       act of committing an offense.
of either. In polygraphy, these changes are recorded on a
54
      Secondary Relevant Question - A question pertaining to
pertinent
      aspects of the issue. to which a guilty or knowledgeable
person
      would be expected to respond significantly.
      Control Question - A question to which the examinee’s
answer will
      be a known lie or a probable lie. This question is similar in
      nature but not related to the issue being resolved, and
should
      be of slightly less weight than the relevant questions.
      Guilt Complex Question - A question about a fictitious
incident
      of individual. and of a similar nature and weight as the
issue
      being resolved.
Relevant/Irrelevant (R/I) questioning - a mixture of
questions relevant
to the crime (for example, Do you own a knife?) and irrelevant
questions
are asked (for example, Are you twenty years old?).  The basis
for this
type of questioning was that an innocent person has a similar
physiological
response to both types of questions, but a guilty person would
react
more strongly to the crime-relevant questions.
Residual Air - That volume of air which remains in the lungs
after the
deepest possible exhalation.
Sacrifice Relevant Question - A question used in the Zone
comparison
Test designed for the intended to dissipate initial tension
anticipated by an examinee in response to the target issue.
Searching Peak Of Tension Test - a polygraph test in which
a series
of questions, usually similar in nature and scope, are asked
and in
which the answer to only one of them may evoke a response
from the
examinee.
Screening Examination - is one in which, without any
specific
allegation, an individual is examined to verify his/her honesty,
integrity and conduct as an employee.
Specific Examination - is one in which there is one specific
issue to
be resolved, ex. theft, burglary, robbery murder, etc.
Sensor - Any attachment made to the human body for the
purpose of
measuring and/or recording a psychophysiological response
during a
polygraph test.
Specific Response - A deviation from an examinee’s normal
state of
homeostasia as evidenced by the tracings on a polygraph
chart.
Consideration must be given to overall chart interpretation
with
emphasis on the nature of the questions asked, the sequential
position of the question within the structure used and the
manner in
which the question was presented to the examinee.
55
Sphygmomanometer - or blood pressure meter (also referred
to as a
sphygmometer) is a device used to measure blood pressure,
composed of
an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a mercury or
mechanical
manometer to measure the pressure.
Spot Analysis Technique - A system of chart interpretation
whereby
analysis of response capability may be made at each location
on a
polygraph chart wherein a relevant question is either preceded
by
or followed by a control question.
Super Dampening - The principle of psychological focus
which holds
that if a person considers an outside issue to be a greater threat
to his well-being than the main relevant issue, and that if he
anticipates an unreviewed question concerning this outside
issue,
he may tune out all relevant and control questions by forcing
his
psychological set on the outside issue. The presence of an
outside
issue usually results in poor responses or no responses.
Stimulation Test - Verifies for the examiner that the
examinee is
testable. and aids in convincing the examinee that the
polygraph
instrument works, and will work on him.
Suppression - An involuntary reduction in the amplitude of
the
pneumograph and cardiograph tracings in response to a
stressful
stimulus.
Sympathetic Nervous System - That part of the autonomic
nervous
system which tends to depress secretion, decrease the tone and
contractibility of muscle not under direct voluntary control,
and
cause the contraction of blood vessels.
Symptomatic Question - A question contained within a
structured
question technique which is designed to identify the presence
of
an outside issue upon which a person may be focusing during
the
course of a polygraph examination.
      Symptomatic Question - A question use to determine it
some
      outside issue is of such concern to the examinee that it
      tends to damage expected responses to relevant questions.
Synapsis - The chemical junctions where nerve impulses pass
from one
neuron to another.
System - A group of body organs which combine to form a
whole and to
cooperate for the purpose of carrying on some vital function.
Test Technique - A valid and reliable question structure
employed
by a qualified polygraphist for the purpose of verifying an
examinee’s statements or answers during a polygraph
examination.
The sequential order in which questions are asked during a
polygraph
examination. The foundation of expert opinion.
Thalamus - The middle part of the brain through which
sensory
impulses pass to reach the cerebral cortex.
Tidal Volume -  The volume of air moved in or out of the
lungs with
each respiratory cycle.
Veraguth - was one of the first to make word-association tests
with
the galvanometer.
Vittorio Benussi - an Italian Psychologist who in 1914
discovered a
method for calculating the quotient of the inhalation to
exhalation
time as a means of verifying the truth and detecting deception
in
a subject. Benussi measured and recorded breathing by means
of an
instrument known as the Pneumograph. He concluded that
lying caused
an emotional change within a subject that resulted in
detectable
respiratory changes that were indicative of deception.
West Africa - persons suspected of a crime were made to hold
and pass
a bird's egg to one another. The person breaking the egg was
considered
guilty, based on the notion that his or her tremor-eliciting
nervousness was to blame.
Wheatstone Bridge - A specially devised electronic circuit
for the
measurement of electrical resistance in a conductor. The
conductor
of unknown resistance is included in the circuit with three
known
resistances. when the unknown resistance (RX) is balanced
with three
known resistances (R1, R2, R3) it can be calculated
mathematically
since it becomes one term in a proportion.
William Moulton Marston - was an American psychologist
and the creator
of the systolic blood pressure test, which became one
component of
the modern polygraph invented by John Augustus Larson in
Berkeley,
California.
      - an American attorney and psychologist, is credited with
inventing an early form of the lie detector when, in 1915, he
developed the discontinuous systolic blood pressure test which
would
later become one component of the modern polygraph.
Word Association Test  - questions answerable by yes or no,
concerned
with time of response. Quick answer, no relation to
investigation.
Delayed answer, has relation to investigation.
Legal Medicine Reviewer
Abortion - is the termination of pregnancy by the removal or
expulsion
56
from the uterus of a fetus or embryo before viability.
Algor mortis (Latin: algor - coldness; mortis - death) is the
reduction
in body temperature following death.
      Rigor mortis (Latin: rigor - stiffness, mortis - death") is
one
      of the recognizable signs of death, caused by chemical
changes
      in the muscles after death, causing the limbs of the corpse
to
      become stiff and difficult to move or manipulate.
      Importance Of Rigor Mortis
      - Rigor mortis is utilized to approximate the time of death.
        Generalized muscular contractionsoccur from 3 to 6
hours
        until 36 hours.
Autopsy - a post-mortem examination to discover the cause of
death or
the extent of disease. Autopsy is derived from the Greek word
"autos" - oneself and "opsis" - sight/view.
      Who are authorized to perform autopsy
      1. Health officers
      2. Medical officer of law enforcement agencies
      3. Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals
      When Autopsy performed
      1. Written request of nearest kin to ascertain cause of death
      2. Order of competent court, mayor, prosecutor
      3. Written request of a law enforcement officer
      4. When required by special law
      5. Solgen, prosecutor to determine cause of death
      Principal Aim Of An Autopsy
      1. To determine the cause of death
      2. To determine the state of health of the person before he
or
         she died,
      3. To determine whether any medical diagnosis and
treatment
         before death was appropriate.
      Types of Autopsies
      1. Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's -
autopsies
         seek to find the cause and manner of death and to
identify
         the decedent.
      2. Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to
diagnose
         a particular disease or for research purposes.
      3. Anatomical or Academic Autopsies - are performed by
students
         of anatomy for study purpose only.
      4. Virtual or Medical Imaging Autopsies - are performed
utilizing
         imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance
         imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).
      Forensic Autopsy - is used to determine the cause and
manner
      of death.
Anatomy - the branch of science concerned with the bodily
structure
of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as
revealed
by dissection and the separation of parts.
Biochemistry - the branch of science concerned with the
chemical and circulation)
physico-chemical processes and substances which occur          stop or become very slow for a period of time while a
within living person
organisms.          or animal is unconscious.

Cadaveric Spasm - also known as postmortem spasm,       Leading Causes of Death In The World
instantaneous rigor,       1. Ischaemic heart disease
cataleptic rigidity, or instantaneous rigidity, is a rare form of       2. Stroke (cerebrovascular diseases)
muscular stiffening that occurs at the moment of death,       3. Lower respiratory infections
persists       4. Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for rigor
mortis.       Signs Of Death
      1. Cessation of heart action and circulation
      Cadaveric spasm occurs immediately after death and is       2. Cessation of respiration
useful       3. Cooling of the body (Algor Mortis) - The temperature of
      to ascertain the circumstances of death.          15–20 degrees Fahrenheit is considered as ascertain sign
of
Cerebral Concussion – there is a brief loss of consciousness          death.
and       4. Loss of motor power
sometimes memory after ahead injury that doesn’t cause       5. Loss of sensory power
obvious       6. Changes in the skin
physical damage.       7. Changes in and about the eye - There is loss of corneal
reflex
Cerebral Contusion – they are bruises to the brain, usually    
caused by Declaration of Tokyo - is a set of international guidelines for
a direct, strong blow to the head. They are more serious than physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or
concussions. degrading
treatment or punishment in relation to detention and
Circulatory System - also called the cardiovascular system, is imprisonment,
an which was adopted in October 1975 during the 29th General
organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport assembly
nutrients of the World Medical Association.
(such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon
dioxide, Defloration - is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a
hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the body to result
nourish of sexual intercourse.
it and help to fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and
pH, and Dermis - the thick layer of living tissue below the epidermis
to maintain homeostasis. which
forms the true skin, containing blood capillaries, nerve
Contempt of Court - any willful disobedience to or disregard endings,
of a sweat glands, hair follicles, and other structures.
court order or any misconduct in the presence of a court action
that Digestive System - digestive system is a group of organs
interferes with a judge's ability to administer justice or that working
insults the dignity of the court. Punishable by fine or together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed
imprisonment the
or both. entire body.

Contusion - also called a bruise, is a type of hematoma of Dr. Pedro P. Solis - Philippines father of Legal Medicine.
tissue in
which capillaries and sometimes venules are damaged by Ecchymosis - a discoloration of the skin resulting from
trauma, bleeding
allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or extravasate into the underneath, typically caused by bruising.
surrounding
interstitial tissues. Endocrine System - refers to the collection of glands of an
organism
Death - Complete cessation of all cardio- pulmonary (heart- that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be
lungs) carried towards a distant target organ.
and/or cessation of brain activity.
Death is the termination of all biological functions that sustain Epidermis - the outermost layer of the skin of a human or
a other
living organism. vertebrate animal.

      Kinds of Death Euthanasia - Meaning good death ( well or good ), Refers to

      1. Somatic or Clinical Death - permanent cessation of all the
vital practice of ending life in a painless manner. Deliberate
         bodily functions. intervention
      2. Molecular or Cellular Death - refers to the death of undertaken with the express intention of ending life, to relieve
cells. intractable suffering.
         3 to 6 hours after cessation of life.
      3. Apparent death or State of Suspended Animation - a Excretory System - is a passive biological system that removes
state in excess,
         which the processes of the body (such as blood unnecessary materials from an organism, so as to help
57
maintain hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to the
body. Laceration - a deep cut or tear in skin or flesh. A wound that is
produced by the tearing of soft body tissue. This type of
      Homeostasis -means remaining stable or remaining the wound is
same. often irregular and jagged.

Firearm identification - used to determine whether the gun that Lazarus Syndrome - is also called Lazarus Phenomenon, is the
is spontaneous return of circulation after failed attempts at
subject of the investigation has the same gun used or fired. resuscitation.

Forensic Medicine - application of medical science to Lazarus Sign - or Lazarus reflex is a reflex movement in brain
elucidate dead
legal problems. patients, which causes them to briefly raise their arms and
drop
Forensic Science - involves the application of the sciences to them crossed on their chests.
answer
questions of interest to the legal system. Legal Medicine - Branch of medicine which deals with the
application
Four 4 Signs of Inflammation of medical knowledge to the purpose of law and in the
1. Rubor - redness administration
2. Calor - heat of justice. Application of medicine to legal cases.
3. Tumor - swelling
4. Dulor - pain Livor Mortis - is a settling of the blood in the lower
(dependent)
Fracture - comes from the Latin word “fractura” which means portion of the body, causing a purplish red discoloration of the
a break in skin.
the continuity of the bone. It is also a combination of a break From the latin word "livor" - bluish color and "mortis" - of
in death.
the bone and soft tissue injury. Also known as post-mortem lividity.

Frostbite - injury to body tissues caused by exposure to
extreme cold,
typically affecting the nose, fingers, or toes and often resulting
in gangrene.
Frostnip - the initial stages of frostbite.
Gynecology - the branch of physiology and medicine which
deals with
the functions and diseases specific to women and girls,
especially
those affecting the reproductive system.
Hematoma - is a collection of blood outside of a blood vessel.
Incision - a surgical cut made in skin or flesh.
Injury -  is the damage to a biological organism caused by
physical
harm.
      Coup Injury - injury at the site of application of force.
      Contre-Coup Injury - injury opposite the site of application
      of force.
      Coup-Conre-Coup Injury - injury at the site and opposite
the
      site of application of force.
      Locus Minoris Resistentiae - injury not at the site and not
      opposite the site of application of force but at the site
      offering least resistance.
      Extensive Injury - injury on greater area more than the site
      of application of force.
Integumentary system - is the organ system that protects the
body
from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or
abrasion from
outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendages,
including
58
Mayhem -  intentional maiming of another person.
Mechanical Trauma - is an injury to any portion of the body
from a
blow, crush, cut, or penetrating wound.
Medical Evidence - is the means sanctioned by the rules of
court of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a
matter
of fact.
      Types of Evidence
      1. Real Evidence/Autoptic - made known to the senses
      2. Testimonial Evidence - oral testimony under oath
      3. Experimental Evidence
      4. Documentary Evidence
Medical Jurisprudence - knowledge of law in relation to the
practice
of medicine.
Medico-Legal officer - (medical examiner) a physician who
determines
the cause of injury/death/disease by examining the
patient/cadaver
and testify in court to aid in the administration of justice.
Mental Deficiency – or mental retardation, is sub average
intellectual
ability present from birth or early infancy. Intelligence is both
determined by heredity and environment. In most cases of
mental
deficiency, the cause is unknown.
      Classification of Mental Deficiency
      1. Idiot – The idiot’s intelligence never exceeds that of a
         normal child over 2years old. The IQ is between 0 – 20.
         This is usually congenital.
      2. Imbecile – the imbecile’s intelligence is compared to a
normal
         child from 2 –7 years old and the IQ is 20 – 40.
      3. Feeble Minded – his mentality is similar to that of a
normal                d. Narcissistic
         child between 7 – 12 years old and an IQ of 40 – 70.                e. Antisocial
               f. Borderline
      The Legal Importance of determining the person’s state of                g. Avoidant
mind                h. Dependent
      are the following:                i. Obsessive – Compulsive
      1. In Criminal law, insanity exempts a person from                j. Passive Aggressive
criminal                k. Dissociative
         liability.       13.Schizophrenia – a serious mental disorder characterized
      2. In Civil law, Insanity is a restriction of the capacity of a by
         natural person to act as provided in Article 38 of the          loss of contact with reality(psychosis), hallucinations,
         Civil Code.          delusions (false beliefs), abnormal thinking, disrupted
      3. Insanity modifies or limits the capacity of a natural          work and social functioning.
person
         to act as provided in Article 39 of the Civil Code.                Types of Schizophrenia
      4. Insanity at the time of marriage of any or both parties is                a. Paranoid - is a mental disorder characterized by
a                   paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
         ground for the annulment of marriage.                   suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others.
                 b. Hebephrenic -  it is characterized by disorganized
Mental Health Disorders – include disturbances in thinking,                   behavior and speech, as well as disturbances in
emotion,                   emotional expression.
and behavior. There is a complex interaction between the                c. Catatonic - does not respond to external stimuli.
physical,                   characterized by a marked lack of movement,
psychological, social, cultural and hereditary influences.                   activity, or expression.

      Factors that Contribute to the Development of Mental       14.Delusional Disorder

Disorders       15.Psychological Incapacity – a waste basket diagnosis
      1. Heredity – the most frequent factor that contributes to because
         insanity and a good history will reveal the ascendants          it is so broad a term, that it covers all possible Mental
         afflicted with the same.          Disorders.
      2. Incestuous Marriage – The mental illness is accentuated
when       Some Manifestations of Mental Disorders
         they are blood relative.       1. Disorders of Cognition (Knowing)
      3. Impaired Vitality – Stress, tension, worry,grief may             a. Illusion
         predispose to insanity.             b. Hallucination
      4. Poor Moral Training and Breeding – Corrupt moral       2. Disorders of Memory
upbringing             a. Dementia
         in the family due to immorality of the parents.       3. Disorders in the Content of Thought
      5. Psychic Factors – Factors like love, hate,rage, anger,             A. Delusion
         passion disappointments.                   a. Delusion of grandeur
      6. Physical Factors                   b. Delusion of persecution
               a. Non toxic factors – exhaustion resulting from                   c. Delusion of reference
severe                   d. Delusion of Self – Accusation
                  physical and mental strain and traumatic injuries                   e. Delusion of infidelity
                  to the head.                   f. Nihilistic delusion
               b. Toxic factors – drug addiction,infections of                   g. Delusion of poverty
                  the brain.                   h. Delusion of control
                  i. Delusion of depression
      Kinds of Mental Health Disorders             B. Obsession
      1. Psychosomatic disorders – physical disorders caused by       4. Disorders in the trend of thought    
         psychological factors.             Types a. Mania
      2. Somatiform disorders – encompasses several psychiatric                   b. Melancholia
         disorders in which people report physical symptoms but       5. Disorders of Emotions or Feelings – a disorder in the
deny state
         having psychiatric problems.          of mind, fervor, or sensibility, not in accord with reality.
      3. Generalized Anxiety Disorders       6. Disorders of volition or conation (doing)
      4. Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder
      5. Phobic Disorders             Conation - the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or
               a. Agoraphobia will
               b. Specific phobias             to perform an action; volition.
               c. Social phobia       
      6. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder             Kinds of Conation
      7. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder             A. Impulsion or Impulse (Compulsion) – a sudden and
      8. Depression and Mania                irresistible force compelling a person to the
      9. Bipolar Disorder conscious
      10.Suicidal Behavior                performance of some action without motive or
      11.Eating Disorders forethought.
               a. Anorexia nervosa
               b. Bulimia nervosa                Types of Compulsion
               c. Binge eating disorder                a. Pyromania - from the Greek word "pyr" - fire, is
      12.Personality Disorders an
               a. Paranoid                   impulse control disorder in which individuals
               b. Schizoid                   repeatedly fail to resist impulses to deliberately
               c. Histrionic                   start fires in order to relieve tension or for
59
                  instant gratification. light and other radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and
               b. Kleptomania - is the inability to refrain from the the
                  urge to steal items and is done for reasons other structure of atoms.
                  than personal use or financial gain.
               c. Dipsomania - an uncontrollable craving for Physiology - the branch of biology that deals with the normal
alcoholic functions of living organisms and their parts.
                  liquors.
               d. Homicidal impulse - occurs when one person kills Post-Mortem - (meaning after death) internal examination of
                  another suddenly and without premeditation or the
                  planning. dead to determine the cause of death.
               e. Sex impulse - a sudden strong and unreflective
urge       Ante-Mortem - before death.
                  or desire to have sex..
               f. Suicidal impulse - recurring thoughts of or Post-Mortem Caloricity - is the rise of temperature of the body
                  preoccupation with suicide. after
death due to rapid and early putrefactive changes, usually in
Mortal Wound - capable of causing death. the
first two hours.
Muscular System - is an organ system consisting of skeletal,
smooth Post Mortem Lividity - it occurs in most extensive areas of the
and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, most
maintains dependent portions of the body.
posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
Puncture Wound - is usually caused by a sharp pointy object
Mutilation - or maiming is an act of physical injury that such as
degrades a nail, animal teeth, or a tack. This type of wound usually does
the appearance or function of any living body. not
bleed excessively and can appear to close up.
Nervous System - consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory
organs, Putrefaction - or decomposition is the final stage following
and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of death,
the produced mainly by the action of bacterial enzymes, mostly
body. anaerobic
organisms derived from the vowel. Other enzymes are derived
Obstetrics - branch of medecine that deals with pregnancy, from
childbirth, fungi and sometimes from insects.
and postpartum period, including care of the newborn.
      Kinds of Putrefaction:
Paraffin test or Dermal Nitrate test – present on the skin of the       1. Mummification -  is the preservation of a body.
hand or site of the wound of entrance. This test is not       2. Saponification – also called Adipocere Formation.
conclusive because fertilizers, cosmetics, cigarettes, urine and       3. Maceration - Softening of the tissues after death by
other          autolysis.
nitrogenous compounds with nitrates will give a positive
reaction. Reproductive System - or genital system is a system of sex
A negative test is also not conclusive . The test usually gives a organs
positive result even after a lapse of 3days or even if the hands within an organism which work together for the purpose of
are subjected to ordinary washing. sexual
reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids,
Pathology - the science of the causes and effects of diseases, hormones,
especially the branch of medicine that deals with the and pheromones are also important accessories to the
laboratory reproductive
examination of samples of body tissue for diagnostic or system.
forensic
purposes. Respiratory System - (or ventilatory system) is a biological
system
Paulus Zacchias - (1584–1659) is the Father of Forensic consisting of specific organs and structures used for the
Medicine. process
of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is
Petechiae – a circumscribe extravasation of blood in the involved
subcutaneous in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
tissue. between an
organism and the environment.
Physical Injury - is the effect of some stimulus on the body.
Scald - is a type of burn injury caused by hot liquids or gases.
Physical injuries - include those caused by mechanical trauma,
heat Sex Crimes - generally involve illegal or coerced sexual
and cold, electrical discharges, changes in pressure, and conduct by
radiation. one person towards another.
Mechanical trauma is an injury to any portion of the body
from a       Chaste – An unmarried woman who has had no carnal
blow, crush, cut, or penetrating wound. knowledge
      with men or that she never voluntarily had unlawful sexual
Physics - The subject matter of physics includes mechanics,       intercourse. These also denotes purity of mind and
heat, innocence
60
      of heart.
      Virgin – A woman who has had no carnal knowledge of
man.
      Her genital organs have not been altered by carnal
connection.
            Kinds of Virginity
            1. Moral virginity – the state of not knowing the nature
               of sexual life and not having experience sexual
               relation.
            2. Physical Virginity – A condition whereby a woman
is
               conscious of the nature of sexual life but has not
               experienced sexual intercourse.
            3. Demi–virginity – This term refers to a condition of
               a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as
               long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by
               sexual act. The woman allows sexual intercourse, but
               only inter femora or even inter labia, but not to the
               extent of rupturing the hymen.
            4. Virgo intacta – A truly virgin woman. There is no
               structural change in her organ,not withstanding the
               fact of a previous sexual intercourse.
      Carnal Knowledge - is the act of a man in having sexual
bodily
      connection with a woman. There is carnal knowledge if
there
      is the slightest penetration in the sexual organ of the
female
      by the sexual organ of the male.
Shrapnel - fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object thrown
out
by an explosion.
Skeletal System - gives the body its basic framework,
providing
structure, protection, and movement.
Subpoena - order issued by the court to a person to appear in
court.
Subpoena ad Testificandum´- is a court summons to appear
and give
oral testimony for use at a hearing or trial.
Surgery - is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative
manual
and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or
treat
a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help
improve
bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured
areas.
Topinard and Rolet - two french anatomist who devised a
formula for
the determination of the height for male and female.
Toxicology - the branch of science concerned with the nature,
effects,
and detection of poisons.
Trauma - injury, a physical wound to the body caused by an
external
source.
Virginity - A condition of a female who has not experience
sexual
intercourse and whose genital organs have not been altered by
carnal
connection and whose hymen is still intact.
61
Virgo Intacta - literally the term refers to a truly virgin
woman;
that there are structural changes in her organ to infer previous
sexual intercourse and that she is a virtuous woman.
Virtuous Female - If her body is pure and if she has never had
any
sexual intercourse with another though her mind and heart is
impure.
Vital Reaction -  the response of living body tissues to injury.
Wound - in legal medicine,it means strictly a solution of
continuity.
An injury to living tissue caused by a cut, blow, or other
impact,
typically one in which the skin is cut or broken.
      Open Wound - there is a break in the continuity of the
skin.
      1. Abrasion - a wound consisting of superficial damage to
         the skin. Scratch, friction mark.
      2. Bruise - is a common skin injury that results from the
         breakage of tiny blood vessels leaking under the skin.
Blood
         from damaged blood vessels beneath the skin collects
near
         the surface of the skin to appear as what we recognize as
         a black and blue mark. Cause by a blunt injury to the
         tissues which damage blood vessels beneath the surface,
         allowing blood to extravasate or leak into the
surrounding
         tissues.
      3. Incised Wound - caused by a clean, sharp-edged object
such
         as a knife, razor, or glass splinter.
      4. Stab Wound - is a specific form of penetrating trauma to
         the skin that results from a knife or a similar pointed
         object that is "deeper than it is wide".
      5. Punctured Wound - is a deep wound caused by
something sharp
         and pointed, like a nail. The opening on the skin is small,
         and the puncture wound may not bleed much. Puncture
wounds
         can easily become infected.
      6. Perforating Wound - a wound with an entrance and exit
opening.
      7. Lacerated Wound - that occurs when skin, tissue, and/or
         muscle is torn or cut open. Lacerations may be deep or
         shallow, long or short, and wide or narrow. Most
lacerations
         are the result of the skin hitting an object, or an object
         hitting the skin with force.
      8. Bite -  is a wound received from the teeth of an animal,
         including humans.
      9. Gunshot Wound (GSW) - (Ballistic Trauma) is a form
of physical
         trauma sustained from the discharge of arms or
munitions.
      Barotrauma - wound/injury caused by a change in
atmospheric
      pressure.
      Defense Wound - or self-defense wound is an injury
received by
      the victim of an attack while trying to defend against the
      assailant. often found on the hands and forearms, where
the
      victim has raised them to protect the head and face or to
fend
      off an assault, but may also be present on the feet and legs
      where a victim attempts defense while lying down and
kicking consideration
      out at the assailant. as aggravating or mitigating according to the nature and
effects of
the crime and the other conditions attending its commission.

Amnesty – is an act of the sovereign power granting oblivion

or general
CRIMINAL pardon. It wipes all traces and vestiges of the crime but does
not
JURISPRUDENCE,PROCEDURE extinguish civil liability.

AND EVIDENCE Astucia – (Craft) involved the use of intellectual trickery or

cunning
on the part of the accused. A chicanery resorted to by the
accused to
Criminal Law Book 1 Reviewer aid in the execution of his criminal design. It is employed as a
scheme in the execution of the crime.
Abberatio Ictus – mistake in blow.
Bill Of Attainder – A legislative act which inflicts
       What is the legal effect of aberratio ictus? punishment
       a. may result in complex crime or two felonies without trial.
       b. if complex, apply Art. 48 - penalty for the more or most
serious Characteristics of Criminal Law
           crime in its maximum period. 1. General
2. Territorial
Absolutory Causes - where the act committed is a crime but 3. Prospective
for some
reason of public policy and sentiment, there is no penalty Circumstances That Affect Criminal Liability
imposed. 1. Justifying circumstances
Exempting and justifying circumstances are absolutory causes. 2. Exempting circumstances
3. Mitigating circumstances
Accomplices - Persons who do not act as principals but 4. Aggravating circumstances
cooperate in 5. Alternative circumstances
the execution of the offense by previous and simultaneous
acts, Commutation – change in the decision of the court by the
which are not indispensable to the commission of the crime. chief regarding
They act as the degree of the penalty by decreasing the length of the
mere instruments that perform acts not essential to the imprisonment
perpetration or fine.
of the offense.
Consummated Felonies - when all the elements necessary for
Act – an overt or external act. Any bodily movement tending its execution
to produce and accomplishment are present.
some effect in the external world.
Continued Crime – refers to a single crime consisting of a
Actus Me Invito Factus Non Est Meus Actus – Any act series of
done by me against acts but all arising from one criminal resolution. Although
my will is not my act. there is
a series of acts, there is only one crime committed, so only one
Agent - subordinate public officer charged w/ the maintenance penalty shall be imposed.
of public
order and protection and security of life and property. Crime – acts and omissions punishable by any law.

Aggravating Circumstances - Those which, if attendant in Criminal law - A branch of municipal law which defines
the commission crimes, treats
of the crime, serve to have the penalty imposed in its of their nature and provides for their punishment.
maximum period
provided by law for the offense or those that change the nature       The Following are not subject to the operation of
of Philippine
the crime.       Criminal Law
      Generic - those which apply to all crimes.       1. Sovereigns and other heads of state
      Specific - those which apply only to specific crimes.       2. Charges d'affaires
      Qualifying - those that change the nature of the crime.       3. Ambassadors
      Inherent - which of necessity accompany the commission       4. Ministers plenipotentiary
of the crime,       5. Ministers resident
                 therefore not considered in increasing the penalty to
be Cruelty – there is cruelty when the culprit enjoys and delights
                 imposed. in
      Special - those which arise under special conditions to making his victim suffer slowly and gradually, causing
increase unnecessary
                the penalty of the offense and cannot be offset by physical pain in the consummation of the criminal act.
                mitigating circumstances.
Degree – one whole penalty, one entire penalty or one unit of
Alternative Circumstances – Those which must be taken into the
62
penalties enumerated in the graduated scales provided for in
Art. 71
Despoblado – (Uninhabited Place) one where there are no
houses at all,
a place at a considerable distance from town, where the houses
are
scattered at a great distance from each other.
Discernment - mental capacity to fully appreciate he
consequences of
the unlawful act, which is shown by the manner the crime was
committed
and conduct of the offender after its commission.
Disfraz (Disguise) – resorting to any device to conceal
identity.
Duress -  use of violence or physical force.
Dwelling - must be a building or structure exclusively used for
rest
and comfort (combination of house and store not included),
may be
temporary as in the case of guests in a house or bedspacers. It
includes dependencies, the foot of the staircase and the
enclosure
under the house.
El que es causa de la causa es causa del mal causado -
Spanish maxim
which means: "He who is the cause of the cause is the cause of
the
evil caused.
En Cuadrilla – (Band) whenever there are more than 3 armed
malefactors
that shall have acted together in the commission of an offense.
Entrapment - ways and means are resorted to for the purpose
of trapping
and capturing the lawbreaker in the execution of his criminal
plan.
Error in personae – mistake in identity.
       What is the legal effect of error in personae?
       a. if same crime results, liable for the same crime
       b. if different crime results, apply Art. 49 - penalty for
lesser
           crime in its maximum period
Exempting Circumstances - grounds for exemption from
punishment
because there is wanting in the agent of the crime any of the
conditions
which make the act voluntary or negligent.
Ex Post Facto Law - An act which when committed was not a
crime,
cannot be made so by statute without violating the
constitutional
inhibition as to ex post facto laws.
Felonies – acts and omissions punishable by the Revised
Penal Code.
Fence – is a person who commits the act of fencing. A fence
who
receives stolen property as above- provided is not an accessory
but
a principal in the crime defined in and punished by the Anti-
Fencing
63
Law.
Fencing – is an act, with intent to gain, of buying, selling,
receiving,
possessing, keeping, or in any other manner dealing in
anything of
value which a person knows or should have known to be
derived from the
proceeds of the crime of robbery or theft.
Fraud (fraude) – insidious words or machinations used to
induce the
victim to act in a manner which would enable the offender to
carry
out his design.
Good conduct allowance during confinement – Deduction
for the term of
sentence for good behavior.
Habitual Delinquency or Multi-recidivism – Where a
person within a
period of ten years from the date of his release or last
conviction
of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries,
robbery,
theft, estafa or falsification, is found guilty of the said crimes a
third time or oftener. This is an extraordinary aggravating
circumstance.
Habitual Delinquent - A person who, within a period of ten
years
from the date of his release or last conviction of the crimes of
serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, theft, estafa,
or falsification, is found guilty of any said crimes a third time
or
oftener.
Ignominy – is a circumstance pertaining to the moral order,
which
adds disgrace and obloquy to the material injury caused by the
crime.
Imbecile - one while advanced in age has a mental
development comparable
to that of children between 2 and 7 years old. He is exempt in
all
cases from criminal liability.
Insane - one who acts with complete deprivation of
intelligence/reason
or without the least discernment or with total deprivation of
freedom
of will. Mere abnormality of the mental faculties will not
exclude
imputability.
Instigation - Instigator practically induces the would-be
accused into
the commission of the offense and himself becomes a co-
principal.
Insuperable Clause - some motive, which has lawfully,
morally or
physically prevented a person to do what the law commands.
Irresistible Force - offender uses violence or physical force to
compel another person to commit a crime.
Justifying Circumstances -  where the act of a person is in
accordance
with law such that said person is deemed not to have violated
the law.
Mala In Se - acts or omissions that are inherently evil.
Mala Prohibita - acts made evil because there is a law
prohibiting it.
Misdemeanor - a minor infraction of law.
Mistake of Fact - misapprehension of fact on the part of the
person
who caused injury to another. He is not criminally liable.
Mitigating Circumstances - those which if present in the
commission
of the crime reduces the penalty of the crime but does not
erase
criminal liability nor change the nature of the crime.
Motive - it is the moving power which impels one to action
for a
definite result.
Nullum Crimen, Nulla Poena Sine Lege – There is no crime
when there is
no law punishing it.
Obscuridad – (Night time) that period of darkness beginning
at the end
of dusk and ending at dawn.
Offense - a crime punished under special law.
Omission – failure to perform a duty required by law.
Pardon – an act of grace proceeding from the power entrusted
with the
execution of laws, which exempts the individual from the
punishment
the law inflicts for the crime.
Parole – consists in the suspension of the sentence of a
convict after
serving the minimum term of the indeterminate penalty,
without granting
pardon, prescribing the terms upon which the sentence shall be
suspended. In case his parole conditions are not observed, a
convict
may be returned to the custody and continue to serve his
sentence
without deducting the time that elapsed.
Penalty – suffering inflicted by the State for the transgression
of a law.
Period – one of 3 equal portions, min/med/max of a divisible
penalty.
A period of a divisible penalty when prescribed by the Code as
a shall
penalty for a felony, is in itself a degree.
Person In Authority - public authority, or person who is
directly
vested with jurisdiction and has the power to govern and
execute
the laws.
Plurality Of Crimes – consists in the successive execution by
the same
individual of different criminal acts upon any of which no
conviction has yet been declared.
Praetor Intentionem - lack of intent to commit so grave a
wrong.
      What is the legal effect of praeter intentionem?
64
      - a mitigating circumstance (Art. 13, par. 3)
Prescription Of A Crime – is the loss/forfeiture of the right
of the
state to prosecute the offender after the lapse of a certain time.
Prescription Of Penalty - means the loss/forfeiture of the
right of
government to execute the final sentence after the lapse of a
certain time.
Probation - a disposition under which a defendant after
conviction and
sentence is released subject to conditions imposed by the court
and to
the supervision of a probation officer.
Pro Reo -  whenever a penal law is to be construed or applied
and the
law admits of two interpretations, one lenient to the offender
and one
strict to the offender, that interpretation which is lenient or
favorable
to the offender will be adopted.
Proximate Cause - the cause, which in the natural and
continuous
sequence unbroken by any efficient intervening cause,
produces the
injury, without which the result would not have occurred.
Quasi-Recidivism – Where a person commits felony before
beginning to
serve or while serving sentence on a previous conviction for a
felony. This is a special aggravating circumstance.
RA 75 -  This law penalizes acts which would impair the
proper
observance by the Republic and its inhabitants of the
immunities, rights,
and privileges of duly-accredited foreign diplomatic
representatives
in the Philippines.
Rank - The designation or title of distinction used to fix the
relative position of the offended party in reference to others
(There must be a difference in the social condition of the
offender
and the offended party).
Recidivism – Where a person, on separate occasions, is
convicted of
two offenses embraced in the same title in the RPC. This is a
generic aggravating circumstance.
Recidivist – one who at the time of his trial for one crime,
have been previously convicted by final judgment of another
crime
embraced in the same title of the RPC.
Reiteracion or Habituality – Where the offender has been
previously
punished for an offense to which the law attaches an equal or
greater
penalty or for two crimes to which it attaches a lighter penalty.
This is a generic aggravating circumstance.
Requisites of Dolo or Malice 
1. Freedom
2. Intelligence
3. Intent
Requisites of Culpa
1. Freedom Criminal Law Book 2 Reviewer
2. Intelligence
3. Negligence, Imprudence, Lack of Foresight, Lack of Skill
Abduction - the taking away of a woman from her house or
      Negligence - it indicates a deficiency of perception; failure the place
to pay where she may be for the purpose of carrying her to another
      proper attention and to use diligence in foreseeing the place
injury or with the intent to marry or to corrupt her.
      damage impending to be caused; usually involves lack of
foresight.       Forcible abduction - If a woman is transported from one
place
      Imprudence -  it indicates a deficiency of action; failure       to another by virtue of restraining her of her liberty, and
to take the that
      necessary precaution to avoid injury to person or damage       act is coupled  with lewd designs.
to property;
      usually involves lack of skill.       Serious illegal detention - If a woman is transported just
to
Rules on jurisdiction over private or merchant vessels       restrain her of her liberty. There is no lewd design or lewd
while in the  intent.
territory of another country
1. French Rule       Grave coercion - If a woman is carried away just to break
2. English Rule her
      will, to compel her to agree to the demand or request by
Stand Ground When in The Right - the law does not require the
a person       offender.
to retreat when his assailant is rapidly advancing upon him
with a       Special complex crime of Kidnapping with Murder -
deadly weapon. When the victim
      dies or is killed as a consequence of the detention.
Stages In The Execution Of A Crime
1. Attempted Stage -  a stage in the execution of a crime where Abortion By A Physician Or Midwife And Dispensing Of
the offender Abortives -
    commences commission of a felony directly by over acts, punishes a pharmacist who merely dispenses with an abortive
and does without the proper
    NOT perform all acts of execution which should produce prescription of a physician. If pharmacist knew that the
the felony abortive would
    by reason of some cause or accident other his spontaneous be use for abortion, she would be liable as an accomplice in
desistance. the crime
2. Frustrated Stage - a stage in the execution of a crime where of abortion.
the offender
    performs all the acts of execution which would produce the Acts Of Lasciviousness - Committed under circumstances
felony w/c, had there
    as a consequence but which, nevertheless, do not produce it been carnal knowledge, would amount to rape. Offended party
due to is a
    some cause independent of the will of the perpetrator. female or male.
3. Consummated Stage -  a stage in the execution of a crime
where all Adherence – intellectually or emotionally favors the enemy
    the elements necessary for its execution and and harbors
accomplishment sympathies or convictions disloyal to his country’s policy or
    are present. interest.

Treachery – when the offender commits any of the crimes Agent Of Person In Authority – any person who, by direct
against the provision of
person, employing means, methods or forms in the execution law or by election or by appointment by competent authority,
thereof is charged
which tend directly and specially to insure its execution with the maintenance of public order and the protection and
without security
risk to himself arising from the defense which the offended of life and property.
party
might make. Aid or Comfort – act w/c strengthens or tends to strengthen
the enemy
Uncontrollable Fear -  offender employs intimidation or of the government in the conduct of war against the
threat in government, or an
compelling another to commit a crime. act w/c weakens or tends to weaken the power of the
government or
Unlawful Entry - when an entrance is effected by a way not the country to resist or to attack the enemies of the gov’t or
intended country.
for the purpose.
Alarms and Scandal - The essence of the crime is
Youthful offender – over 9 but under 18 at time of the disturbance of public
commission tranquility and public peace. Any kind of disturbance of public
of the offense. order
where the circumstance at the time renders the act offensive to
the

65
tranquility prevailing, the crime is committed.
Allegiance – obligation of fidelity and obedience which
individuals
owe to the government under which they live or to
the sovereign, in
return for protection they receive.
Certificate - any writing by which testimony is given that a
fact has
or has not taken place.
Charivari - is a mock serenade or discordant noises made
with kettles,
tin horns etc., designed to deride, insult or annoy.
Combination In Restraint Of Trade - is an agreement or
understanding
between two or more persons in the form of a contract, trust,
pool,
holding  company or other form of association, for the purpose
of
unduly restricting competition, monopolizing trade and
commerce in a
certain commodity, controlling its production, distribution and
price,
or otherwise interfering with freedom of trade without
statutory authority.
Combination in restraint of trade refers to the means while
monopoly
refers to the end.
Conspiracy - when two or more persons come to an
agreement to rise
publicly and take arms against government for any of the
purposes of
rebellion and decide to commit it.
Coup d' Etat - Essence of the crime: Swift attack against the
government,
its military camps an installations, etc. It maybe committed
singly or
collectively. Committed through force, violation, intimidation,
threat,
strategy or stealth.
Customs - refer to established usage, social conventions
carried on by
tradition and enforced by social disapproval in case of
violation.
Decency - means properly observing the requirements of
modesty,
good taste.
Delay in the Delivery of Detained Persons - Crime is
committed by
failing to deliver such person to the proper judicial authority
within
a certain period. Detention is for some legal ground.
Dereliction of Duty - Committed only by public officers who
have the
duty to institute prosecution for the punishment of violations
of
the law. Public officer does not abandon his office but merely
fails
to prosecute a violation of the law.
Direct Assault - The Public Authority or the Agent of the
Public
Authority must be engaged in the performance of official
duties or
that he is assaulted by reason thereof.
66
Direct Bribery - the officer agrees to  perform or refrain from
doing
an act in  consideration of the gift or promise.
      Indirect Bribery - it is not necessary  that the officer do
any
      act. It is  sufficient that he accepts the gift  offered by
      reason of his office.
Dissolute – lax, unrestrained, immoral (includes maintainer of
house
of prostitution).
Document - any written statement by which a right is
established or
an obligation is extinguished.
Duel - is a formal or regular combat previously consented to
by two
parties in the presence of two or more seconds of lawful age
on
each side, who make the selection of arms and fix all the other
conditions of the fight to settle some antecedent quarrel.
      If these are not the conditions of the fight, it is not a duel
      in the sense contemplated in the Revised Penal Code. It
will
      be a quarrel and anyone who killed the other will be liable
      for homicide or murder, as the case may be.
Espionage - is the offense of gathering, transmitting, or losing
information respecting the national defense with intent or
reason to
believe that the information is to be used to the injury of the
Republic
of the Philippines or the advantage of a foreign nation.
Estafa With Abuse of Confidence - Crime is committed by
misappropriating,
converting, or denying having received money, goods or other
personal
property.
False Testimony - committed by a person who, being under
oath and
required to testify as to the truth of a certain matter at a
hearing
before a competent authority, shall deny the truth or say
something contrary to it.
Forgery - The essence of forgery is giving a document the
appearance
of a true and genuine document. Not any alteration of a letter,
number,
figure or design would amount to forgery. At most, it would
only be
frustrated forgery.
Grave scandal - consists of acts which are offensive to
decency and
good customs. They are committed publicly and thus, give rise
to
public scandal to persons who have accidentally witnessed the
acts.
Illegal Detention - Committed by a Committed by private
individual
public officer or who unlawfully employee who deprives a
person
detains a person of his liberty.
Illegal Exactions - This can only be committed principally
by a public officer whose official duty is to collect taxes,
license
fees, import duties and other dues payable to the government. through
Mere demand of a larger or different amount is sufficient to abandonment or negligence, permitting any other person to
consummate take the
the crime. The essence is the improper collection (damage to public funds/property.
government
is not required) Manifestly Unjust Judgment – manifestly contrary to law
that even a
Illegal marriage - Illegal marriage includes also such other person having meager knowledge of law cannot doubt the
marriages injustice; not
which are performed without complying with the requirements abuse of discretion or mere error of judgment.
of law, or
marriages where the consent of the other is vitiated, or such Medical Malpractice -  which is a form of negligence,
marriage consists in the
which was solemnized by one who is not authorized to failure of a physician or surgeon to apply to his practice of
solemnize the same. medicine
that degree of care and skill which is ordinarily employed by
Imprudence - Failure in precaution. the
profession generally, under similar conditions, and in like
Incriminating Innocent Person - act of planting evidence surrounding
and the like circumstances.
in order to incriminate an innocent person.
Misfeasance - Improper doing of an act which a person might
Inducing A Minor To Abandon His Home - What lawfully do.
constitutes the crime is
the act of inducing a minor to abandon his home of his Monopoly - is a privilege or peculiar advantage vested in one
guardian, and or more
it is not necessary that the minor actually abandons the home. persons or companies, consisting in the exclusive right or
power to
Infanticide - the victim is younger than three days or 72 hours carry on a particular business or trade, manufacture a
old; particular
can be committed by a stranger. If a stranger who conspires article, or control the sale or the whole supply of a particular
with parent, commodity. It is a form of market structure in which one or
both commit the crime of infanticide. only a few
firms dominate the total sales of a product or service.
In Flight – From the moment all exterior doors are closed
following Mutiny - the unlawful resistance to a superior, or the raising
embarkation until the same doors are again opened for of
disembarkation. commotions and disturbances on board a ship against the
authority of
Insurrection - more commonly employed in reference to a its commander.
movement which
seeks merely to effect some change of minor importance, or to Negligence - Failure in advertence.
prevent
the exercise of governmental authority with respect to Nonfeasance - Failure of an agent to perform his undertaking
particular for
matters or subjects. the principal.

Interlocutory Order - one issued by the court deciding a Perjury by Making False Accusations - giving of false
collateral statement under
or incidental matter; it is not a final determination of the issues oath or making a false affidavit, imputing to the person the
of the action or proceeding. commission
of a crime.
Intriguing Against Honor - is referred to as gossiping: the
offender, Person In Authority – any person directly vested with
without ascertaining the truth of a defamatory utterance, jurisdiction,
repeats the whether as an individual or as a member of some court or
same and pass it on to another, to the damage of the offended governmental
party. corporation, board or commission.

Libel - Defamation is in writing or printed media.
      Slander - oral defamation.
      Defamation - public and malicious imputation calculated
to cause
      dishonor, discredit, or contempt upon the offended party.
Malfeasance - Doing of an act which a public officer should
not
have done.
Piracy - it is robbery or forcible depredation on the high seas,
without
lawful authority and done with animo furandi and in the spirit
and
intention of universal hostility.
Political Crimes – are those directly aimed against the
political order,
as well as such common crimes as may be committed to
achieve a political
purpose. The decisive factor is the intent or motive.

Malversation - is otherwise called embezzlement. Crime is Prevaricacion - means the negligence and tolerance in the
committed prosecution
by approaching, taking, or misappropriating/consenting, or of an offense.
67

Proposal - when the person who has decided to rise publicly
and take
arms against the government for any of the purposes of
rebellion
proposes its execution to some other person or persons.
Prostitutes - women who habitually(not just 1 man) indulge
in sexual
intercourse or lascivious conduct for money or profit (If a man
indulges in the same conduct, the crime committed is
vagrancy.)
Quasi-Recidivism - Commission of Another Crime During
Service of
Penalty Imposed for Another Previous Offense.
Rebellion - more frequently used where the object of the
movement is
completely to overthrow and supersede the existing
government.
Revealing Secrets With Abuse Of Office - Essence of this
crime is
that the offender learned of the secret in the course of his
employment.
He is enjoying a confidential relation with the employer or
master
so he should respect the privacy of matters personal to the
latter.
Ruffians – brutal, violent, lawless.
Sedition - It is the raising of commotions or disturbances in
the State.
It is sufficient that the public uprising be tumultuous. The
purpose
may be political or social.
Seduction - enticing a woman to unlawful sexual intercourse
by promise
of marriage or other means of persuasion without use of force.
It
applies when there is abuse of authority (qualified seduction)
or
deceit (simple seduction).
Service Mark – is a mark used in the sale or advertising of
services
to identify the services of one person and distinguish them
from the
services of others and includes without limitation the marks,
names,
symbols, titles, designations, slogans, character names, and
distinctive
features of radio or other advertising.
Slavery - This is committed if anyone shall purchase, kidnap,
or
detain a human being for the purpose of enslaving him.
Trade-Name Or Trade-Mark – is a word or words, name,
title, symbol,
emblem, sign or device, or any combination thereof used as an
advertisement, sign, label, poster, or otherwise, for the purpose
of
enabling the public to distinguish the business of the person
who
owns and uses said trade-name or trade-mark.
Treason – breach of allegiance to the government by a person
who owes
allegiance to it. The levying of war against the government
would
68
constitute treason when performed to aid the enemy.
Tumultuous - caused by more than 3 persons who are armed
or provided with
means of violence.
Unfair Competition -  consists in employing deception or any
other means
contrary to good faith by which any person shall pass off the
goods
manufactured by him or in which he deals, or his business, or
services
for those of the one having established goodwill, or
committing any acts
calculated to produce such result.
Unintentional Abortion - requires physical violence inflicted
deliberately
and voluntarily by a third person upon the pregnant woman. If
the pregnant
woman aborted because of intimidation, the crime committed
is not
unintentional abortion because there is no violence; the crime
committed
is light threats.
Unlawful Arrest - This felony consists in making an arrest or
detention
without legal or reasonable ground for the purpose of
delivering the
offended party to the proper authorities.
Vagrants -  Those who have no apparent means of
subsistence and who have
the physical ability to work yet neglect to apply themselves to
some
useful calling.
Criminal Procedure Reviewer
Affidavit of Desistance - the complainant states that he did
not
really intend to institute the case and that he is no longer
interested in testifying or prosecuting.
Appeal - A proceeding for review by which the whole case is
transferred on the higher court.
Appellant - The party appealing
Appellee - The party adverse to the appellant.
Arraignment - It means for bringing the accused into court
and
informing him of the nature and cause of the accusation
against him.
Arrest - taking a person into custody in order that he may be
bound
to answer for the commission of some offense, made by an
actual
restraint of the person or by his submission to custody.
Attachment - It is a remedy afforded to the offended party to
have
the property of the accused attached as security for the
satisfaction
of any judgment that may be recovered from the accused.
Bail - security given for the release of a person in custody of
law,
furnished by him or a bondsman, conditioned upon his
appearance before
any court as required.
Bail Bond - an obligation under seal given by accused with
one or
more sureties and made payable to proper officer with the
condition
to be void upon performance by the accused of such acts as he
may
legally be required to perform.
Brief - It literally means a short or condensed statement. The
purpose
of the brief is to present to the court in concise form the points
and questions in controversy, and by fair argument on the facts
and
law of the case, to assist the court in arriving at a just and
proper conclusion.
Capital Offense - It is an offense which, under the law
existing at
the time of its commission and of the application for
admission to
bail may be punished with death.
Certiorari - is used to correct only errors of jurisdiction and
not
errors of judgment of an inferior court.
Confrontation - It is the act of setting a witness face to face
with
the accused so that the latter may make any objection he has to
the
witness, and the witness may identify the accused, and this
must take
place in the presence of the court having jurisdiction to permit
the
privilege of cross examination.
Counsel De Officio - He is counsel appointed by the court to
represent
and defend the accused in case he cannot afford to employ one
himself.
Complaint -  sworn written statement charging a person with
an offense,
subscribed by the offended party, any peace officer or other
public
official charged with the enforcement of the law violated.
Continuous Trial System - Trial once commenced shall
continue from
day to day as far as practicable until terminated; but it may be
postponed for a reasonable period of time for good cause.
Criminal Action - It is an action by which the State
prosecutes a
person for an act or omission punishable by law.
Criminal Jurisdiction - It is the authority to hear and try a
particular offense and impose the punishment for it.
Criminal Procedure -  It is the method prescribed by law for
the
apprehension and prosecution of persons accused of any
criminal offense
and for their punishment, in case of conviction.
Custodial Investigation - Involves any questioning initiated
by law
enforcement officers after a person has been taken into
custody or
otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant
69
way.
Demurrer To Evidence - It is an objection by one of the
parties in
an action, to the effect that the evidence which his adversary
produced
is insufficient in point of law, whether true or not, to make out
a
case or sustain the issue.
Deposition  - It is the testimony of a witness taken upon oral
questions or written interrogatories, in open court, but in
pursuance
of a commission to take testimony issued by a court, or under
a general
law or court rule on the subject, and reduced to writing and
duly
authenticated, and intended to be used in preparation and upon
the
trial of a civil or criminal prosecution.
Duplicity of the Offense - A complaint or information must
charge
only one offense, except when the law prescribes a single
punishment for various offenses.
Error of Judgment - One which the court may commit in the
exercise of
its jurisdiction.
Equipose Rule - where the evidence of the parties in a
criminal case
are evenly balanced, the constitutional presumption of
innocence should
tilt in favor of the accused who must be acquitted.
General Warrant - It is a process which authorizes the search
and
seizure of things, in a general manner. It does not specify or
describe with particularity the things to be searched and
seized.
This kind of warrant is VOID as it infringes on the
constitutional
mandate requiring particular description of the things to be
seized.
Habeas Corpus - is available when a person is imprisoned
beyond the
maximum penalty imposed by law.
Hearing - It is not confined to trial but embraces the several
stages
of litigation, including the pre-trial stage.
Improvident Plea - It is a plea without information as to all
the
circumstances affecting it; based upon a mistaken assumption
or
misleading information or advice.
Information - accusation in writing charging a person with an
offense,
subscribed by the fiscal and filed with the court.
Judgment - adjudication by the court that the accused is
guilty or not
guilty of the offense charged, and the imposition of the proper
penalty
and civil liability provided by law on the accused.
Mittimus - It is a process issued by the court after conviction
to
carry out the final judgment.
Motion To Quash - a hypothetical admission that even if all
the facts
alleged were true, the accused still cannot be convicted due to
other
reasons.
New Trial - The rehearing of a case already decided but
before the
judgment of conviction therein rendered has become final,
whereby
errors of law or irregularities are expunged from the record or
new
evidence is introduced or both steps are taken.
Nolle Prosequi - is a dismissal of the criminal case by the
government
before the accused is placed on trial and before he is called to
plead,
with the approval of the court in the exercise of its judicial
discretion.
Oath - Includes any form of attestation by which a party
signifies that
he is bound in conscience to perform an act faithfully and
truthfully.
Parole - the conditional release of an offender from a penal or
correctional institution after he has served the minimum
period of his
prison sentence under the continued custody of the state and
under
conditions that permit his reincarceration if he violated the
conditions
of his release.
Plea Bargaining - process whereby the accused and the
prosecution in
a criminal case work out a mutually satisfactory disposition of
the
case subject to court approval. It usually involves the
defendant's
pleading guilty to a lesser offense or to only some of the
counts of
a multi-count indictment in return for a lighter sentence than
that
for the greater charge.
Prejudicial Question - It is one which arises in a case, the
resolution of which is a logical antecedent of the issue
involved
therein and the cognizance of which pertains to another
tribunal.
Preliminary Investigation - inquiry or proceeding to
determine if
there is sufficient ground to engender a well-founded belief
that a
crime cognizable by the RTC has been committed, and that the
respondent
is probably guilty thereof, and should be held for trial.
Pre-Trial Order - It is an order issued by the court reciting
the
actions taken, the facts stipulated and the evidence marked
during the pre-trial conference. Such order binds the parties
and
limits the trial to those matters not disposed of.
70
Probable Cause - such facts and circumstances which would
lead a
reasonably prudent man to believe that a crime has been
committed and
the thing to be searched for and seized is in the place to be
searched.
               - Such reasons, supported by facts and
circumstances,
as will warrant a cautious man in the belief that his action, and
the
means taken in prosecuting it, are legally just and proper
Probable Cause For A Search - It is defined as such facts
and
circumstances which would lead a reasonably discreet and
prudent man
to believe that an offense has been committed and that the
objects
sought in connection with the offense are in the place sought
to
be searched.
Probable Cause In General - Such facts and circumstances
antecedent
to the issuance of the warrant, that are in themselves sufficient
to
induce a cautious man to believe that the person against whom
the
search warrant is applied had committed or is about to commit
a crime.
Probation - disposition under which a defendant after
conviction and
sentences, is released subject to conditions imposed by the
court and
to the supervision of a probation officer.
Property Bond - It is an undertaking constituted as a lien on
the real
property given as security for the amount of the bail.
Provisional Remedy - It is one provided for present need or
one that is
adopted to meet a particular exigency.
Reasonable Doubt - state of the case which, after full
consideration
of all the evidence, leaves the mind of the judge in such a
condition
that he cannot say that he feels an abiding conviction, to a
moral
certainty, of the truth of the charge.
Recantation - A Witness who previously gave a testimony
subsequently
declares that his statements were not true.
Recognizance - Obligation of record entered into before some
court
of magistrate duly authorized to take it, with the condition to
do
some particular act, the most usual condition in criminal cases
being
the appearance of the accused for trial.
Reduced Bail - A person in custody for a period to or more
than the
minimum of the principal penalty prescribed for the offense
charged,
without application of the Indeterminate Sentence Law or any
modifying
circumstance, shall be released on a reduced bail or on his
own
recognizance at the discretion of the court.
Reverse Trial - When the accused admits the act or omission
charged in
the complaint/information but interposes a lawful defense, the
trial
court may allow the accused to present his defense first and
thereafter
give the prosecution the opportunity to present his rebuttal
evidence.
Scatter Shot Warrant - It is a warrant that is issued for more
than
one offense. It is void, since the law requires that a warrant
should
only be issued in connection with one specific offense.
Search - It is an examination of a man’s house, buildings or
other
premises, or of his person, with a view to the discovery of
some
evidence of guilt to be used in the prosecution of a criminal
action
for some offense with which he is charged.
Searching Questions and Answers - Such questions as have
the tendency
to show the commission of a crime and perpetrator thereof.
Search Warrant - an order in writing issued in the name of
the People
of the Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a peace
officer,
commanding him to search for personal property described
therein and
bring it before the court.
Seizure -  It is the physical taking of a thing into custody;
contemplates a forcible disposition of the owner.
State Witness - One of two or more persons jointly charged
with the
commission of a crime but who is discharged with his consent
as such
accused so that he may be a witness for the state.
Stop and Frisk - A limited protective search of outer clothing
for weapon.
Transactional Immunity - witness can no longer be
prosecuted for any
offense whatsoever arising out of the act or transaction.
Trial - It is the examination before a competent tribunal
according
to the laws of the land, of the facts put in issue in a case for the
purpose of determining such issue.
Trial in Absentia - accused in case of his non-appearance
After
Arraignment despite due notice simply means that he thereby
waives
his right to meet the witnesses face to face, among others.
Use and Derivative Use Immunity - witness is only assured
that his
or her particular testimony and evidence derived from it will
not be
used against him or her in a subsequent prosecution.
71
Evidence Reviewer
Admission - any statement of fact made by a party against his
interest
or unfavorable to the conclusion for which he contends or is
inconsistent
with the facts alleged by him.
Best Evidence Rule - is that rule which requires the highest
grade of
evidence obtainable to prove a disputed fact.
Burden Of Evidence - logical necessity on a
party during a particular time of the trail to create a
prima facie case in his favor or to destroy that
created against him by presenting evidence.
Burden Of Proof/Risk of Non-Persuasion - the duty of a
party to present
evidence on the facts in issue necessary to establish his claim
or defense
by the amount of evidence required by law.
Character - the aggregate of the moral qualities which belong
to and
distinguish an individual person.
Circumstantial Evidence - is the proof of a fact or facts from
which
taken either singly or collectively, the existence or a particular
fact in dispute may be inferred as a necessary or probable
consequence.
Common Reputation - is the definite opinion of the
community in which
the fact to be proved is known or exists. It means the general
or
substantially undivided reputation, as distinguished from a
partial or
qualified one, although it need not be unanimous.
Competency Of A Witness -  is the legal fitness or ability of
a witness
to be heard on the trial of a cause.
Competent Evidence - one that is not excluded by this Rules,
a statute
or the Constitution.
Compromise - is an agreement made between two or more
parties as a
settlement matters in dispute.
Conclusive Evidence - the class of evidence which the law
does not allow
to be contradicted.
Confession - categorical acknowledgement of guilt made by
an accused
in a criminal case, without any exculpatory statement or
explanation.
If the accused admits having committed the act in question but
alleges
a justification therefore, the same is merely an admission.
      Judicial Confession - one made before a court in which
the case will not apply.
      is pending and in the course of legal proceedings therein
and, Estoppel In Pais - whenever a party has, by his own
      by itself, can sustain a conviction even in capital offenses. declaration, act,
or omission, intentionally and deliberately lead another to
      Extra Judicial Confession - one made in any other place believe a
or particular thing to be true and act upon such belief, he cannot,
      occasion and cannot sustain a conviction unless in
corroborated by any litigation arising out of such declaration, act or omission,
      evidence of the corpus delicti. This section refers to be
extrajudicial permitted to falsify it.
      confessions.
Expert Witness - one who belongs to the profession or calling
Corroborative Evidence - is additional evidence of a to which
difference character the subject matter of the inquiry relates to and who possesses
to the same point. special
knowledge on questions on which he proposes to express an
Cumulative Evidence - evidence of the same kind and to the opinion.
same state
of facts. Express Admissions - are those made in definite, certain and
unequivocal
language.
Demonstrative Evidence - is a tangible evidence that merely
illustrates Extra Judicial Admissions - are those made out of court, or
a matter of importance in the litigation such as maps, in a judicial
diagrams, proceeding other than the one under consideration.
models, summaries and other materials created especially for
litigation.
Fact - thing done or existing.
Direct Evidence - that which proves the fact in dispute
without the Facts In Issue - are those facts which the plaintiff must prove
aid of any inference or presumption. in order
to establish his claim and those facts which the defendant must
Doctine Of Processual Presumption - absent any of the prove
evidence or admission, in order to establish a defense set up by him, but only when
the foreign law is presumed to be the same as that in the the fact
Philippines. alleged by the one party is not admitted by the other party.

Document - any substance having any matter expressed or Facts Relevant To The Issue - are those facts which render
described upon the probable
it by marks capable of being read. existence or non-existence of a fact in issue, or some other
         - is a deed, instrument or other duly authorized appear by relevant
which something is proved, evidenced or set forth. fact.

Documentary Evidence - evidence supplied by written Factum Probandum - the ultimate fact or the fact sought to
instruments or derived be established.
from conventional symbols, such as letters, by which ideas are                  - Refers to proposition
represented
on material substances. Factum Probans - is the evidentiary fact or the fact by which
the factum
Dying Declaration - The ante mortem statements made by a probandum is to be established. Materials which establish the
person after proposition.
the mortal wound has been inflicted under the belief that the
death is
certain, stating the fact concerning the cause of and the Hearsay Rule - Any evidence, whether oral or documentary is
circumstances hearsay if
surrounding the attack. its probative value is not based on the personal knowledge of
the
witness but on the knowledge of some other person not on the
Equipose Rule -  Where the evidence gives rise to two witness
probabilities, stand.
one consistent with defendant’s innocence, and another
indicative of
his guilt, that which is favorable to the accused should be Impeaching Evidence - a proper foundation must be laid for
considered. the impeaching
questions, by calling attention of such party to his former
Estoppel By Deed – the tenant is not permitted to deny title of statement
his so as to give him an opportunity to explain before such
landlord at the time of the commencement of the land-lord admissions are
tenant offered in evidence.
relationship. If the title asserted is one that is alleged to have
been Implied Admissions - are those which may be inferred from
acquired subsequent to the commencement of that relation, the the acts,
presumption declarations or omission of a party. Therefore, an admission
72
may be the matter that gave rise to the litigation. For instance, a knife.
implied from conduct, statement of silence of a party.
Objective or Real Evidence - directly addressed to the senses
Independent Evidence - admissions are original evidence and of the
no foundation court and consist of tangible things exhibited or demonstrated
is necessary for their introduction in evidence in open
court, in an ocular inspection, or at place designated by the
Intermediate Ambiguity - situation where an ambiguity court
partakes of the for its view or observation of an exhibition, experiment or
nature of both patent and latent. In this, the words are demonstration.
seemingly This is referred to as autoptic preference.
clear and with a settled meaning, is actually equivocal and
admits of Omnia praesumuntur rite et solemniter esse acta donec
two interpretations. Here, parol evidence is admissible to probetur in
clarify contrarium – all things are presumed to have been done
the ambiguity provided that the matter is put in issue by the regularly and
pleader. with due formality until the contrary is proved.
Example: Dollars, tons and ounces.
Opinion - an inference or conclusion drawn from facts
Issue - is the point or points in question, at the conclusion of observed.
the
pleadings which one side affirms, and the other side denies. Ordinary Opinion Evidence - that which is given by a
witness who is
of ordinary capacity and who has by opportunity acquired a
Judicial Admissions - are those so made in the pleadings filed particular
or in knowledge which is outside the limits of common observation
the progress of a trial. and which
                    - It is one made in connection with a judicial may be of value in elucidating a matter under consideration.
proceeding in which it is offered, while an extrajudicial
admission
is any other admission. Parole Evidence - any evidence aliunde, whether oral or
written, which
Judicial Notice -  no more than that the court will bring to its is intended or tends to vary or contradict a complete and
aid enforceable
and consider, without proof of the facts, its knowledge of agreement embodied in a document.
those
matters of public concern which are known by all well- Patent or Extrinsic Ambiguity - is such ambiguity which is
informed apparent on
persons. the face of the writing itself and requires something to be
                - cognizance of certain facts which judges may take added in
and act on without proof because they are already known to order to ascertain the meaning of the words used. In this case,
them. parol
evidence is not admissible, otherwise the court would be
creating a
Material Evidence - evidence directed to prove a fact in issue contract between the parties.
as
determined by the rules of substantive law and pleadings. The Pedigree - includes relationship, family genealogy, birth,
test is marriage,
whether the fact it intends to prove is an issue or not. AS to death, the dates when, and the placer where these facts
whether occurred and
a fact is in issue or not is in turn determined by the substantive the names of their relatives. It embraces also facts of family
law, history
the pleadings, the pre-trial order and by the admissions or intimately connected with pedigree.
confessions
on file. Consequently, evidence may be relevant but may be Positive Evidence - when the witness affirms that a fact did or
immaterial did not
in the case. occur. Entitled to a greater weight since the witness represents
of his
personal knowledge the presence or absence of a fact.
Negative Evidence - when the witness did not see or know of
the occurrence Presumption - An inference as to the existence or non-
of a fact. There is a total disclaimer of persona knowledge, existence of a
hence without fact which courts are permitted to draw from the proof of other
any representation or disavowal that the fact in question could facts.
or could
not have existed or happened. It is admissible only if it tends       Presumption Juris Or Of Law – is a deduction which the
to law
contradict positive evidence of the other side or would tend to       expressly directs to be made from particular facts.
exclude
the existence of fact sworn to by the other side.       Presumption Hominis Or Of Fact – is a deduction which
reason
      draws from facts proved without an express direction from
Object Evidence -  is a tangible object that played some the
actual role on       law to that effect.
73
 functional, or
Prima Facie Evidence - that which is standing alone, induced by drugs or hypnosis.
unexplained or
uncontradicted, is sufficient to maintain the proposition
affirmed. Witness - reference to a person who testifies in a case or gives
evidence
Primary Evidence - that which the law regards as affording before a judicial tribunal.
the greatest
certainty of the fact in question. Also referred to as the best
evidence. CRIME DETECTION AND
Privies - those who have mutual or successive relationship to INVESTIGATION
the
same right of property or subject matter, such as “personal
representatives, heirs, devisees, legatees, assigns, voluntary Traffic Management and Accident
grantee Investigation Reviewer
or judgment creditors or purchasers from them without notices
to the fact.
Accident (Legal meaning) – an accident is any happening
beyond the
Privity - mutual succession of relationship to the same rights
control of a person the consequences of which are not
of property.
foreseeable.
(There is no criminal liability in accident provided, the
Proof - the result or effect of evidence. When the requisite
following
quantum
requisites or elements under the law must be satisfied;
of evidence of a particular fact has been duly admitted and
   1. performance of a lawful act
given weight,
   2. with due care
the result is called the proof of such fact.
   3. causes injury to another by mere accident
   4. without any fault or intention of causing it
Relevant Evidence - evidence having any value in reason as
Articulated Vehicle - shall mean any motor vehicles with a
tending to
trailer
prove any matter provable in an action. The test is the logical
having no front axle and so attached that part of the trailer rest
relation
upon the motor vehicle and a substantial part of the weight of
of the evidentiary fact to the fact in issue, whether the former
the
tends
trailer and of its load is born by the motor vehicle.
to establish the probability or improbability of the latter.
Benz Patent-Motorwagen - (motorcar) built in 1886, is
Res Gestae - literally means things done; it includes
widely regarded
circumstances,
as the first automobile. It is a vehicle designed to be propelled
facts, and declarations incidental to the main facts or
by
transaction
an internal combustion engine.
necessary to illustrate its character and also includes acts,
words,
Box Junction - is a road traffic control measure designed to
or declarations which are closely connected therewith as to
prevent
constitute
congestion and gridlock at junctions. A road area at a junction
part of the transaction.
marked
with a yellow grid, which a vehicle should enter only if its exit
Rule Of Exclusion - that which is secondary evidence cannot
from
inceptively
it is clear. Box junctions were introduced in UK during 1967,
be introduced as the original writing itself must be produced in
following a successful trial in London.
court,
except in the four instances mentioned in Section 3.
Chain of Events – is the making up of accident or the link
which
explains the occurrence of the accident and its components are
Secondary Evidence - that which is inferior to the primary
present
evidence and
in every accident.
is permitted by law only when the best evidence is not
available.
      Perception of hazard – is the point of sensory warning at
Known as the substitutionary evidence.
      which the operator sensed the approaching hazard. The
                   - shows that better or primary evidence exists as to
driver
the proof of fact in question. It is deemed less reliable.
      may not comprehend or recognized the hazard in all of its
      implications at this point of perception, but there was a
Self Serving Declaration - is one which has been made
      warning. The normal routine is perception, realization, or
extrajudicially
      recognition, decision, and action.
by the party to favor his interests. It is not admissible in
evidence.
      Possible Perception - is a link in the accident chain dealing
      with the reaction of a normal person. Prompt perception
occurs
Testimonial Evidence - is that which is submitted to the court
      when possible and actual perception are very close.
through
Maximum
the testimony or deposition of a witness.
      delayed perception occurs when actual perception is
delayed
      until impact shock alerts the driver..
Unsound Mind - any mental aberration, whether organic or
74
 it is an Act of Man, such robbery, fire, fault, negligence,
      Encroachment – is the movement of a vehicle into the path rebellion, etc.
      assigned to the other traffic unit.
Fortuitous Event – an event which takes place by accident
      Evasive Action – is the first action taken by a traffic unit and could
      to escape from a collision course or otherwise avoid the not have been foreseen. In other words it is an Act of God
hazard. which
could neither be foreseen nor resisted, such as earthquake,
      Point of no escape – is that location and that time after or lightning, flood, and the like.
      beyond which an accident cannot be prevented by the
driver or Francois Isaac de Rivaz - A French and Swiss national who
      pedestrian. invented a
hydrogen powered internal combustion engine with electric
      Initial Contact – it is the first accidental touching of an ignition and
      object collided with by a traffic unit in motion. described it in a French patent published in 1807. In 1808 he
fitted
      Maximum Engagement – is the greatest collapse or it into a primitive working vehicle the world's first internal
overlap in a combustion
      collision. powered automobile.

      Disengagement – is the separation of a traffic unit in Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle - FCHV was developed by Toyota
motion in 2005. The
      from an object with which it has collided. vehicle is powered by the chemical reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen
      Final Rest of Stopping – it usually stabilizes the accident to power the motor driving the vehicle.
      situation where both vehicles in a collision has ceases its
      force, and stopping may occur with or without control by Geneva Convention on Road Traffic - September 19, 1949.
the Promotes the
      driver or pedestrian. development and safety of international road traffic by
establishing
Classification of Road certain uniform rules.
1. National Road
2. Provincial Road Gottlieb Daimler - He invented the high-speed petrol
3. City Road engine.He is
4. Municipal Road also thought to have invented the first real motorcycle in 1885.
5. Barangay Road
6. Private Road Gustave Trouve - In November 1881, Trouvé demonstrated a
working
Compressed Air Car - is an alternative fuel car that uses a three-wheeled electric automobile at the International
motor Exhibition of
powered by compressed air. The car can be powered solely by Electricity in Paris.
air, or
by air combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with Hit-and-run - is the act of causing (or contributing to) a
gasoline,diesel, traffic
ethanol, or electric plant. accident (such as colliding with a person or a fixture), and
failing
Crosswalks - are designed to keep pedestrians together where to stop and identify oneself afterwards. It is considered a crime
they can in
be seen by motorists, and where they can cross most safely most jurisdictions.
across the
flow of vehicular traffic.       Characteristics of Hit-and Run Drivers
      1. After living the scene, he dreads or frighten of being
Defensive Driving – is an act of driving while preventing caught.
accidents       2. He may have left the accident scene because he was
despite of the wrong actions of others aggravated by the shocked,
existence          injured, or intoxicated.
of adverse driving conditions. Which requires knowledge,       3. He may have been too confused to know he was doing.
alertness,       4. He may have a long record of violations or accidents
foresight, judgment and skill. and
         therefore a terrible fear of  getting further involve with
Ferdinand Verbiest - a member of a Jesuit mission in China,          the law.
built the       5. More often, he fears financial loss specially if he does
first steam-powered vehicle around 1672 which was of small not
scale and          have liability insurance.
designed as a toy for the Chinese Emperor, that was unable to       6. Hit-and run drivers do not have a establish method of
carry          operation unlike criminals.
a driver or a passenger, but quite possibly, was the first
working Imprudence – indicates deficiency of action. If a person fails
steam-powered vehicle. to
take the necessary precaution to avoid injury to a person or
Force Majure – is an inevitable accident or casualty, an damage
accident to property, there is imprudence. Imprudence usually involves
produced by any physical cause which is irresistible. In other lack
words of skill.
75

Ivan Kulibin - a Russian mechanic and inventor, he
developed in 1971
a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern
features such as
a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearings.
Karl Friedrich Benz - was a German engine designer and car
engineer,
generally regarded as the inventor of the first automobile
powered by
an internal combustion engine, and together with Bertha Benz,
pioneering founder of the automobile manufacturer Mercedes-
Benz.
Last Clear Chance - it means that the driver who is in the
better
position to prevent the accident shoulders the responsibility of
preventing the accident. The last clear chance principle is
always
applied in any traffic accidental investigation in order to
justify
penalized the driver who was not defensive in its driving.
Lester Wire - a policeman in Salt Lake City, Utah. He
developed the
first electric traffic light in 1912 which used red-green.
Macadam - is a type of road construction pioneered by
Scottish engineer
John Loudon McAdam around 1820. The method simplified
what had been
considered state of the art at that point. Single-sized aggregate
layers
of small stones, with a coating of binder as a cementing agent,
are
mixed in an open-structured roadway.
Mesopotamia - (Present Iraq) location of the oldest
constructed roads
discovered to date. The stoned paved streets date back to about
4000 BC,
in the Mesopotamia cities of Ur and Babylon.
Milestone - The earliest road signs, giving distance or
direction.
milestone is one of a series of numbered markers placed along
a road
or boundary at intervals of one mile or occasionally, parts of a
mile.
They are typically located at the side of the road or in a
median.
Motor Car Act 1903 - introduced registration of motor cars
and
licensing of drivers in the United Kingdom and increased the
speed limit.
Motor Vehicle – shall mean any vehicle propelled by any
power other
than muscular power using the public highways, but
exempting road
rollers, trolley cars, street sweepers, bulldozers, graders,
fork-lifts, cranes, vehicles which runs only on rails or tracks,
tractors, trailers, and traction engine.
Negligence – indicates a deficiency of perception. If a person
fails
to pay proper attention to use due diligence in foreseeing the
injury
or damage impending to be caused there in negligence.
Negligence
usually involves lack of skill.
76
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot - was a French inventor. He is known
to have
built the first working self-propelled mechanical vehicle, the
world's first automobile.
Nikolaus August Otto - the German inventor of the first
internal-combustion engine to efficiently burn fuel directly in
a
piston chamber.
Paris - in 1964, first time that police women were used for
traffic
control duties.
Pavement Markings – are markings on the roads and surfaces
whereby a
message is conveyed by means of words or symbols, officially
reflected
for the purpose of regulating, warning and guiding traffic.
      May Indicate a Number of Things like
      1. Where lanes are divided
      2. Where you may pass other vehicles
      3. Where you may change lanes or which lane to use for
turns
      4. Where pedestrian walkways are located
      5. Where you may stop for traffic signs and traffic signals
      Types of Pavement Markings
      1. Curve Markings – are used to show where parking is
legally
         prohibited or not allowed, such Bus Stop, or in front of a
         fire hydrant, drive way.
      2. Object Markings – are painted on fixed poles, and on
vertical
         ends of bridges and ports to avoid accidents.
      3. Reflectorized Markings – are used to mark hazardous
areas
         and also used as delineators or road limits, these
delineators
         are aids especially during night driving, particularly
when
         the alignment of a road changes and might confused the
         operator of the vehicle.
      4. Striped Curb Markings – are markings used in traffic
islands
         in order to warn the driver of the traffic island on the
road
         and aids the motorist to its traffic lane.
      5. Painted Crosswalk – are placed at intersections and
other
         places where there is considerable pedestrians traffic to
         provide pedestrians with safety zones when crossing.
      6. Broken White Lines – is used to define or separate
traffic lanes.
         It permits crossing from one lane to another if there is
ample
         passing distance, and if the opposing lane is clear of
traffic.
      7. Solid White Line – is used to separate opposing streams
of
         traffic. Crossing is unlawful except where ample
distance
         exists and where the opposing traffic lane is clear of
traffic.
      8. Solid Yellow Line – is your driving lane prohibits you
from
         passing other vehicles.
      9. Double Yellow Line – indicates two way traffic; were
crossing
         of pedestrian and motorist is not allowed. It separates the
         opposing flow of traffic.
      10.Broken Yellow Lines – is a two way/highway which
means no
         overtaking or passing is permitted only when the road
         ahead is clear. firm well-drained foundation of large rocks topped by
      11.Stop Line – it indicates where stop should be made. progressively
smaller ones, forming a convex surface to make it more
PD 96 - A law declaring unlawful the use or attachment of impervious to
sirens, water. He is sometimes considered the first person to bring
bells, horns, Whistles or similar gadgets that emit post-Roman
exceptionally science to road building.
loud or startling sounds, including dome lights and other
signalling Places Where Parking is Prohibited
or flashing devices on motor vehicles.(January 13, 1973) 1. Within an intersection
2. On a crosswalk
      Excemptions - Motor Vehicles designated for official use 3. Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
by the 4. Within four meters of the driveways entrance to any fire
      1. AFP station.
      2. NBI 5. Within four meters of a fire hydrant.
      3. LTO 6. In front of a private driveway
      4. PNP 7. On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the
      5. BFP curb
      6. Hospital Ambulances    or edge of the highway.
8. At any place where official signs have been erected
      Penalty prohibiting
      1. Confiscation - 1st offense    parking.
      2. Imprisonment - 6 months and/or Fine. - 2nd and
succeeding offenses. PNP Highway Patrol Group - is an operational support unit
      3. Cancellation or Revocation or Certificate of of the PNP
Registration in charged of anti-carnapping, highway robbery and hi-jacking
incidents.
PD 1911 - a law authorizing the disposal of of unclaimed Formerly called Traffic Management Group. Traffic
recovered and Management in
impounded carnapped motor vehicles. Metro Manila is managed by the MMDA.

      This law provides that all carnapped or stolen motor Professional Driver – shall mean every and any driver hired
vehicle, or paid
      recovered and impound by law enforcement agencies for driving or operating a motor vehicle, whether for private
which after a use or
      period of three (3) months from the date of its for public.
seizure/recovery
      have remained unclaimed or whose real owners could no       Categories of Drivers
longer be       1. Tourist
      determined or established because the original numbers of       2. International Driver
the       3. Government
      motor engine or chassis numbers could no longer be       4. Professional
determined and       5. Non-professional
      restored, are considered as abandoned motor vehicles and       6. Student Permit
shall be
      sold and disposed of by the Chief PNP or his authorized RA 4136 - the Land Transportation and Traffic Code.
      representative in a public auction.
RA 6539 - Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972. An act preventing
      In all cases before any public auction is effected, there and
shall penalizing carnapping.
      be published once a week for three (3) consecutive weeks
in a       Carnapping -  is the taking, with intent to gain, of a motor
      newspaper of general circulation in the Philippines or in       vehicle belonging to another without the latter's consent, or
the       by means of violence against or intimidation of persons, or
      place where it was recovered or found, a description of the by
motor       using force upon things.
      vehicles intended to be auctioned with a notice that after
the Road Intelligence – Unusual points of serious congestion
      lapse of one month from the date of the last publication, must be noted.
should Note and report unnecessary delay at stop signs or signals
      no person file a claim for the recovery of the same, said which are
motor installed when traffic is heavier. Note and report congestion
      vehicles will be sold at public auction. that ties
up traffic for a block or more.
Pedestrian Crossing - is a place designated for pedestrians to
cross Skid Marks - are marks caused by tires on roads which occur
a road. when a
vehicle wheel stops rolling and slides or spins on the surface
Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet - was a French engineer. He of
is widely the road.
credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road
building       Importance of Skid Mark In Traffic Accident
about the year 1764. Proposed a method of construction Investigation
relying on a        - Skid marks can be analyzed to find the maximum and
77
minimum
         vehicle speed prior to an impact or incident.
      Kinds of skid Marks
      1. Pavement Grinding – is the collection of many fine
scratches
         and some larger one form by particles of gritty materials
         such as stone, gravel, glass and sometimes bit of metal
         embedding itself in the rubber of the tire or in the thread
         pattern and being ground or scored against the road
surface.
      2. Tire Grinding – is the collection of particles of rubber
         ground from the tire surface by gritty paving, especially
         before the tire gets hot enough smear. It occur on hard,
         dry, granular surfaces, particularly weathered or new but
         not traffic-polished cement.
      3. Erasing – is a clean light area where a sliding tire had
         erased or removed dirt from the pavement. Erasing is
most
         likely to be found on traffic-polished concrete road.
      4. Squeeze Mark – are areas where a sliding tie rubs
moisture
         of the surface in its path. It occurs on some kind of
surface
         as erasing except that the surface is wet.
      5. Smear of Soft Material – materials such as snow, mud,
or
         debris usually wet smooth or spread by a sliding tire. It
         occurs on road covered with snow, or mud.
      6. Smear of Bituminous Material – is excess asphalt or tar,
         usually warm which spread by a sliding tire this occurs
in
         pavement patches and joints in very warm weather and
else
         where when there is an excess of tar or asphalt bleeding
to
         the surface.
      7. Tire Smear – is a rubber melted from the tire rather than
         material melted from the road by a sliding tire.
      8. Scrub of Tire during Collision – collision of cars usually
         cause the wheel to jam and prevents it from turning. If
the
         vehicles are moving there will be a heavy scrubbing
action
         between tire and road surface.
      9. Furrow – is a ploughed depression made by a sliding
tire with
         material piled-up on each sides and usually at the end. If
         the soil is smooth and sticky, there may be soft material
         smear in the bottom of the rut.
        Types of Ending Skid Mark
      1. Overlapping Skid mark – occurs when the rear wheels
track on
         top of the front wheel marks in sliding.
      2. Front Wheel Marks – are in long skids on hard
pavement with
         bituminous binders. Front wheels skid marks in which
most of
         the mark is at edge of the tire.
      3. Rear Tire Marks – are relatively faint because of lesser
         weight on the tire in slowing. They may show thread
grooves
         when the front tire marks do not.
      4. Flat Tire Scuffs – will leave marks by a scrubbing
action
         even without application of brakes due to overload.
      5. Gaps in Skid marks – are interruptions in skid marks
made by
         release of brake pressure and its reapplication.
      6. Skip Skid – are skid marks that are broken or
interrupted
         without brakes being release.
      7. Curb in Skid marks – are usually gentle slides toward
78
the
         edge of the road which is simply downhill.
Sources of Power In Transportation
1. Man Power
2. Animal Power
3. Water and Air Power
4. Petroleum Fuel
5. Bi-fuel, bio gas, and Ethanol fuel
6. Hydrogen
7. Electric
Registration Classification of Vehicles
1. Private
2. For Hire
3. Government
4. Diplomatic
Scuff Marks – are signs left on the road by tires that are
sliding or
scrubbing while the wheel is still turning.
      Types of Scuff Marks
      1. Decelerating Scuff – are left while the vehicle is
slowing
         by braking effort and tires are both sliding and rolling.
      2. Accelerating Scuff – are left by a wheel driven by the
         engine and spinning on the ground.
      3. Side Scuff – are scuff marks left by a tire that is free to
         rotate without braking or power the sliding sideways,
these
         are usually left by a vehicle steering around a curb and
         also in collision.
      4. Combination Scuff – are combination of slide with
either
         decelerating or accelerating scuffs.
      5. Flat Tire Scuff – are marks lefts on the road by the
edges
         of under-inflated or greatly overloaded tires. They are
         usually smear of rubber, a flat tire rolls it become a very
         hot specially at the edges where the pressure is greatest.
      6. Scrub of Tire – during collision it is much the same
when
         the wheel is rotating as when it is locked.
      7. Furrows – by a rotating and sliding wheel are little
different
         than one with a locked wheel.
State of Necessity – there is state of necessity even if the
injury
to a person results in his death, because self-preservation
always
makes the actor feel that his own safety is greater than that of
another.
   Elements or requisites under the law
   1. the evil sought to avoided actually exists ;
   2. the injury feared be greater that that done to avoid it;
   3. that there is no other practical and less harmful means of
      preventing it.
Thomas Telford - a Scottish civil engineer, architect and
stonemason,
and a noted road, bridge and canal builder.  he was dubbed
The Colossus
of Roads, and, reflecting his command of all types of civil
engineering
in the early 19th century. He was elected as the first President
of
the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Timeline - History of Transportation
      3500 BC - Fixed wheels on carts are invented - the first
wheeled
      vehicles in history. Other early wheeled vehicles include
the
      chariot.
              - River boats are invented - ships with oars
      2000 BC - Horses are domesticated and used for
transportation.
      181-234 - The wheelbarrow is invented.
      770 - Iron horse shoes improve transportation by horse.
      1492 - Leonardo da Vinci first to seriously theorize about
      flying machines - with over 100 drawings that illustrated
his
      theories on flight.
      1620 - Cornelis Drebbel invented the first submarine - a
human
      oared submersible.
      1662 - Blaise Pascal invents the first public bus - horse-
drawn,
      regular route, schedule, and fare system.
      1740 - Jacques de Vaucanson demonstrates his clockwork
powered
      carriage.
      1783 - First practical steam boat demonstrated by Marquis
      Claude Francois de Jouffroy d'Abbans - a paddle wheel
steamboat.
      1783 - The Montgolfier brothers invent the first hot air
balloons.
      1787 - Steamboat invented.
      1769 - First self-propelled road vehicle invented by
Nicolas
      Joseph Cugnot.
      1790 - Modern bicycles invented.
      1801 - Richard Trevithick invented the first steam
powered
      locomotive (designed for roads).
      1807 Isaac de Rivas makes a hyddfdrogen gas powered
vehicle -
      first with internal combustion power - however, it is an
      unsuccessful design.
      1807 - First steamboat with regular passenger service -
inventor
      Robert Fulton's Clermont.
      1814 - George Stephenson invents the first practical steam
      powered railroad locomotive.
      1862 - Jean Lenoir makes a gasoline engine automobile.
      1867 -First motorcycle invented.
      1868 - George Westinghouse invents the compressed air
locomotive
      brake - enabled trains to be stopped with fail-safe
accuracy.
      1871 - First cable car invented.
      1885 - Karl Benz builds the world's first practical
automobile
      to be powered by an internal combustion engine.
79
      1899 - Ferdinand von Zeppelin invents the first successful
      dirigible - the Zeppelin.
      1903 - The Wright Brothers invent and fly the first
engined
      airplane.
      1907 - Very first helicopter - unsuccessful design.
      1908 - Henry Ford improves the assembly line for
automobile
      manufacturing.
      1908 - Hydrofoil boats co-invented by Alexander Graham
Bell &
      Casey Baldwin - boats that skimmed water.
      1926 - First liquid propelled rocket launched.
      1940 - Modern helicopters invented.
      1947 - First supersonic jet flight.
      1956 - Hovercraft invented.
      1964 - Bullet train transportation invented.
      1969 - First manned mission (Apollo) to the Moon.
      1970 - First jumbo jet.
      1981 - Space shuttle launched.
Traffic – is a movement of vehicles along a route where
passengers
and cargoes are carried by transportation.
      Elements of street and highway traffic
      1. The road user
      2. The vehicle and its load
      3. The road.
      Police officers main functions in Traffic
      1. Police traffic directions
      2. Police traffic law enforcement
      3. Police traffic accident investigation.
Traffic Accident -  (traffic Collision) occurs when a vehicle
collides
with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other
stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility pole.
      Elements of traffic accident
      1. The vehicle involved
      2. The highway
      3. The road user.
          Causes of Traffic Accident
      1. Direct Causes – the direct causes of an accident are
         observable by witness and participants, or may be
constructed
         from physical evidence found at the scene. Since a direct
cause
         relates to the action of the human part of the traffic unit
         concerned it is a behavior cause. Usually only four direct
         causes are considered in accident investigation;
            a. Initial Behavior - Any movement, position, or failure
               to signal intent to make a traffic maneuver that
creates
               a dangerous situation and is either hazardous, illegal,
               improper, or unusual may be initial behavior of a
nature
               justly term a direct cause of an accident.
            b. Speed – Too fast for conditions is the direct cause of
               many accidents.
            c. Delayed Perception – is inattention to the major task
               of operating a motor vehicle, and occurs when the
driver
               is distracted by conversation with other occupants of
               the car, lighting a cigarette or cigar, looking at a
               roadway or the scenery, or glancing at occupants of
               nearby vehicles.
            d. Faulty Evasive Action – Faulty evasive action
always
               occurs after perception and is the reaction of a
               driver or pedestrian to a hazardous situation on
               the highway.
      2. Mediate and Early Causes – These mediate and early
causes of
         an accident are also termed condition causes in
formalized
         accident investigation procedure. A mediate cause of an
         accident occurs between the early and the direct causes
in
         the time span leading to the accident, but it has a closer
         relationship to the direct cause than to the early causes.
         A mediate cause should not be listed unless it explains
the
         direct cause of an accident. A mediate cause of an
accident
         is an irregular or unusual condition of a vehicle, the road,
         the weather, or of a road user (driver or pedestrian) that
         explains on of the four direct causes of an accident:
initial
         behavior, speed, delayed perception and faulty evasive
action.
      3. Early Causes - An early cause of an accident results
from the
         act of any individual, or the failure to act by any person,
         which creates conditions leading to the chain of events
         making up an accident.
         Early cause of an accident - is an act or negligence on
the
         part of an individual or an organization which causes or
         permits a mediate cause to exist.
      Traffic Accident Analysis
      1. Condition of the motor vehicles involved in the
accident;
      2. Condition of the drivers at the time of the accident;
      3. Load of the vehicle;
      4. Weather condition;
      5. Characteristics of the road, which involves the design
         condition, and inhabitants of the place of accident
      6. Presence or absence of traffic sign and its condition.
         All these factors must considered in order to fully
uncover
         the reasons of the accident, and thereby provide a factual
         bases in coming-up with a traffic prevention program
and
         traffic plans and programs.
  
      Key Events in a Traffic Accident
      Key Event – means the one which characterizes the
manner of
      the occurrence of the traffic accident. It determines the
      time, place, and type of accident.
      1. Point of Possible Perception – is the place and time at
which
         the unusual or unexpected movement or condition could
have
         been perceive by a normal person.
      2. Delay in Perception or Perception Time – it is the time
         between the point of possible perception and actual
80
         perception.
      3. Prompt Perception – is the perception of hazard which is
         actually nearly the possible accident.
      4. Maximum Delayed Perception – occurred when the
traffic unit
         does not sense a hazard until he hits another vehicle.
      5. Point of No Escape – is the place and time after or
beyond
         which the accident cannot be prevented by the traffic
unit
         under consideration.
      6. Point of Impact – is used to mean as the point of initial
         contact, sometimes it is considered the point of
maximum
         engagement or center of force.
      7. Final Position – is the place and time when the object
         involved in the accident finally come to rest without
         application of power.
Traffic Actuated Signal – is controlled by an individual using
his
hands in signaling the flow of traffic wherein traffic shall
proceed
in accordance with the desire of the individual controlling the
flow of traffic.
Traffic Code - (also motor vehicle code) refers to the
collection of
local statutes, regulations, ordinances and rules that have been
officially adopted by countries to govern the orderly operation
and
interaction of motor vehicles, bicycles, pedestrians and others
upon
the public (and sometimes private) ways.
Traffic Education – comprises all means for public
information and the
safety education of both drivers and pedestrians as to traffic
laws
and the use of traffic facilities and an adequate training
programs in
traffic control throughout the police unit.
Traffic Engineering - is a branch of civil engineering that
uses
engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient
movement of
people and goods on roadways.
      Functions of Traffic Engineering
      1. Fact finding surveys and recommendation of traffic
rules and
         regulations.
      2. Supervision and maintenance to the application of
traffic
         control devices.
      3. Planning of traffic regulations.
      Objectives of traffic Engineering
      1. To achieve efficient, safe, free and rapid flow of traffic.
      2. To prevent traffic accidents and casualties.
      3. To present the role of traffic engineering in reducing the
         needs for police action and simplifying police
performance.
      4. To show that good police action and performance makes
         engineering plans effective.
Traffic Investigation - Objective
1. Securing facts upon which to base an accident prevention
program;
2. Determining whether or not laws have been violated,
gathering
   evidence which will reveal the road user responsible for the
   accident, and taking on-the-scene police action; and
3. Ascertaining the facts so that those involved in accidents STOP.
can
   properly exercise claims under our Civil Law.       Light: Steady Green and Steady left/Right Arrow
      1. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can
Traffic Island - a small raised area in the middle of a road make
which          a left turn.
provides a safe place for pedestrians to stand and marks a       2. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can
division make
between two opposing streams of traffic.          a right turn.
      3. The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a
      Kinds of Traffic Islands road sign
      1. Divisional and or Pedestrian Barrier          disallowing a right turn while the RED lights is On
      2. Channelizing Island
      3. Refuge Island Traffic Management – it comprises all public surfaces ,
      4. Rotary Island facilities
and agencies having responsibility for licensing, approving,
Traffic laws - are the laws which govern traffic and regulate maintaining and controlling the flow of traffic and the use of
vehicles, traffic
while rules of the road are both the laws and the informal rules facilities.
that
may have developed over time to facilitate the orderly and Traffic Patrol – Traffic patrol refers to the observation
timely of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers and other users
flow of traffic. of
vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law
Traffic Law Enforcement – comprises all police activities in enforcement
connection and providing authorized traffic-connected services to the
with the direction of traffic, regulation and education of public.
drivers,
determine potential offenders, constant patrol, giving of       Purpose of Traffic Patrol
assistance       1. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.
in the prosecution of offenders, investigation of accidents,       2. Detecting and apprehending violators.
follow-up       3. Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
complaints, requesting police action, warning, summoning or       4. Observing and reporting road conditions, including view
arrest of          obstruction which needs attention.
violators, reporting of road hazards and obstruction.       5. Providing certain services to the public.

      Traffic Enforcement Action       Types/Kinds of Traffic Patrol

      1. Detection
      2. Apprehension
      3. Prosecution
      4. Adjudication
      5. Penalization
      Enforcement action is usual limited to:
      1. Verbal or written warning;
      2. Summon or citation requiring the offender to appear in
court;
      3. Arresting traffic violators for traffic violations not
attended
      4. Suspension or revocation of license;
      5. Payment of fines or civil damages, and;
      6. Prosecution of criminal offenses in relation to traffic.
Traffic lights - a set of automatically operated coloured lights,
typically red, amber, and green, for controlling traffic at road
junctions, pedestrian crossings, and roundabouts.
Traffic Light Signals – is a power operated traffic control
device
by which traffic is warned or directed to take some specific
actions.
      Light: Flashing Red
      1. This is the same as STOP SIGN.
      2. STOP at the designated line.
      3. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”
      4. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
      5. PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.
      1. Line Patrol – Conducts observation either in moving or
         stationary observation at a certain route or point of a
major
         street in a city.
      2. Area Patrol – Conduct observation either by moving
patrol or
         stationary observation in a certain area, which included a
         number of streets roads or sections of a highway.
      3. Stationary Observation – Observation of traffic
conditions
         of a selected place, usually one with unfavorable
accident
         experiences for traffic law supervision. Stationary
observation
         may be conspicuous, visible or concealed, depending
upon the
         location of the patrol unit in relation to the street under
         observation.
      4. Conspicuous Observation – Stationary observation in
which
         the observer remains in full review of traffic conditions.
      5. Visible Observation – Stationary observation in which
observer
         is full view but so located, for example, at Side Street, so
         as to require effort on the part of traffic users to discover
         the observer.
      6. Concealed Observation – Stationary observation in
which the
         observer is not visible to persons using ordinary power
of
         observation form the roadway being observed.

      Light: Flashing Yellow

      1. This is the same as a YIELD SIGN.
      2. Proceed through the intersection with caution.
      3. You have the right of way over a flashing RED light.
      4. Vehicles on the other side will proceed to a FULL
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Traffic Signs – a device mounted on a fixed or portable
means of words
or symbols, officially created and installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning and guiding traffic.
      Types of Traffic Signs
      1. Regulatory Signs - are intended to inform road-users of
         special obligations, instructions or prohibitions which
must
         comply. A round shape is used for regulatory signs with
         exception of stop and yield signs.
      2. Warning Signs - are intended to warn road-users of
danger on
         the road and to inform them of its nature. These signs
have
         an equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal.
      3. Guide or Informative Signs - are intended to guide road-
users
         while they are traveling or to provide them with other
useful
         information.
       Types of Guide Signs
      1. Route markings – is usually found on highways
composed of
         several lanes which are going into different direction.
      2. Destination and distance signs – is usually erected on
         highway informing the motorist as to the number of
kilometers
         and at which way to take going to its place of
destination.
      3. Information signs – is usually erected on highway which
         informs the motorist of the establishments in the era,
such
         hospitals, restaurants, restrooms, hotels, and other
         establishments which provide services to motorist.
Transfer Evidence – it is an evidence found at the accident
scene
that will connect to the suspected vehicle and with the crime
scene.
Special Crime Investigation Reviewer
Admission - Any statement of fact made by a party which is
against
his interest or unfavorable to the conclusion for which he
contends
or inconsistent with the facts alleged by him.
AFIS - Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is
a biometric
identification (ID) methodology that uses digital imaging
technology
to obtain, store, and analyze fingerprint data.
Amateur Intermittent Offender - These types of robbers
view themselves
as lifetime robbers and commits infrequent robbery offenses,
often
recklessly.
Armed Robbery - This involves the use of weapons such as
firearm, a
knife or other dangerous weapons.
Animus Lucrandi - means intent to gain, in Robbery.
      Bienes Muebles - in Robbery, means personal property
belonging
      to another.
Arrest - The legal taking of a person into a custody in order
that
he may be bound to answer for the commission of an offense.   Crime Scene - The geographical area where the crime was
82
Arrest Warrant - An order in writing issued in the name of
the
Philippines commanding or directing a peace officer to arrest
the
person described therein and brings it before the court.
      The warrant of arrest is to be served within a statutory
      period of 10 days.
      The warrant  of arrest validity continues unless:
      1. Recalled by the issuing court
      2. The respondent has been arrested
      3. Respondent voluntary submitted himself
Arson - An act of willfully and maliciously damaging or
destroying a
building or other property by fire or explosion.
Autopsy - known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy,
autopsia
cadaverum, or obduction, is a highly specialized surgical
procedure
that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to
determine the
cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or
injury that
may be present.
Accused - A person who’s case was forwarded to the office of
the
prosecutor and filed in court.
Baseline - a method of locating object, particularly useful in in
large, irregularly shaped outdoor areas.
Confession - An express acknowledgment by the accused in a
criminal
prosecution of the truth of his guilt as to the offense charged,
while admission refers to statements of fact not directly
constituting
an acknowledgment of guilt.
Corpus Delicti - Latin for the “body of the crime”.
Crime - A generic term referring to many types of misconduct
forbidden by law.
Crime Scene - A venue or place where the alleged
crime/incident/event
has been committed.
Criminal - A person who is convicted by final judgment.
Criminalist - The officer responsible for recording a crime
scene and
recognizing and preserving physical evidence.
Criminal Investigation - The collection of facts in order to
accomplish
the three-fold aims – to identify the guilty party, to locate the
guilty
party and to provide evidence of his (suspect) guilt.
Criminal Investigator - A well-trained, disciplined and
experienced
professional in the field of criminal investigation.
Criminal Law - One that defines crimes treats of their nature
and
provides for their punishment.
committed.
 require
Crime Scene Sketch -  A simple diagram that creates a          pounding in a stake. That point is located by using a
mental pictures handheld
of the scene to those who are not present.          GPS (global positioning system). A large protractor or
some
      Rough Sketch -  The first pencil-drawn outline of the          other type of board marked with a circle and degree
scene increments
      and the location of objects and evidence within this          is used. The zero location on the board is oriented
outline. toward
         magnetic north.
DNA Profiling - (also called DNA testing, DNA typing, or
genetic          Triangulation - is a method that can be used when the
fingerprinting) is a technique employed by forensic scientists scene
to assist          is irregularly shaped. Two control points are used for this
in the identification of individuals by their respective DNA          method.
profiles.
Highgrading – selling
DNA Fingerprinting - is a test to identify and evaluate the
genetic Information - The general term referring to the knowledge
information, called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), of a acquired
person's cells. by criminal investigator from various sources. Data gathered
by an
Early Techniques of Crime Investigation investigator from other persons including the victim himself
      Archimedes (287–212 BC) invented a method for and
determining the other sources.
      volume of an object with an irregular shape.
Instrumentation - The application of instrument and method
      Book of Xi Yuan Lu - The first written account of using of physical
medicine science in the detection and investigation of crime.
      and entomology to solve criminal cases.
Interview - The simple friendly questioning of people who
      Carl Wilhelm Scheele - he devised in 1773 a method for have the
detecting information officially needed by investigators.
      arsenous oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses.
Interrogation - The vigorous or aggressive questioning of
      Henry Goddard - at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of person
bullet suspected of having committed an offense or a person who is
      comparison in 1835. reluctant
or willing to make a full disclosure of information in his
      Alphonse Bertillon - was the first to apply the possessions,
anthropological which is pertinent to the investigation of a criminal case.
      technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby
creating Investigation - The collection of basic facts establishing that a
      an identification system based on physical measurements. crime
has been committed and that some other person is responsible
      Sir William Herschel - was one of the first to advocate thereof.
the use
      of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. Kastle–Meyer Test - is a presumptive blood test, first
described in
English Constable - early recorded professional criminal 1903, in which the chemical indicator phenolphthalein is used
investigator. to detect
the possible presence of hemoglobin.
Evidence -  The means by which facts are proved.
Miranda Doctrine - The principle on the rights of a suspect
Forcible Rape - Sexual intercourse carried out against a against
person’s will forced self-incrimination during police interrogation.
by the use of physical violence.
Modus Operandi - Methods of Operation, Modes of
Four Basic Techniques That Can Be Used To Measure A Operation, Manner of
Crime Scene committing the crime.
1. Rectangular/Coordinate System
2. Baseline/Station Line Murder-Suicide - An act in which an individual kills one or
3. Triangulation/Trilateration more other
4. Azimuth/Polar Coordinates persons immediately before or at the same time as him or
herself.
         Azimuth - uses polar coordinates. This method requires
two Phenomena - A circumstance, event or occurrence as it
         people; one to hold each end of a tape measure. This actually
type of exists or existed.
         measuring convention is best suited for large open areas
where Photography -  The most reliable means of preserving the
         there might not be any fixed reference points. A known crime scene
starting or evidence.
         point must be established in your scene which might
83
Political terrorists - The use of force or the fear of force to Education was
achieve created and played vital role in the integration of drug abuse
a political end. prevention concepts in social actions programs.

Power-Reassurance Rapist - The rapist who psychologically 1979 - the first International non-governmental organization
doubt his conference
masculinity and seeks to dispel this doubt by exercising power was held in Jakarta, Indonesia, followed by the second which
and was held
control over women. from November 3 to 8, 1980 at Manila. After the second
conference, the
Professional Robber - This characterized as having a long- Philippine council of Non-Governmental Organization was
term organized.
commitment to crime as a source of livelihood, planning and
organizing 1988 - the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in
crimes before committing them and pursuing money to Narcotics
support a particular Drugs and Psychotropic Substances was held further
lifestyle. bolstering anti
drug laws.
RA 7438 - An act defining certain rights of person under
custodial Addiction - A person has an addiction when he becomes
investigation. dependent on or
craves a drug and believes he needs the drug to live. All an
RA 8353 - The Anti-Rape Law of 1997. addicted
drug user can think about is getting the next dose after getting
RA 9514 - The Fire Code of the Philippines. high.

Rectangular - a method of obtaining measurement to locate Classification of Commonly Used Drugs

an object    Psychoactive Drugs - These are often described as a
by making a measurement at right angles from each of two psychotropic
walls. Works    (mind affecting) or mind altering drugs. It is a chemical
well for indoor measurements. substance
   that changes ones thinking, feelings, perceptions and
Special Crime Investigation - The investigation of cases that behaviors.
are       a. Depressants - they are drugs that affects the central
unique and often require special training to fully understand nervous
their          system causing it to relax.
broad significance.
         Common Types of Depressants
Spectrometry - modern detection method of alcohol and          1. Narcotics - refers to any drugs which produces
drugs. insensibility,
            stupor, melancholy or dullness of mind with delusion
Suspect - A person arrested for a crime. and
            which may be habit forming.
Terrorism - The unlawful use of threat of violence against          2. Barbiturates - drugs that affect the central nervous
person or system
property to further political or social objectives.             causing sedation.
         3. Tranquilizers - are drugs which relieves
Three Fold Aim of Criminal Investigation uncomfortable
1. Identify the Perpetrator             emotional feelings by reducing anxiety and promoting
2. Locate the Perpetrator             relaxation.
3. Provide Evidence          4. Alcohol - fermented or distilled liquids or drug
            containing ethanol and intoxicating substances.
Triangulation - method of locating object where          5. Solvents and Inhalants - volatile liquids that give off a
measurements are taken             vapor, which is inhaled producing short term
from two fixed points at the scene to the object you desire to excitement
locate.             and euphoric followed by a period of disorientation. Its
            effect includes nausea, sneezing, coughing, nose
bleeds,
            fatigue,lack of coordination and loss of appetite.

Drug Education and Vice Control       b. Stimulants - chemical substances that generally speed
Reviewer up
         central nervous system function, resulting in alertness
and
1875 - in San Francisco California, enacted an ordinance          excitability.
which banned
the smoking of opium in opium dens.          Common Types of Stimulants
         1. Cocaine - a natural stimulants derived from the plant
1919 - the prohibition of alcohol commenced in Finland.             erythroxylon coca.
         2. Methamphetamine/Amphetamine - man made
1920 - the prohibition of alcohol commenced in the United stimulants drugs.
States.          3. Caffeine - a stimulant found in coffee.
         4. Nicotine - an addictive substance usually obtained
1974 - the Inter Agency Committee on Drug Prevention from
84
            cigarette smoking.
      c. Hallucinogen/Psychedelics - sometimes known as “all
rounder's”
         and “mind expanders” these drugs affects the person
         perceptions, awareness, emotions and can also cause
         hallucinations as well as illusions.
         Common Types of Hallucinogens
         1. Marijuana
         2. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
         3. Ecstacy
         4. PCP, Psilocybin mushroom and peyote
Cocaine - is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an
appetite
suppressant, giving rise to what has been described as a
euphoric
sense of happiness and increased energy. It is a quick acting
drug
whose effects are rapid from the time of intake. It is legally
used
in medicine as a topical anesthetic, specifically in the eye,
nose and
throat surgery. It is a crystallinetropane alkaloid that is derived
from the leaves of the coca plant known as “Erythroxylon”
      Alexander Bennet - he discovered the first medical use of
      cocaine in 1873 as anesthetic.
      1879 - cocaine was used to treat morphine addiction.
      1884 - cocaine was introduced into clinical use as
anesthetic.
      in Germany.
      1970 - cocaine gained popularity as a recreational drug.
      Medellin and Cali Cartel - were founded in Colombia to
meet the
      new demand for cocaine. The Cali Cartel became the
number one
      cocaine trafficker after the death of Pablo Escobar.
      Pablo Escobar - the founder of the Medellin Cartel who
was
      killed by the police in late 1993.
Chemicals – is any substance taken into the body, which
alters the
way, the mind and the bodywork.
Chemical Abuse – is an instance when the use of a chemical
has
produced a negative or harmful consequence.
Codeine - Methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic,
anti-tussive and anti-diarrheal properties. It is marketed as the
salt codeine sulfate and codeinephosphate. It is also often used
as recreational drugs. This is primarily because of its easy
availability over the counter or on prescription in combination
of products.
Dangerous Drugs - are those that have high tendency for
abuse and
dependency, these substances may be organic or synthetic, and
pose
harm to those who use them.
Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972 - marked the government
assurance to strict
policy against drug abuse. The act was subsequently amended
through
Presidential Degree No. 44. Dangerous Drug Board was
85
created to
implement the provisions of the Dangerous Drug Act as the
national
policy making body and deal with other related matters on
drug abuse
prevention and control.
Dangerous Drugs Board - is the policy making and strategy-
formulating
body, under the office of the President, in the planning and
formulation of policies and programs on drug prevention and
control.
      The late President Ferdinand E. Marcos, organized the
Dangerous
      Drugs Board on November 14, 1972 under the Office of
the President.
      National Agencies Forming Part of the Dangerous Drugs
Board
      1. DOH  - Department of Health
      2. DSWD - Department of Social Welfare and
Development
      3. DECS - Department of Education, Culture and Sports
      4. DOJ  - Department of Justice
      5. DND  - Department of National Defense
      6. DOF  - Department of Finance
      7. DILG - Department of the Interior and Local
Government
      8. DOLE - Department of Labor and Employment
      9. DFA  - Department of Foreign Affairs
      10.CHED - Commission on Higher Education
      11.NYC  - National Youth Commission
      12.PDEA - Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
      Permanent Consultants of the DDB
      1. Director of the NBI
      2. Chief of the PNP
      Two Regular Members of the DDB
      1. President of the IBP - Integrated Bar of the Philippines
      2. Chairman or President of a non-government
organization
         involved in dangerous drug campaign to be appointed by
         the President of the Philippines.
      Oplan Iwas Droga - is the national flagship program on
drug
      abuse prevention launched by the DDB in 1995.
      Barkada Kontra Droga - is a peer-based program designed
as a
      preventive education and information strategy to counter
the
      dangers and disastrous effects of drug abuse. It aims to
empower
      individuals to be catalysts within their peer groups in
      advocating healthy, drug-free lifestyles through
involvement
      in various wholesome activities.
      IDADIN - Integrated Drug Abuse Data and Information
Network.
      - is an online drug data pooling and collection system that
      allows better management and assessment of the over-all
drug
      demand and supply reduction efforts undertaken by the
      government.
      DDB-DIAL - (DDB Drug Information Action Line) is an
action
      center created to receive reports and complaints related to
      drug abuse as well as to provide relevant information and
      assistance to the public.

      KID Listo - is a mascot created to stand as an icon or
      representation of the drug abuse prevention program. KID
      means Kalaban ng Ilegal na Droga. It was brought to
different
      schools and communities all over the country to promote
the
      anti-drug advocacy.
      5 Pillar Global Drug Control Approach
      1. Drug Supply Reduction
      2. Drug Demand Reduction
      3. Alternative Development
      4. Civic Awareness and Response
      5. Regional and International Cooperation
Dangerous Drugs Board Certification - is issued to attest
that
substance/s manufactured or imported by companies are not
included in
the list of dangerous drugs and controlled precursors and
essential
chemicals.
      Certificate of Exemption - is issued to exempt products
or
      preparations containing dangerous drugs and/or controlled
      substances that are below and above the 30% threshold
from
      certain regulatory control measures.
Dependency - is the state of physical and psychological
dependence,
or both, on a dangerous drug, or drugs, experienced by a
person
following the use of that substance on a periodic or continuous
basis.
Depressant - A depressant is a drug that slows a person down.
Doctors
prescribed depressants to help people be less angry, anxious,
or
tense. Depressants relax muscles and make people feel sleepy
or like
their head are stuffed.
Drugs - are chemicals that affect a person in such a way as to
bring
about physiological, emotional, or behavioral change.
Drug Abuse - is a patterned use of a substance (drug) in
which the
user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods
which are
harmful to themselves or others. Drug abuse exists when a
person
continually uses a drug other than its intended purpose. This
continued
use can lead to drug addiction and dependency.
      General Signs and Symptoms of Drug Abuse
      1. Unexpected changes of behavior
      2. Significant deterioration of grooming
      3. Continually wear long sleeve clothing to hide injection
marks
      4. Wearing of sunglasses in appropriate time.
      5. Weight loss not attributed to proper physical exercises.
      6. Association with persons who are known drug abusers
      7. Unusual spending of money
Drug Addiction – a state of periodic or chronic (continuous)
intoxication (drunk) detrimental to individual and to the
society
produced by the repeated consumption of drugs.
86
               - Drug addiction refers to the behavioral condition
where
an individual’s need to obtain and use (especially, self-
administer)
drugs becomes a strong fixation.
               - Drug addiction is a complex, and often chronic,
brain disease. It is characterized by excessive drug craving,
seeking,
and use. Addiction is caused by brain changes caused by
constant
drug use.
Drug Dependence - A state of psychic or physical
dependence, or both
on dangerous drugs, arising in a person following
administration or
use of a drug on a periodic or continuous basis.
                - Drug dependence describes the state when an
individual is dependent upon the drug for normal
physiological
functioning.
Drug Experimenter - One who illegally, wrongfully, or
improperly uses
any narcotics substances, marijuana or dangerous drugs as
defined not
more than a few times for reasons of curiosity, peer pressure
or
other similar reasons.
Drug Syndicate - it is a network of evil. It is operated and
manned
by willful criminals who knowingly traffic  human lives for
the money.
Large sum of money, they can make in their illegal and
nefarious trade.
The set results of their commerce are physical and mental
cripples,
ruined lives, even agonizing death.
Ecstacy - In 1912 MDMA or
Methylenedioxymetamphetamine was developed
in Germany as an appetite depressant by the pharmaceutical
company
Merck. During the late 1970 psychiatrists and psychologist
used the
drugs as treatment for emotional and psychological disorders.
Among
the youth users referred it as the “sex drugs”. In its purest form
it is crystalline substance white powder with mastic odor.
Enabling - is any action taken by a concerned person that
removes or
softens the negative effect or harmful consequences of drug
use upon
the user. Enabling only makes thing worse. It is like fighting
fire with gasoline.
Facility Based/Treatment Based Data - are data gathered
from the
residential and out-patient treatment and rehabilitation centers
in
the Philippines.
Hallucinogen - A hallucinogen is a drug, such as LSD, that
changes a
person's mood and makes him see, hear, or think things that
aren't
really there. Hallucinogens change the way a person feels
time,
making it seem to slow down. As the name implies,
hallucinogens may
cause hallucinations - this is when people think they see or
hear
imaginary people or things. leaves in
         milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients.
Harrison Act - passed in 1914, which required sellers of       5. Hash Oil - an oily mixture resulting fromchemical
opiates and extraction
cocaine to procure license. Originally intended to require          or distillation of theTHC- rich part of the plant.
paper trails       6. Budder - hash oil whipped to incorporate air, making it
of drug transactions between doctors, drug stores and patients,          more like butter.
it
soon became a prohibitive law.       Methods/Apparatus in Smoking Marijuana
      1. The Joint
Hashish - It is the dark brown resin that is collected from the       2. The Blunt
tops of       3. The Hookah
potent Cannabis Sativa. It is at least five times stronger than       4. The Bong - is a tube with a small bowl at the end of a
crude          thinner tube inserted throughthe side near the base.
marijuana. Since it is stronger, the effect on the user is more       5. The Waterfall
intense,       6. The Pipe
and the possibility of side effects is greater. Placing the crude       7. The Shotgun
plant       8. The Chillum
material in a solvent makes it. The plant materials then filtered       9. The One Hitter or Bat - is a contrivance that allows the
out          small amount of cannabis to be burned and inhaled in a
and the solvent is removed, yielding a gummy, resinous          single breath.
substance.
Middle East - the Bec ka Valley of Lebanon is considered to
Heroin - is also known as Diacetylmorphine, is a semi be the
synthetic opioid. biggest producer of cannabis in the Middle East.
It mimics endorphins and creates a sense of well being upon
entering Morphine - is a strong opiate analgesic drug and is the
the bloodstream usually through intravenous injection. It is principal
widely active agent in opium. It acts directly on the central nervous
used as a illegal drug for its intense euphoria, which often system
disappears relieving pain. It is claimed to be six (6) times more potent
with increase tolerance. than
opium. It is administered into the body by means of injection.
High - A high is the feeling that drug users want to get when It is
they used legally as an analgesic in hospital setting to relieve pain
take drugs. There are many types of high, including a spacey after surgery and pain associated with trauma.
feeling,
euphoria, or a feeling that a person  has “special powers”, such Most Commonly Used/Abused Substances In The
as Philippines
the ability to fly or see into the future. 1. Methamphetamine hydrochloride (Shabu)
2. Cannabis Sativa or Marijuana
Lebanon - also became the transit country for cocaine from 3. Inhalants (Contact Cement)
South America
to illicit drugs markets. Motbok - an alcohol rationing system with personal ration
record book
Marijuana - obtained from an Indian hemp plant known as employed by Sweden from 1914 to 1955.
“Cannabis Sativa”
a strong, handy ,annual shrub which grows wild in Narcotics - is any drug that produces sleep or stupor and
temperature and relieves
tropic regions. A mind altering substance produced from pain due to its depressant effect on the central nervous system.
cannavis sativa, A
it is used because its primary active chemical term narcotic comes from the Greek word for sleep
Tetrahydrocannabinol “Narkotikos".
(THC) induces relaxation and heightens the senses.
Opium - Obtained from a female poppy plant known as
      Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in different “Papayer Somniferum”.
forms: It comes from the Greek word which means “juice”. It is the
      1. Marijuana or Ganja - the leaves and flowering tops of original
female components of Morphine and Heroin. It was known to be
         plants. cultivated in
      2. Hashish or Charas - a concentrated resin composed of lower Mesopotamia long ago as 3400 BC. In De Medicina (30
glandular AD), Aulus
         trichomes and vegetative debris that has been physically Cornelius Celsus specified various uses for “Poppy Tears” as
extracted an
         usually by rubbing, sifting or with ice. emollient for painful joints and anal crevices, in anodynes pills
      3. Kif or Kief - the chopped flowering tops of female promoting relief of pain through sleep.
cannabis
         plants, often mixed with tobacco,Moroccan hashish       Opium Preparation - The smoking of opium does not
produced involve the
         in the Rif mountains.Sifted cannabis trichomes       burning of the material as might be imagined. The
consisting of prepared opium
         only the glandular heads often incorrectly referred to as       is indirectly heated to temperature at which active
         “Crystals or Pollen”. alkaloids,
      4. Bhang - a beverage prepared by grinding cannabis       mainly Morphine, are vaporized.
87
          a. Law Enforcement
      Opium Chemical Properties and Physiological Effects -          b. Amendments of the Law
Opium
      includes two groups of alkaloids: Phenanthrenes(including       2. Demand Reduction Strategy - refers to the concept of
      Morphine and Codeine) and Benzylisoquinolines keeping the
      (including Papaverine).          potential users awayfrom drugs.

      Opium Medical Uses - Opium has been a major          Intended Programs

commodity of trade          a. Preventive Education
      for centuries, due to the fact that it has long been used as a          b. Sports Development
      pain killer and sedative.          c. Moral and Spiritual Values Recovery
         d. Treatment and Rehabilitation
Presidential Proclamation No.1192 - declared the 2nd week
of November       3. International and Local Cooperation/Coordination -
as Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Week, and celebrated refers to
every year.          an effective and efficient cooperation and coordination
of all
Physical Dependence - An adaptive state caused by repeated          local and international agencies of the government.
drug use
that reveals itself by development of intense physical          Intended Programs
symptoms when          a. Joint Training and Exercises
the drug is stopped (withdrawal syndrome).          b. Intelligence Networking
         c. Interdiction Operation
Polydrug Abuse - Many people who abuse on drug tend to
take all sorts Rehabilitation - is a dynamic process directed towards the
of drugs. Some play chemical “Russian roulettes” by taking changes
everything on the health of the person to prepare him from his fullest life
including unidentified pills. This is called polydrug abuse. potentials and capabilities, and making him law-abiding and
productive
Psychological Dependence - An attachment to drug use member of the community without abusing drugs.
which arises from
a drug ability to satisfy some emotional or personality need of Shabu - Methamphetamine was discovered in Japan in 1919.
an This
individual. (Physical dependence not required but it does not crystalline powder is solute in water making it an ideal drug
seem to for
reinforce psychological dependence. injection. During world War II, the drugs was used as
stimulants for
RA 9165 - commonly known as The Comprehensive combat soldiers. After the war it was regarded as a cure all for
Dangerous Drugs Act of treatment in mild depression and a good weight control
2002. It took effect on July 4, 2002. substance.
In the mid 80’s it was introduced in the Philippines and has
      Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB) - continues as policy gained
making body popularity not only in urban areas but rural communities as
      and it formed the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency well. It
(PDEA) is also regarded as poor man’s cocaine.
      as the led agency in the enforcement of the law under the
office Stimulant - A stimulant speeds up a person's body and brain.
      of the President. Stimulants, such as methamphetamines, have the opposite
effect of
      The new law abolished the National Drug Law depressants. Usually stimulants make a person high energetic.
Enforcement and When
      Prevention Coordinating Center, the PNP Narcotics the effects of a stimulant wear off, a person will feel tired
Group, the or sick.
      NBI Narcotics Unit and the Customs Narcotics
Interdiction Office. Tetrahydrocannabinol - (THC) It is the psychoactive agent
of marijuana.
      Establishing the proper intelligence network has been The more THC present in marijuana, the more potent is the
inherent drug. It is
      task given by the law to PDEAin coordination with the also known as the “sinister element” in marijuana. This is
following what causes the
      support units:The PNP AIDSOTF, the NBI AIDTF, the “high lift” or “trip” in marijuana users.
Customs Task
      Force in Dangerous Drugs and Controlled Chemicals The Golden Crescent
along with 1. Afghanistan
      other government and non-government entities dedicated 2. Pakistan
to curb 3. Iran
      the drug problem. 4. India

      National Strategies Against Dangerous Drugs The Golden Triangle of Drug Trafficking
      1. Supply Reduction Strategy - which refers to the concept 1. Laos
of 2. Thailand
         keeping the  drugs away from the potential drug users. 3. Burma

         Intended Programs Tolerance - it is the increasing dosage of drugs to maintain

88
the same substance
effect.           without the addition of external heat.  Spontaneous
heating
Treatment – Is a medical service rendered to a client for the           occurs most frequently where sufficient air is not
effective present
management of hit total conditions related to drug abuse. It           to dissipate the heat produced.  The speed of a heating
deals           reaction doubles with each 180 F (80 C) temperature
with the physiological without abusing drugs. increase.

Withdrawal Period - From the point of habituation or drug Classification of Fires

dependence  
up to the time a drug dependent is totally or gradually           Class A Fire - Fires involving ordinary combustible
deprived of materials,
the drug.           such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.

          Class B Fires - Fires involving flammable liquids,

Fire Technology And Arson Investigation greases
Reviewer           and gases.

          Class C Fires - Fires involving energized electrical

3 State of matter equipment.

          Solid           Class D Fires - Fires involving combustible metals, such

          Liquid as
          Gas           magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium.

4 General Categories Of Heat Energy
          Chemical Heat Energy
          Electrical Heat Energy
          Mechanical Heat Energy
          Nuclear Heat Energy
Backdraft - a phenomenon in which a fire that has consumed
all available
oxygen suddenly explodes when more oxygen is made
available, typically
because a door or window has been opened.
Boiling Point - The temperature of a substance where the rate
of
evaporation exceeds the rate of condensation.
British Thermal Unit - (BTU)  The amount of heat needed to
raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree F.
Calorie - The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of one
gram of water one degree Centigrade.
Centigrade - (Celcius)  On the Centigrade scale, zero is the
melting
point of ice; 100 degrees is the boiling point of water.
Chemical Heat Energy
          Heat of Combustion - The amount of heat generated by
the
          combustion (oxidation) process.
          Heat of Decomposition - The release of heat from
decomposing
          compounds.  These compounds may be unstable and
release
          their heat very quickly or they may detonate.
          Heat of Solution - The heat released by the mixture of
matter
          in a liquid.  Some acids, when dissolved, give off
sufficient
          heat to pose exposure problems to nearby combustibles.
          Spontaneous Heating - The heating of an organic
89
          Class K Fires - Class K is a new classification of fire as
          of 1998 and involves fires in combustible cooking fuels
such
          as vegetable or animal fats.
Combustion - is the self-sustaining process of rapid oxidation
of a
fuel being reduced by an oxidizing agent along with the
evolution of
heat and light.
Dry Chemicals and Halons - method of fire extinguishment,
interrupt
the flame producing chemical reaction, resulting in rapid
extinguishment.
Electrical Heat Energy
          Dielectric Heating - The heating that results from the
action
          of either pulsating direct current, or alternating current
          at high frequency on a non-conductive material.
          Heat from Arcing - Heat released either as a high-
temperature
          arc or as molten material from the conductor.
          Heat Generated by Lightning - The heat generated by
the
          discharged of thousands of volts from either earth to
cloud,
          cloud to cloud or from cloud to ground.
          Induction Heating - The heating of materials resulting
from
          an alternating current flow causing a magnetic field
influence.
          Leakage Current Heating - The heat resulting from
imperfect
          or improperly insulated electrical materials.  This is
          particularly evident where the insulation is required to
          handle high voltage or loads near maximum capacity.
          Resistance Heating - The heat generated by passing an
          electrical force through a conductor such as a wire or
          an appliance.
          Static Electricity Heating - Heat released as an arc
between
          oppositely charged surfaces.  Static electricity can be
          generated by the contact and separation of charged
surfaces
          or by fluids flowing through pipes.
Heat - the quality of being hot; high temperature. A form of
energy
arising from the random motion of the molecules of bodies,
which
may be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.

   Heating - is transfer of energy, from a hotter body to a colder

one,
Endothermic Heat Reaction - A chemical reaction where a other than by work or transfer of matter.
substance
absorbs heat energy. Heat of Combustion - The amount of heat generated by the
combustion
Exothermic Heat Reaction - A chemical reaction where a (oxidation) process.
substance
gives off heat energy. Heat Transfer

Fahrenheit - On the Fahrenheit scale, 32 degrees is the           Conduction - Conduction is the transfer of energy
melting point through
of ice; 212 degrees is the boiling point of water.           matter from particle to particle. Heat may be conducted
from
Fire point - The temperature at which a liquid fuel will           one body to another by direct contact of the two bodies
produce or
vapors sufficient to support combustion once ignited.  The fire           by an intervening heat-conducting medium.
point
is usually a few degrees above the flash point.           Convection -  is the transfer of heat by the actual
movement
Fire Triangle - Oxygen, Fuel, Heat           of the warmed matter. Transfer of heat by the movement
of
Fire National Training Institute - (FNTI) the Institution for           air or liquid.
training
on human resource development of all personnel of the Bureau           Radiation -  Electromagnetic waves that directly
of Fire transport
Protection (BFP).           energy through space.

Flame - A gas-phased combustion. Ignition Temperature - The minimum temperature to which

a fuel in air
Flammable or Explosive Limit - The percentage of a must be heated in order to start self-sustained combustion
substance in air independent
that will burn once it is ignited.  Most substances have an of the heating source.
upper
(too rich) and a lower (too lean) flammable limit. Heat - The form of energy that raises temperature.  Heat is
measured
Flashover - an instance of a fire spreading very rapidly across by the amount of work it does.
a gap
because of intense heat. Occurs when a room or other area Heat of Decomposition -  The release of heat from
becomes decomposing compounds.
heated to the point where flames flash over the entire surface These compounds may be unstable and release their heat very
or area. quickly or
they may detonate.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel
gives Heat of Solution -  The heat released by the mixture of matter
off sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the air in a
near liquid.  Some acids, when dissolved, give off sufficient heat to
the surface.  At this temperature, the ignited vapors will flash, pose
but exposure problems to nearby combustibles.
will not continue to burn.
Mechanical Heat Energy
Fuel - is the material or substance being oxidized or burned in
the           Frictional Heat - The heat generated by the movement
combustion process. Material such as coal, gas, or oil that is between
burned           two objects in contact with each other.
to produce heat or power.
          Friction Sparks - The heat generated in the form of
Fuel Removal - method of fire extinguishment, fire is sparks
effectively           from solid objects striking each other.  Most often at
extinguished by removing the fuel source.  This may be least
accomplished by           one of the objects is metal.
stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing
solid fuel           Heat of Compression - The heat generated by the forced
in the path of the fire or allow the fire  to burn until all fuel           reduction of a gaseous volume.  Diesel engines ignite
is consumed. fuel
          vapor without a spark plug by the use of this principle.
Glowing Combustion -  A condensed phased combustion.
90
Nuclear Fission and Fusion - The heat generated by either
the
splitting or combining of atoms.
Oxidation - The complex chemical reaction of organic
material with
oxygen or other oxidizing agents in the formation of more
stable
compounds.
Oxidizing Agents - are those materials that yield oxygen or
other
oxidizing gases during the course of a chemical reaction.
Oxygen Dilution - is the reduction of the oxygen
concentration to
the fire area.
Phases of Fire
           Incipient Phase (Growth Stage)             Fire Station - at least one in every provincial capital,
           Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage)
           Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage)
Products of Combustion
          Fire gases
          Flame
          Heat
          Smoke
Pyrolysis (also known as thermalde composition) - is
defined as the
chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat.
RA 6975 - created the BFP.
          Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) - administers and
enforces
          the fire code of the Philippines. The Fire Bureau shall
          have the power to  investigate all causes of fires and, if
          necessary, file the proper  complaints with the city or
          provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction  over the
case.
          Chief of the Fire Bureau - rank is Director.
     
          Deputy Chief for Administration of the Fire Bureau -
2nd
          highest officer in the BFP. Rank is Chief
Superintendent.
          Deputy Chief for Operation of the Fire Bureau - the 3rd
          highest officer in the BFP. Rank is Chief
Superintendent.
          Chief of Directorial Staff of the Fire Bureau - 4th
highest
          officer in the BFP. Rank is Chief Superintendent.
          Directors of the Directorates in the respective national
          headquarters office - rank is Senior Superintendent.
          Regional Director for Fire Protection - The BFP  Specific Gravity - the density of liquids in relation to water.
          shall establish, operate and maintain their respective
          regional offices in each of the administrative regions of
          the country. Rank is Senior Superintendent.
                - He/She shall be respectively assisted by the
                  following officers with the rank of superintendent:
                  Assistant Regional Director for Administration,
                  Assistant Regional Director for Operations, and
                  Regional Chief of Directorial Staff.
     
          Assistant Regional Director for Fire Protection - The
91
          assistant heads of the Department's regional offices -
rank
          is Senior Superintendent.
          District Fire Marshall - the heads of the NCR district
offices -
          rank is Senior Superintendent.
          Provincial Fire Marshall - the heads of the provincial
offices -
          rank is Superintendent.
          District Fire Marshall - heads of the district offices -
rank
          is Chief Inspector.
          Chief of Municipal/City Fire Station - (also called City/
          Municipal Fire Marshall) - the heads of the municipal or
          city stations - rank is Senior Inspector.
city
          and municipality.
          LGU - (Local Government Unit) - shall provide the site
of the
          Fire Station.
RA 9263 - this Act shall be known as the "Bureau of Fire
Protection
and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology
Professionalization Act of 2004.
          The BFP is headed by a Chief to be assisted by 2 deputy
chief, 1
          for administration and 1 for operation, all appointed by
the
          President upon recommendation of DILG Secretary
from among
          qualified officers with at least the rank of Senior
Superintendent
          in the service.
          In no case shall any officer who has retired or is
retirable
          within six (6) months from his/her compulsory
retirement age
          be appointed as Chief of the Fire Bureau or Chief of the
          Jail Bureau.
          The Chief of the Fire Bureau and Chief of the Jail
Bureau
          shall serve a tour of duty not to exceed four (4) years.
          The President may extend such tour of duty in times of
war
          or other national emergency declared by Congress.
RA 9514 - this act shall be known as the fire code of the
Philippines
of 2008. An Act establishing a comprehensive fire code of the
Philippines repealing PD 1185 and for other purposes.
Spontaneous Heating - The heating of an organic substance
without
the addition of external heat.  Spontaneous heating occurs
most
frequently where sufficient air is not present to dissipate the
heat produced.
Temperature Reduction - method of extinguishing fire,
cooling the fuel
with water to a point where it does not produce sufficient
vapor to burn.
Vapor Density - the density of a particular gas or vapor
relative
to that of hydrogen at the same pressure and temperature.
Definition of Terms Under RA 9514
Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire
hazard.
Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the owner
and ma nages
the use of a building for him.
Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel
and
oxidizer used to set off explosives.
Cellulose Nitrate or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible
and
explosive compound produced by the reaction of nitric acid
with a
cellulose material.
Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance,
materials or compound having cellulose nitrate (nitro
cellulose)
as base.
Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of
materials
that are easily set on fire.
Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning
fiber such
as cotton, oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay,
straw,
Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials commonly
used in commerce.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or
above 37.8
 C (100 F).
Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in
contact with
organic matter or with certain chemicals.
Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire
resistive
materials attached to and extending below the bottom chord of
the roof
trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into separate
compartments
so that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.
Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or
as a
result of its reaction with other elements produces a rapid drop
in temperature of the immediate surroundings.
Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air duct
system
which automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or
fire.
Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature in
separate
the more volatile from the less volatile parts and then cooling
and
92
condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly
purified
substance.
Duct System - A continuous passageway for the transmission
of air.
Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with
air in the
proper proportion and ignited will cause an explosion.
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by
passage
of an electric current across a space between two conductors
or
terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.
Ember - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has
partially burned, and is still oxidizing without the
manifestation of flames.
Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for
ornamental
or protective purposes.
Fire - The active principle of burning, characterized by the
heat
and light of combustion.
Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will
burn
easily or because it lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a
device or
system to warm the occupants of the building or fire fighting
elements of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to
undertake immediate action to save life and property and to
suppress
the fire.
Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in
fire
separation walls or partitions.
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or may
cause an
increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire, or which
may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting
operations
and the safeguarding of life and property.
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that
should be kept
opened and unobstructed at all times for the expedient
operation of
fire fighting units.
Fire Protective and Fire Safety Device - Any device
intended for the
protection of buildings or persons to include but not limited to
built-in protection system such as sprinklers and other
automatic
extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke and
combustion
products and other warning system components, personal
protective
equipment such as fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and
other
garments that may be put on or worn by persons to protect
themselves
during fire.
Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to design and installation
of walls,
barriers, doors, windows, vents, means of egress, etc. integral
to and
incorporated into a building or structure in order to minimize
danger
to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the building is
evacuated. These features are also designed to achieve, among
others,
safe and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress
sealed
from smoke or fire, the confinement of fire or smoke in the
room or
floor of origin and de lay their spread to other parts of the
building
by means of smoke sealed and fire resistant doors, walls and
floors.
It shall also me an to include the treatment of buildings
components
or contents with flame retardant chemicals.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any
material gives off
vapor in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture
with air.
Forcing - A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to
changing
its shape or dimensions.
Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive compound which
explodes by
percussion.
Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing,
fabrication,
conversion, etc., that uses or produces materials which are
likely
to cause fires or explosion.
Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or
through
or around a wall in approximately the same floor level.
Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and
other equipment
are stored and arranged for fire fighting.
Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis around
which a
fire hose is wound and connected.
Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which consist
of
combinations of fuels and oxidizers which ignite
spontaneously on
contact with each other.
Industrial Baking and Drying - The industrial process of
subjecting
materials to heat for the purpose of removing solvents or
moisture
from the same, and/or to fuse certain chemical salts to form a
uniform glazing the surface of materials being treated.
Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to
bypass a
safety device in an electrical system.
Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion
thereof is
used or intended to be used.
Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a
building or
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portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with the owner or
administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.
Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound
which
releases oxygen readily. It causes fire when in contact with
combustible materials especially under conditions of high
temperature.
Overloading - The use of one or more electrical appliances or
devices
which draw or consume electrical current beyond the designed
capacity
of the existing electrical system.
Owner - The person who holds the legal right of possession or
title
to a building or real property.
Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in
quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.
Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type or
burner where
the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the
combustion chamber and/or which includes fans or other
provisions for
the introduction of air at above normal atmosphere pressure
into the
same combustion chamber.
Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure where
fifty (50)
or more people congregate, gather, or assemble for any
purpose.
Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land
unobstructed
from the ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or otherwise
permanently
appropriated for public use.
Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites
spontaneously
when exposed to air.
Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious
materials are
removed from a mixture in order to produce a pure element of
compound.
It shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are
designed to
confine smoke and heat and delay the spread of fire.
Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so
as to
separate impurities from pure metals.
Sprinkler System - An integrated network of hydraulically
designed
piping installed in a building, structure or area with outlets
arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically
discharges water
when activated by heat or combustion products from a fire.
Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a building
to which
fire hoses can be attached on each floor, including a system by
which
water is made available to the outlets as needed.
Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber between the outer
doors             and Penology.
and the interior parts of a house or building.           - Chief of the BJMP - Highest ranking BJMP officer.
Appointed
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage that             by the President upon recommendation of DILG
extends Secretary. Rank
from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top of the             is Director.
building.           - BJMP Deputy Chief for Administration - the 2nd
highest ranking
            BJMP officer. Appointed by the President upon
recommendation
INSTITUTIONAL CORRECTION             of the DILG Secretary. Rank is Chief Superintendent.
          - BJMP Deputy Chief for Operations - the 3rd highest
Alcatraz - a US federal penitentiary, Often referred to as "The ranking
Rock",             BJMP officer. Appointed by the President upon
the small island of alcatraz was developed with facilities for a recommendation
lighthouse,             of the DILG Secretary. Rank is Chief Superintendent.
a military fortification, a military prison (1868), and a federal           - BJMP Chief of the Directorial Staff - the 4th highest
prison BJMP
from 1933 until 1963.             officer. Appointed by the President upon
recommendation of
Alexander Maconochie - was a Scottish naval officer,             the DILG Secretary. Rank is Chief Superintendents.
geographer, and
penal reformer. He is known as the Father of Parole. Borstal - a custodial institution for young offenders.

          His 2 Basic Principle of Penology Borstal System - rehabilitation method formerly used in Great
          1. As cruelty debases both the victim and society, Britain for
punishment delinquent boys aged 16 to 21. The idea originated (1895)
             should not be vindictive but should aim at the reform with the
of Gladstone Committee as an attempt to reform young
             the convict to observe social constraints, and offenders. The first
          2. A convict's imprisonment should consist of task, not institution was established (1902) at Borstal Prison, Kent,
time England.
             sentences, with release depending on the performance
of a Branding - stigmatizing is the process in which a mark,
             measurable amount of labour. usually a symbol
or ornamental pattern, is burned into the skin of a living
Auburn Prison - Constructed in 1816 ,(opened 1819) it was person, with
the second the intention that the resulting scar makes it permanent as a
state prison in New York, the site of the first execution by punishment
electric or imposing masterly rights over an enslaved or otherwise
chair in 1890. It uses the silent or congregate system. oppressed person.

Banishment - a punishment originating in ancient times, that Bridewell Prison and Workhouse - was the first correctional
required institution
offenders to leave the community and live elsewhere, in England and was a precursor of the modern prison. Built
commonly in the initially as
wilderness. a royal residence in 1523, Bridewell Palace was given to the
city of
BJMP - (Bureau of Jail Management and Penology) London to serve as the foundation for as system of Houses of
government agency Correction
mandated by law (RA 6975) to take operational and known as “Bridewells.” These institutions, eventually
administrative control numbering 200 in
over all city, district and municipal jails. Britain, housed vagrants, homeless children, petty offenders,
It takes custody of detainees accused before a court who are disorderly women, prisoners of war, soldiers, and colonists
temporarily sent
confined in such jails while undergoing investigation, waiting to Virginia.
final
judgement and those who are serving sentence promulgated by Bridewell Prison and Hospital - was established in a former
the court royal palace
3 years and below. in 1553 with two purposes: the punishment of the disorderly
poor and
          - created Jan. 2, 1991. housing of homeless children in the City of London.
          - Charles S. Mondejar - 1st BJMP chief.
          - BJMP chief tour of duty, must not exceed 4 years, Bureau of Corrections - has for its principal task the
maybe rehabilitation
            extended by President. Grounds: of national prisoners, or those sentenced to serve a term of
                                   1. In times of war imprisonment
                                   2. other national emergencies. of more than three years.
          - Senior superintendent - the rank from which the BJMP
chief           - has 7 prison facilities
            is appointed. This is the rank of the BJMP Directors of           - 1 prison institution for women
            the Directorates in the National Headquarters. This is           - 1 vocational training centre for juveniles.
also           - Classification Board - classifies inmates according to
            the rank of the Regional Director for Jail Management             their security status.
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          - Reception and Diagnostic Centre - (RDC) receives,
studies
            and classifies inmates committed to Bureau of
Corrections.
          - Board of Discipline - hears complaints and grievances
with
            regard to violations of prison rules and regulations.
          - Iwahig Penal Farm - established in 1904 upon orders
of Gov.
            Forbes, then the Sec. of Commerce and police.
          - New Bilibid Prison - established in 1941 in
Muntinlupa
            Camp Bukang Liwayway - minimum security prison.
            Camp Sampaguita - medium security prison
          - Davao penal Colony - established jan 21, 1932 (RA
3732)
          - Sablayan Penal Colony and Farm - established
Sept.27, 1954
            (Proclamation No.72) location:Occidental Mindoro
          - Leyte Regional Prison - established Jan.16, 1973
          - Old Bilibid Prison - First Penal Institution in the Phil.
            designated as insular penitentiary by Royal Decree in
1865.
 
the
classical theory, that punishment is to prevent others from
committing crime.
Director Charles S. Mondejar - the first Chief of BJMP. He
took his
oath of office on July 1 of   1991.
District Jail - is a cluster of small jails, each having a monthly
average population of ten or less inmates, and is located in the
vicinity of the court.
Draco - was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th
century
BC. He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood
feud by a
written code to be enforced only by a court.
Ducking Stool - a chair fastened to the end of a pole, used
formerly
to plunge offenders into a pond or river as a punishment.
Dungeon - a dark cell, usually underground where prisoners
are confined.

Burning at Stake - a form of ancient punishment by tying the
victim
in a vertical post and burning him/her.
Cesare Beccaria - an Italian criminologist, jurist, philosopher
and
politician best known for his treaties On Crimes and
Punishments (1764),
which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a
founding work
in the field of penology and the Classical School of
criminology
Charles Montesquieu - a french lawyer, who analyzed law as
an expression
of justice. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of
separation
of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions
throughout the world.
Elmira Reformatory - located in new York, was originally a
prison opened
to contain Confederate prisoners of war during the Civil War.
It became
known as a “death camp” because of the squalid conditions
and high death
rate in its few years of operation. Established 1876.
Elmira System - An American penal system named after
Elmira Reformatory,
in New York. In 1876 Zebulon R. Brockway became an
innovator in the
reformatory movement by establishing Elmira Reformatory
for young felons.
The Elmira system classified and separated various types of
prisoners,
gave them individualized treatment emphasizing vocational
training and
industrial employment, used indeterminate sentences.

Code of Justinian -  formally Corpus Juris Civilis (“Body of Ergastulum - is a Roman prison used to confine slaves. They
Civil Law”), were attached
Justinian I the collections of laws and legal interpretations to work benches and forced to do hard labor in period of
developed imprisonment.
under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I
from AD Exemplarity - the criminal is punished to serve as an example
529 to 565. to others
to deter further commission of crime.
Commitment Order - is an act of sending a person to prison
by means of Expiation - (Atonement) execution of punishment visibly or
such a warrant or order. publicly for
the purpose of appeasing a social group. Expiation is a group
Correctional Administration - the study and practice of a vengeance
system of as distinguished from retribution.
managing jails and prisons and other institutions concerned
with the First Women's Prison - opened in Indiana 1873. Based on
custody, treatment and rehabilitation of criminal offenders. the reformatory
model.
Corrections - describes a variety of functions typically carried
out Four Classes of Prisoners
by government agencies, and involving the punishment,    1. Insular or national prisoner – one who is sentenced to a
treatment, and prison term
supervision of persons who have been convicted of crimes.       of three years and one day to death;
   2. Provincial prisoner – one who is sentenced to a prison
Death Row - refers to incarcerated persons who have been term of six
sentenced to       months and one day to three years;
death and are awaiting execution.    3. City prisoner – one who is sentenced to a prison term of
one day
Deterrence - as contended by Cesare Beccaria, proponent of       to three years; and
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   4. Municipal Prisoner – one who is sentenced to a prison
term of one           Jails - holds
      day to six months.           a. Convicted offenders serving short sentences
          b. Convicted offenders awaiting transfer to prison
Flogging - (Flog) beat (someone) with a whip or stick as a           c. Offenders who have violated their probation or parole
punishment.           d. Defendants who are awaiting trial

Fred T. Wilkinson - last warden of the Alcatraz prison. James V. Bennett - was a leading American penal reformer
and prison
Galley - a low, flat ship with one or more sails and up to three administrator who served as director of the Federal Bureau of
banks Prisons
of oars, chiefly used for warfare or piracy and often manned (FBOP) from 1937 to 1964. He was one of the strongest
by slaves advocates in the
or criminals. movement in persuading Congress to close Alcatraz and
replace it with
Goals of Criminal Sentencing a new maximum-security prison, eventually successful in
          1. Retribution 1963 when
          2. Punishment it closed.
          3. Deterrence
          4. Incapacitation January 2, 1991 - the Bureau of Jail Management and
          5. Rehabilitation Penology was
          6. Reintegration created thru Republic Act 6975 as a line Bureau under the
          7. Restoration Department
of Interior and Local Government.
Golden Age Of Penology - 1870 - 1880
Jean Jacques Villain - pioneered classification to separate
Guillotine - an ancient form of capital punishment by cutting women and
the children from hardened criminals.
head.
Jeremy Bentham - a prison reformer, believed that the
Halfway House - a center for helping former drug addicts, prisoner should
prisoners, suffer a severe regime, but that it should not be detrimental to
psychiatric patients, or others to adjust to life in general the
society. prisoner's health. He designed the Panopticon in 1791.

Hammurabi's Code - an ancient code which contain both John Howard - a philanthropist and the first English prison
civil and criminal reformer.
law. First known codified law prior to Roman law. Better
organized and Justice - crime must be punished by the state as an act of
comprehensive than biblical law. One of its law is lex taliones retributive
(an eye justice, vindication of absolute right and moral law violated by
for an eye) the
criminal.
Hedonism - the ethical theory that pleasure (in the sense of
the lapidation - (Stoning) the act of pelting with stones;
satisfaction of desires) is the highest good and proper aim of punishment
human life. inflicted by throwing stones at the victim.

Hulk - an old ship stripped of fittings and permanently
moored,
especially for use as storage or (formerly) as a prison.
Impalement - (Impaling) a form of capital punishment, is the
penetration
of an organism by an object such as a stake, pole, spear or
hook, by
complete (or partial) perforation of the body, often the central
body mass.
Killing by piercing the body with a spear or sharp pole.
Institutional Corrections - refers to those persons housed in
secure
correctional facilities.
Jail - is defined as a place of confinement for inmates under
investigation
or undergoing trial, or serving short-term sentences
Lex Taliones - an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.
Lockups - Suspects usually stay in a lockup for only 24 to 48
hours.
A suspect may later be transferred from the lockup to the jail.
Mamertine Prison -  was a prison (carcer) located in the
Comitium
in ancient Rome. It was originally created as a cistern for a
spring
in the floor of the second lower level. Prisoners were lowered
through
an opening into the lower dungeon.
Mark System - developed in Australia by Alexander
Maconochie, whereby
credits, or marks, were awarded for good behaviour, a certain
number of
marks being required for release.

          Gaol - old name/term of jail.
          Three Types of Detainees
          1. Those undergoing investigation;
          2. those awaiting or undergoing trial; and
          3. those awaiting final judgment
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Mittimus - is a process issued by the court after conviction to
carry
out the final judgment, such as commanding a prison warden
to hold the
accused, in accordance with the terms of the judgment.
Mittimus is
often attached on the commitment order issued by the court
whenever the PD No. 603 - was promulgated to provide for the care and
convict is to be transferred to prison for service of sentence. treatment of
youth offenders from the time of apprehension up to the
Mortality rate - A measure of the frequency of deaths in a termination
defined of the case.
population during a specified interval of time.
          Under this law, a youth offender is defined as a child,
Mutilation or maiming - an ancient form of punishment, is minor
an act of           or youth who is over nine years but under eighteen years
physical injury that degrades the appearance or function of any of
living           age at the time of the commission of the offence.
body, sometimes causing death.
Pennsylvania and New York - pioneered the penitentiary
National Prisons Association - was organized in Cincinnati movement by
in 1870. developing two competing systems of confinement. The
Pennsylvania
Neo-Classical - children and lunatics should not be punished system and the Auburn system.
as they
can not calculate pleasure and pain.           Pennsylvania System - An early system of U.S.
penology in
          Classical Theory - pain must exceed pleasure to deter           which inmates were kept in solitary cells so that they
crime. could
          All are punished regardless of age, mental condition,           study religious writings, reflect on their misdeeds, and
social           perform handicraft work.(Solitary System).
          status and other circumstances.
          Auburn System - An early system of penology,
          Positivist Theory - criminal is a sick person and should originating
be           at Auburn Penitentiary in New York, under which
          treated and not punished. inmates
          worked and ate together in silence during the day and
          Eclectic - it means selecting the best of various styles were
          or ideas.           placed in solitary cells for the evening.(Congregate
System)
Newgate Prison - not a real prison but an abandoned copper
mine of Penology - a branch of Criminology that deals with prison
Simsbury Connecticut. Inmates are confined underground management
(Black hole and reformation of criminals.
of horrors).
          Poene (latin) - penalty
Operational capacity - the number of inmates that can be           Logos (latin) - science
accommodated
based on a facility's staff, existing programs, and services. Pillory - a wooden framework with holes for the head and
hands, in which
Panopticon - a prison design, allowed a centrally placed offenders were formerly imprisoned and exposed to public
observer to abuse.
survey all the inmates, as prison wings radiated out from this     
central position. Prison -  which refers to the national prisons or penitentiaries
managed
Parole - refers to criminal offenders who are conditionally and supervised by the Bureau of Corrections, an agency under
released the
from prison to serve the remaining portion of their sentence in Department of Justice.
the
community. Prison Hulks - (1776-1857) were ships which were anchored
in the Thames,
Parole and Probation Administration (PPA) - was created and at Portsmouth and Plymouth. Those sent to them were
pursuant to employed in hard
Presidential Decree (P.D.) No.968, as amended, to administer labour during the day and then loaded, in chains, onto the ship
the at night.
probation system. Under Executive Order No. 292, the
Probation Prison Reform - is the attempt to improve conditions inside
Administration was renamed as the Parole and Probation prisons,
Administration, aiming at a more effective penal system.
and given the added function of supervising prisoners who,
after serving Probation - Probation in criminal law is a period of
part of their sentence in jails are released on parole or granted supervision over
conditional pardon. The PPA and the Board of Pardons and an offender, ordered by a court instead of serving time in
Parole are prison.
the agencies involved in the non-institutional treatment of
offenders.           John Augustus - Father of Probation. Augustus was
born in Woburn,
Penal Management - refers to the manner or practice of           Massachusetts in 1785. By 1829, he was a permanent
managing or resident
controlling places of confinement such as jails and prisons.           of Boston and the owner of a successful boot-making
97
business. raising
            public awareness. Reforms such as the separation of
          Father Cook - a chaplain of the Boston Prison visited women and
the courts           children from men and the development of purposeful
          and gained acceptance as an advisor who made activity
enquiries into the           of work or education came about through pressure from
          circumstances of both adult and juvenile offenders           informed people.

Provincial Jail - under the office of the Governor. Where the RA 6975 - sec.60 to 65, created the BJMP.
imposable
penalty for the crime committed is more than six months and          Rank Classification of BJMP
the same was                Director
committed within the municipality, the offender must serve his                Chief Superintendent
or her                Senior Superintendent
sentence in the provincial jail.                Superintendent
               Chief Inspector
          Where the penalty imposed exceeds three years, the                Senior Inspector
offender                Inspector
          shall serve his or her sentence in the penal institutions of                Senior Jail Officer IV
          the Bureau of Corrections.                Senior Jail Officer III
               Senior Jail Officer II
Punishment - the infliction or imposition of a penalty as                Senior Jail Officer I
retribution                Jail Officer III
for an offence.                Jail Officer II
               Jail Officer I
Quakers - (or Friends, as they refer to themselves) are
members of a RA 10575 - The Bureau of Corrections Act of 2013.
family of religious movements collectively known as the
Religious Rack - a form of torture or punishment wherein pain is
Society of Friends. Many Quakers have worked for reform of inflicted to
the criminal to the body through stretching.
justice systems of their day. Quakers believe that people can
always Rated Capacity - the number of beds or inmates assigned by
change: their focus has been on reforms that make positive a rating
change more official to institutions within the jurisdiction.
likely, such as increased opportunities for education, improved
prison Reformation - the object of punishment in a criminal case is
conditions, help with facing up to violent impulses, and much to correct
else. and reform the offender.

          William Penn - founder of the Province of
Pennsylvania, the
          English North American colony and the future
Commonwealth of
          Pennsylvania.was the first great Quaker prison reformer.
          In his ‘Great Experiment’ in Pennsylvania in the 1680s
he
          abolished capital punishment for all crimes except
murder.
          He also stated that ‘prisons shall be workhouses,’ that
bail
          should be allowed for minor offences’, and ‘all prisons
shall
          be free, as to fees, food and lodgings’. He provided for
          rehabilitation, as he stipulated that prisoners should be
          helped to learn a trade, so that they could make an
honest
          living when they were released.
          John Bellers - (1654-1725) was the earliest British
Friend to
          pay serious and systematic attention to social reform. He
          pleaded for the abolition of the death penalty, the first
          time this plea had been made. He argued that criminals
were
          the creation of society itself and urged that when in
prison
          there should be work for prisoners so that they might
return
          to the world with an urge to industry.
          Elizabeth Fry -  (1780-1845) was the most famous of
Quaker
          reformers, though others were equally influential in
98
Reformatory Movement - The reformatory movement was
based on principles
adopted at the 1870 meeting of the National Prison
Association.
          The reformatory was designed:
          a. for younger, less hardened offenders.
          b. based on a military model of regimentation.
          c. with indeterminate terms.
          d. with parole or early release for favorable progress
             in reformation.
Rehabilitation - to restore a criminal to a useful life, to a life
in
which they contribute to themselves and to society.
Retribution - punishment inflicted on someone as vengeance
for a wrong
or criminal act.
Security Level - A designation applied to a facility to describe
the
measures taken, both inside and outside, to preserve security
and custody.
          The simplest security level categorization is:
          a. maximum
          b. medium
          c. minimum
          Maximum - security facilities are characterized by very
          tight internal and external security.
    
          Common security measures include: (Maximum)
          - A high wall or razor-wire fencing
          - Armed-guard towers
          - Electronic detectors
          - External armed patrol
          - A wide, open buffer zone between the outer wall or
fence
            and the community.
          - Restrictions on inmate movement
          - The capability of closing off areas to contain riots or
            disruptions.
          Houses the following inmates:
          - Those sentenced to death
          - Those sentenced with min. 20 years
          - Those remanded inmates/detainees with min. 20 years
sentence
          - Those whose sentences is under review by SC (min.20
years)
          - Those whose sentences is under appeal (min.20 years)
          - Those with pending cases
          - Those who are recidivist
          Ultra-Maximum/Super-Maximum Security Prison -
house notorious
          offenders and problem inmates from other institutions.
          These institutions utilize: Total isolation of inmates,
          Constant lockdowns
          Medium-security institutions - place fewer restrictions
on
          inmate movement inside the facility.
          Characteristics often include:(Medium)
          - Dormitory or barracks-type living quarters
          - No external security wall
          - Barbed wire rather than razor wire
          - Fences and towers that look less forbidding
          Houses the following inmates:
          - Those sentenced to less than 20 years
          Minimum-security prisons - are smaller and more open.
      
          They often house inmates who:
          - Have established records of good behavior
          - Are nearing release
          Characteristics often include:(Minimum)
          - Dormitory or barracks living quarters
          - No fences
          - Some inmates may be permitted to leave during the
day
            to work or study.
          - Some inmates may be granted furloughs
Sing Sing Prison - was the third prison built by New York
State. It is
a maximum security prison.
Sir Evelyn Ruggles Brise - was a British prison administrator
and
reformer, and founder of the Borstal system.
Sir Walter Crofton - the director of Irish prisons. In his
program,
known as the Irish system, prisoners progressed through three
stages of
confinement before they were returned to civilian life. The
first portion
of the sentence was served in isolation. After that, prisoners
were
assigned to group work projects.
Stocks - instrument of punishment consisting of a heavy
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timber frame with
holes in which the feet  and sometimes the hands of an
offender can
be locked.
Three major government functionaries involved in the
Philippine 
correctional system:
          1. DOJ
          2. DILG
          3. DSWD
          DOJ - supervises the national penitentiaries through the
          Bureau of Corrections, administers the parole and
probation
          system through the Parole and Probation
Administration, and
          assists the President in the grant of executive clemency
through
          the Board of Pardons and Parole.
          DILG - supervises the provincial, district, city and
municipal
          jails through the provincial governments and the Bureau
of
          Jail Management and Penology, respectively.
          DSWD - supervises the regional rehabilitation centres
for
          youth offenders through the Bureau of Child and Youth
Welfare.
Transportation - a punishment in which offenders were
transported from
their home nation to one of that nation's colony to work.
Twelve Tables - The Law of the Twelve Tables (Latin: Leges
Duodecim
Tabularum or Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient legislation
that stood
at the foundation of Roman law. Established basic procedural
rights
for all Roman citizens as against one another
Underground Cistern - a reservoir for storing liquids,
underground tank
for storing water. This was also used prison in ancient times.
Utilitarianism - a tradition stemming from the late 18th- and
19th-century
English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and
John Stuart Mill
that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and
wrong if
it tends to produce the reverse of happiness—not just the
happiness of
the performer of the action but also that of everyone affected
by it.
Voltaire - believes that fear of shame is a deterrent to crime.
Walnut Street Jail - opened in 1790 in Philadelphia.
Considered the 1st
state prison. Inmates labored in solitary cells and received
large
doses of religious training.
Workhouses - European forerunners of the modern U.S.
prison, where
offenders were sent to learn discipline and regular work
habits.
Zebulon Reed Brockway - was a penologist and is sometimes
regarded as
the Father of prison reform and  Father of American Parole in
the
United States.
Non-Institutional Corrections
Board of Pardons and Parole - was created pursuant to Act
No. 4103,
as amended. It is the intent of the law to uplift and redeem
valuable
human material to economic usefulness and to prevent
unnecessary
and excessive deprivation of personal liberty.
      Functions
      1. To grant parole to qualified prisoners;
      2. To recommend to the President the grant of pardon and
other
         forms of executive clemency;
      3. To authorize the transfer of residence of parolees and
         pardonees, order their arrest and recommitment, or grant
         their final release and discharge.
      Basis for Grant of Parole
      1. The prisoner is fit to be released;
      2. There is a reasonable probability that, if released, he
         or she will live and remain at liberty without violating
         the law; and
      3. His or her release will not be incompatible with the
          welfare of society.
      How May Executive Clemency Be Exercised?
      1. Reprieve
      2. Absolute pardon
      3. Conditional pardon
      4. Commutation of sentence.
      Commutation – refers to the reduction of the duration of a
      prison sentence of a prisoner.
      Commutation Allowed When:
      1. person is over 70 years old
      2. 8 justices fail to reach a decision affirming the
         death penalty
      Absolute Pardon - An act of grace, proceeding from the
power
      entrusted with the execution of the laws, Exempts the
individual
      from the penalty of the crime he has committed.
      Conditional Pardon - If delivered and accepted, it is a
contract
      between the executive and the convict that the former will
      release the latter upon compliance with the condition.
            Example of a condition:
            Not to violate any of the penal laws of the country
again.
      Reprieve - refers to the deferment of the implementation of
      the sentence for an interval of time; it does not annul the
      sentence but merely postpones or suspends its execution
      Basis for Grant of Executive Clemency
      The BPP recommends to the President the grant of
executive
      clemency when any of the following circumstances are
present:
      1. The trial or appellate court recommended in its decision
         the grant of executive clemency for the prisoner
      2. Under the peculiar circumstances of the case, the
penalty
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         imposed is too harsh compared to the  crime committed
      3. Offender qualifies as a youth offender at the time of the
         commission of the offence
      4. Prisoner is seventy years old and above;
      5. Prisoner is terminally-ill;
      6. Alien prisoners where diplomatic considerations and
amity
         among nations necessitate review and
      7. Other similar or analogous circumstances whenever the
         interest of justice will be served thereby
      When Applications for Executive Clemency will not be
      Favourably Acted Upon by The Board of Pardon and
Parole
      1. Convicted of evasion of service of sentence;
      2. Who violated the conditions of their conditional pardon;
      3. Who are habitual delinquents or recidivists;
      4. Convicted of kidnapping for ransom;
      5. Convicted of violation of the Dangerous Drugs Act of
1972
         and the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002;
      6. Convicted of offences committed under the influence of
drugs
      7. Whose release from prison may constitute a danger to
society.
      Issues Confronting The Philippine Corrections System
      1. Overcrowding of Certain Prison Institutions/Jails
      2. Fragmented Set-Up of the Corrections System
      3. Lack of Information Technology Systems and Expertise
      4. Lack of/Inadequate Training - lack of awareness and
         understanding by some prison/jail officials and staff on
         the rights of inmates.
      Petitions for parole shall be addressed to the Chairman or
to
      the Executive Director of the Board. However, the Board
may,
      motu proprio , consider cases for parole, commutation of
      sentence or conditional pardon of deserving prisoners
whenever
      the interest of justice will be served thereby.
      Minimum Requirements A Prisoner Must Meet Before
Petitions for
      executive clemency may be reviewed.
          For Commutation of Sentence
          1. The prisoner shall have served at least one-third (1/3)
             of the minimum of his indeterminate and/or definite
             sentence or the aggregate minimum of his
indeterminate
             and/or definite sentences.
          2. At least ten (10) years for prisoners sentenced to
             Reclusion Perpetua or Life imprisonment for crimes
or
             offenses committed before January 1, 1994.
          3. At least twelve (12) years for prisoners whose
sentences
             were adjusted to a definite prison term of forty (40)
             years in accordance with the provisions of Article 70
             of the Revised Penal Code, as amended.
          4. At least fifteen (15) years for prisoners convicted of
             heinous crimes as defined in Republic Act No. 7659
and
             other special laws committed on or after January 1,
1994
             and sentenced to one or more Reclusion Perpetua or
Life
             imprisonment.
          5. At least twenty (20) years in case of one (1) or more
             Death penalty/penalties, which was/were
automatically
             reduced or commuted to one (1) or more Reclusion
Perpetua
             or Life imprisonment.
           For Conditional Pardon
           The prisoner shall have served at least one-half (1/2) of
           the minimum of his original indeterminate and/or
definite
           sentence. However, in the case of a prisoner who is
convicted
           of a heinous crime as defined in Republic Act No. 7659
and
           other special laws, he shall have served at least one-half
           (1/2) of the maximum of his original indeterminate
sentence
           before his case may be reviewed for conditional
pardon.
          For Absolute Pardon
          After he has served his maximum sentence or granted
final
          release and discharge or court termination of probation.
          However, the Board may consider a petition for absolute
          pardon even before the grant of final release and
discharge
          under the provisions of Section 6 of Act No. 4103, as
amended,
          as when the petitioner: (1) is seeking an
appointive/elective
          public position or reinstatement in the government
service;
          (2) needs medical treatment abroad which is not
available
          locally; (3) will take any government examination; or
          (4) is emigrating.
         Prisoners who escaped or evaded service of sentence are
not
         eligible for executive clemency for a period of one (1)
year
         from the date of their last recommitment to prison or
         conviction for evasion of service of sentence.
Bureau of Correction - Where the penalty imposed exceeds
three years,
the offender shall serve his or her sentence in the penal
institutions
of the BuCor.
Carpeta - refers to the institutional record of an inmate which
consists of his mittimus or commitment order issued by the
Court after
conviction, the prosecutor's information and the decisions of
the
trial court and the appellate court, if any; certificate of non-
appeal,
certificate of detention and other pertinent documents of the
case.
District Jail - is a cluster of small jails, each having a monthly
average population of ten or less inmates, and is located in the
vicinity of the court.
      Jail - is defined as a place of confinement for inmates
under
      investigation or undergoing trial, or serving short-term
      sentences.
           - Jails include provincial, district, city and municipal
             jails managed and supervised by the Provincial
Government
             and the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology
(BJMP),
             respectively, which are both under the Department of
the
             Interior and Local Government.
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      Municipal and city prisoners are committed to municipal,
city
      or district jails managed by the BJMP.
      Prison -  refers to the national prisons or penitentiaries
      managed and supervised by the Bureau of Corrections, an
agency
      under the Department of Justice.
             - prison refers to the national prisons or penitentiaries
               managed and supervised by the Bureau of
Corrections,
               an agency under the Department of Justice.
      Provincial Jail - Where the imposable penalty for the
crime
      committed is more than six months and the same was
committed
      within the municipality, the offender must serve his or her
      sentence in the provincial jail which is under the Office of
      the Governor.
Executive Clemency - refers to Reprieve, Absolute Pardon,
Conditional
Pardon with or without Parole Conditions and Commutation
of Sentence
as may be granted by the President of the Philippines.
Indeterminate Sentence Law
     The indeterminate sentence is composed of:
     1. a MAXIMUM taken from the penalty imposable under
the penal code
     2. a MINIMUM taken from the penalty next lower to that
fixed in the code.
     The law does not apply to certain offenders:
     1. Persons convicted of offense punished with death
penalty or
        life imprisonment.
     2. Those convicted of treason, conspiracy or proposal to
commit
        treason.
     3. Those convicted of misprision of treason, rebellion,
sedition
        or espionage.
     4. Those convicted of piracy.
     5. Those who are habitual delinquents.
     6. Those who shall have escaped from confinement or
evaded sentence.
     7. Those who violated the terms of conditional pardon
granted to
        them by the Chief Executive.
     8. Those whose maximum term of imprisonment does not
exceed one year.
     9. Those who, upon the approval of the law, had been
sentenced
        by final judgment.
     10. Those sentenced to the penalty of destierro or
suspension.
     Purpose of the law: to uplift and redeem valuable human
material
     and prevent unnecessary and excessive deprivation of
liberty
     and economic usefulness
          - It is necessary to consider the criminal first as an
            individual, and second as a member of the society.
          - The law is intended to favor the defendant, particularly
            to shorten his term of imprisonment, depending upon
his
            behavior and his physical, mental and moral record as
a
            prisoner, to be determined by the Board of
Indeterminate
            Sentence.
     The settled practice is to give the accused the benefit of the
     law even in crimes punishable with death or life
imprisonment
     provided the resulting penalty, after considering the
attending
     circumstances, is reclusion temporal or less.
     ISL does not apply to destierro. ISL is expressly granted to
     those who are sentenced to imprisonment exceeding 1 year.
     Procedure For Determining The Maximum and Minimum
Sentence
          - It consists of a maximum and a minimum instead of a
single
            fixed penalty.
          - Prisoner must serve the minimum before he is eligible
            for parole.
          - The period between the minimum and maximum is
indeterminate
            in the sense that the prisoner may be exempted from
serving
            said indeterminate period in whole or in part.
          - The maximum is determined in any case punishable
under the
            RPC in accordance with the rules and provisions of
said
            code exactly as if the ISL had never been enacted.
          - Apply first the effect of privileged mitigating
            circumstances then consider the effects of aggravating
and
            ordinary mitigating circumstances.
          - The minimum depends upon the court’s discretion
with the
            limitation that it must be within the range of the
penalty
            next lower in degree to that prescribed by the Code for
the
            offense committed.
          - NOTE: A minor who escaped from confinement in the
reformatory
            is entitled to the benefits of the ISL because his
confinement
            is not considered imprisonment.
Parole – The suspension of the sentence of the convict after
serving
the minimum term of the intermediate penalty, without being
granted a
pardon, prescribing the terms upon which the sentence shall be
suspended.
       - May be given after the prisoner has served the minimum
         penalty; is granted by the Board of Pardons and Parole
under the
         provisions of the Indeterminate Sentence Law.
      Disqualification for Parole - The following prisoners shall
      not be granted parole:
      1. Those convicted of an offense punished with Death
penalty,
         Reclusion Perpetua or Life imprisonment;
      2. Those convicted of treason, conspiracy or proposal to
commit
102
         treason or espionage;
      3. Those convicted of misprision of treason, rebellion,
sedition
         or coup d'etat;
      4. Those convicted of piracy or mutiny on the high seas or
         Philippine waters;
      5. Those who are habitual delinquents i.e. those who,
within a
         period of ten (10) years from the date of release from
prison
         or last conviction of the crimes of serious or less serious
         physical injuries, robbery, theft, estafa and falsification,
         are found guilty of any of said crimes a third time or
oftener;
      6. Those who escaped from confinement or evaded
sentence;
      7. Those who were granted Conditional Pardon and
violated any
         of the terms thereof;
      8. Those whose maximum term of imprisonment does not
exceed one
         (1) year or those with definite sentence;
      9. Those suffering from any mental disorder as certified by
a
         government psychiatrist/psychologist;
      10.Those whose conviction is on appeal;
      11.Those who have pending criminal case/s.
      Special Factors - The Board may give special
consideration to
      the recommendation for commutation of sentence or
conditional
      pardon whenever any of the following circumstances are
present
      1. Youthful offenders;
      2. Prisoners who are sixty (60) years old and above;
      3. Physical disability such as when the prisoner is
bedridden,
         a deaf mute, a leper, a cripple or is blind or similar
         disabilities;
      4. Serious illness and other life-threatening disease as
         certified by a government physician;
      5. Those prisoners recommended for the grant of executive
clemency
         by the trial/appellate court as stated in the decision;
      6. Alien prisoners where diplomatic considerations and
amity
         between nations necessitate review;
      7. Circumstances which show that his continued
imprisonment will
         be inhuman or will pose a grave danger to the life of the
         prisoner or his co-inmates; and,
      8. Such other similar or analogous circumstances
whenever the
         interest of justice will be served thereby.
Prison Record - refers to information concerning an inmate's
personal
circumstances, the offense he committed, the sentence
imposed, the
criminal case number in the trial and appellate courts, the date
he
commenced serving his sentence, the date he was received for
confinement, the place of confinement, the date of expiration
of
the sentence, the number of previous convictions, if any, and
his
behavior or conduct while in prison.
Probation - is a disposition under which an accused, after
conviction
and sentence, is released subject to conditions imposed by the
court
and to the supervision of a probation officer.

      Progress Report - refers to the report submitted by the
      Probation and Parole Officer on the conduct of the
      parolee/pardonee while under supervision.
      Infraction Report -  refers to the report submitted by the
      Probation and Parole Officer on violations committed by a
      parolee/pardonee of the conditions of his release on parole
or
      conditional pardon while under supervision.
      Summary Report - refers to the final report submitted by
the
      Probation and Parole Officer on his supervision of a
      parolee/pardonee as basis for the latter's final release
      and discharge.
Sentence - in law, is the penalty imposed by the court in a
criminal
case against a person, known as the “accused”, who is found
guilty of
committing the crime charged.
Youth Offender - is defined as a child, minor or youth who is
over
nine years but under eighteen years of age at the time of the
commission of the offense.
SOCIOLOGY OF CRIMES AND
ETHIS
Introduction To Criminology Reviewer
Abrahamsen - In his crime and human mind, 1945, explained
the causes
of crime by his formula "Criminal Behavior equals
criminalistic
tendencies plus crime inducing situation divided by the
persons
mental or emotional resistance to temptation.
Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874) - was a Belgian
mathematician, astronomer
and statistician, he helped to establish the cartographic school
and
positivist schools of criminology which made extensive use of
statistical
techniques. Through statistical analysis, Quetelet gained
insight into
the relationships between crime and other social factors.
Among his
findings were strong relationships between age and crime, as
well
as gender and crime.
Alienist - a doctor specializing in the treatment of mental
illness.
An expert witness in a sanity trial.
Andrew Von Hirsch -  developed the notion of just desert.
           Just desert - has five guidelines; 1. treat legal
           punishment as a desert; 2. avoid doing harm; 3.
sentence
           delinquency, not the delinquent; 4. interfere
parsimoniously;
           5. restrain efforts to prevent crime; modern day
           utilitarianism.
Anger - is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward
someone or
103
something you feel has deliberately done you wrong.
Anomie - is a condition in which society provides little moral
guidance to individuals.
Anthropology - is the study of humans, past and present.
Atavism - The return of a trait or recurrence of previous
behavior
after a period of absence.
Atavistic Anomaly - physically their throwbacks on the
evolutionary
scale to more primitive times, where people were savages.
August Aichhorn - is considered to be one of the founders of
psychoanalytic
education. He is remembered for his work with juvenile
delinquent and
disadvantaged youth. He believed that imposed discipline and
suppression
which were practiced in traditional reformatories yielded few
positive results.
Autophobia - is the specific phobia of isolation; a morbid fear
of
being egotistical, or a dread of being alone or isolated.
          Monophobia - is an acute fear of being alone and
having to
          cope without a specific person, or perhaps any person,
in
          close proximity.
Biometrics - is a technique for identification of people that
uses
body characteristics or behavioural traits and is increasingly
being
used instead of or in conjunction with other forms of
identification
based on something you have (e.g. ID card) or something you
know
(e.g. password or PIN).
Bromberg - (crime and mind 1948) criminality is the result of
emotional immaturity. A person is emotionally matured when
he has
learned to control his emotion effectively and who live at
peace
with himself and in harmony with the standard of conduct
which are
acceptable to society. Am emotionally immature person rebels
against
rules and regulations, tends to engage in unusual activities and
experience a feeling of guilt due to inferkiority complex.
Brotherhood - an association, society, or community of
people linked
by a common interest, religion, or trade.
Cesare Beccaria - founders of the classical school of thought
within
criminology.
Cesare Lombroso - an Italian criminologist, founder of the
Italian
school of criminology, formulated the theory of
anthropological
criminology, essentially stated that criminality was inherited,
and
that someone "born criminal" could be identified by physical
defects,
which confirmed a criminal as savage, or atavistic.
Charles Darwin - wrote Origin of Species in 1859, kicked off
the
scientific revolution, father of evolution.
Charles Goring - author of the influential work The English
convict:
a statistical study.
          The English convict: a statistical study - It was first
          published in 1913, and set out to establish whether there
          were any significant physical or mental abormalities
among
          the criminal classes that set them apart from ordinary
men,
          as suggested by Cesare Lombroso. He ultimately
concluded
          that "the physical and mental constitution of both
criminal
          and law-abiding persons, of the same age, stature, class,
          and intelligence, are identical. There is no such thing as
          an anthropological criminal type."
Classical School - based on free will; able to make decisions
in a
logical way; assumes people are hedonistic.
Conflict Of Culture Theory - by Thorstein Sellin. It was
emphasized
in this theory that the multiplicity of conflicting cultures is the
principal source of social disorganization. The high crime and
delinquency rates of certain ethnic or racial group is explained
by
their exposure to diverse and incongruent standards and codes
of
larger society.
Containment Theory - criminality is brought about by the
inability of
the group to contain behavior of its member and that of
effective
containment of the individual into the value system and
structure of
society will minimize crime.
Copycat Crime - A copycat crime is a criminal act that is
modelled or
inspired by a previous crime that has been reported in the
media or
described in fiction.
Criminaloid - (from the word "criminal" and suffix -oid,
meaning
criminal-like) is a person who projects a respectable, upright
facade,
in an attempt to conceal a criminal personality. This type, first
defined by Cesare Lombroso in the later editions of his 1876
work
"the Criminal man".
Criminal Personality - 1. the roots of criminality lie in the
way in
which people think and make decisions; 2. criminals think and
act
differently from others, even at a very young age; 3. criminals
are
irresponsible, 4. deterministic explanations of crime result
from
believing the criminal who is seeking sympathy.
          Anti-Social Personality - characterized by patterns of
          irresponsible and antisocial behavior, as well as
          aggressive tendencies.
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Cyril Burt - gave the theory of general emotionality. An
excess of the
submissive instinct account for tendency of many criminals to
be
weak-willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may be due to
the
impulse of fear.
Determinism - belief that individual behavior is beyond the
control
of the individual; opposite of free will.
Differential Association Theory - Criminal behavior is
learnable and
learned in interaction with other deviant persons. Through this
association, they learn not only techniques of certain crimes,
but
also specific rationale, motives and so on.
          Edwin Sutherland - Differential association theory was
          Sutherland's major sociological contribution to
criminology;
          similar in importance to strain theory and social control
          theory. These theories all explain deviance in terms of
the
          individual's social relationships.
          Imitation-Suggestion Theory -  by Gabriel Tarde,
Delinquency
          and crime pattern are learned and adopted. The learning
          process either be conscious type copying or unconscious
          copying of confronting pattern of behavior.
Differential-Social Disorganization Theory - This is
sometimes called
Social Disorganization. There is social disorganization when
there is
breakdown, changes, conflict of values between the new and
the old,
when there is reduced influence of the social institution over
behavior
and when there is declining influence of the solid moral and
ethical
front.
Electroencephalogram - recording of electrical activity of the
brain;
measures it.
Emile Durkheim - father of sociology. He is a Frenchman,
Chief among
his claims is that society is a sui generis reality, or a reality
unique to itself and irreducible to its composing parts. It is
created when individual consciences interact and fuse together
to
create a synthetic reality that is completely new and greater
than
the sum of its parts.
E. O. Wilson - put forth a theory that differed from earlier
theories,
believed that biological factors affect the perception and
learning
of social behaviors.
Etiology of Crime - causes of crime.
Eugenics - the science of improving a human population by
controlled
breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable
characteristics.
Developed largely by Francis Galton as a method of
improving the human race.
Free Will - the idea that human beings are free to choose one
behavior           Jonathan Edwards Family - opposite of jukes Family,
or action over another.           descendants are good people and attained prominence in
          various fields.
Frustration - the feeling of being upset or annoyed, especially
because Kallikak Family - A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-
of inability to change or achieve something. Mindedness was a
1912 book by the American psychologist and eugenicist
General Deterrence - involves the effects of legal Henry H. Goddard.
punishment on The work was an extended case study of Goddard's for the
those persons who have not suffered. inheritance of
"feeble-mindedness," a general category referring to a variety
          Specific Deterrence -  involves the effects of legal of mental
punishment disabilities including mental retardation, learning disabilities,
          on those who have suffered it. and
mental illness. Goddard concluded that a variety of mental
Genetics - the branch in biology that deals with heredity. traits were
hereditary and society should limit reproduction by people
Healy - (individual delinquency) crime is the expression of the possessing
mental these traits.
content of the individual. Frustration of the individual causes
emotional discomfort, personality demands removal of pain Karyotype Studies - examination and comparison of
and the chromosomes.
pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is the start of the
crime delinquency of an individual. Kleptomania - a recurrent urge to steal, typically without
regard
Gianelt Index of Criminality - this crimino-synthesis for need or profit.
explains the
reason why a person may commit a crime or inhibit himself Lawrence Kohlberg - pathological jealousy, quick anger
from doing so. reactions, and
the bearing of grudges.
Hedonism - pleasure or the absence of pain is the soul good in
life. Limbic System - a set of areas in the human brain that
integrate a
Henry Maudsley - mental illness and criminal behavior went wide variety of messages from the senses and control goal-
hand in oriented
hand, crime prone traits were inherited. response to environmental and internal stimuli.

Incapacitation - when they are locked up behind bars, they Megalomania - is a psychopathological condition
can't commit characterized by
anymore crimes. delusional fantasies of power, relevance, omnipotence, and by
inflated
Italian School Of Criminology - Founded in the end of the self-esteem.
19th century
by Cesare lombroso and 2 of his disciples, Enrico Ferri and Mens Rea - The state of mind indicating culpability which is
Rafael required
Garofalo. by statute as an element of a crime.(Latin) guilty mind.

          Enrico Ferri - an italian criminologist, student of Miller Lower-Class Culture Conflict Theory - citizens who
Lombroso, obey the
          His work served as the basis for Argentina’s penal code street rules of lower class life find themselves in conflict with
of 1921. the dominant culture.
          His research led to him postulating theories calling for
crime Moral/Intellectual Stages - deals with how adults morally
          prevention methods to be the mainstay of law represent a
enforcement, as reason about the world that they live in.
          opposed to punishment of criminals after their crimes
had Morphology - deals with the form and structure of an
          taken place. organism or any
of its parts; measuring different parts of the human head; there
          Rafael Garofalo - often regarded as the father of is
Criminology. a meaningful relationship between certain types of physical
          He is a student of Cesare Lombroso. features
and personality.
James Q. Wilson -  advocate for special deterrence;
ultilitarian. Neo-Classical Perspective - stressed that the legal system
should
Jeremy Bentham - founders of the classical school of thought focus exclusively on doing justice; respond to the crime; the
within criminal made the rational decision.
criminology. He is a lawyer.
Neurosis - condition characterized by anxiety, impulses may
Jukes Family -  family of criminals. Descendants are breakthrough and take control.
criminally minded
and committed crimes.           Amnesia - a partial or total loss of memory. Origin late
105
18th
          century: from Greek amnēsia ‘forgetfulness.’
          Delusion - a belief that is not true : a false idea. : a
          false idea or belief that is caused by mental illness.
          Dementia praecox (a "premature dementia" or
"precocious madness")
          refers to a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder
          characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually
          beginning in the late teens or early adulthood. It is a
term
          first used in 1891 in this Latin form by Arnold Pick
(1851–1924),
          a professor of psychiatry at the German branch of
Charles
          University in Prague.
          Psychosis - severe form of mental disturbance, behavior
          impairs or gets in the way of everyday focus, Id takes
          control.
          Schizophrenia - often linked to criminal behavior,
          incoherent thought process, thinking is scrambled and
may
          have split personalities.
          Paranoia - pathological jealousy, quick anger reactions,
          and the bearing of grudges.
Penal Couple - is defined as the relationship between
perpetrator and
victim of a crime. That is, both are involved in the event.
Penitentiary -  repent of wrongdoing and the will to atone for
it.
Phobia - an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to
something.
Phrenology - study of the shape of the skull and bumps of
facial features. The study of facial features.
          Craniology - the scientific study of the shape and size
of
          the skulls of different human races. Another term for
          Phrenology.
Psychopatic Personality – This is the most important cause
of
criminality among youthful offenders and habitual criminals.
It is
characterized by infantile level or rescind, lack of conscience,
deficient feeling of affection to others and aggression to
environment
and other people.
Physiognomy - to judge, interpret, or assess a person's
character or
personality from his or her outer appearance, especially the
face.
This study and science was used by Beccaria (1764) and
lavater (1175)
to discover the character of a person.
Positivist School - based on determinism; human behavior is
controlled
by science.
          Positivism - the belief that the classical school of
          thought is wrong in explaining what causes crime
because
          they failed to explain adequately the why portion.
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          Cesare Lombroso - father of positivism; medical
doctor who
          wanted to see whether criminals were physically
different,
          believed in atavistic anomaly.
Psychiatry - the study and treatment of mental illness,
emotional
disturbance, and abnormal behavior.
Psychoanalytic - the analysis of human behavior. First laid
out by
Sigmund Freud in the 19th century.
Recidivism - elapse into criminal behavior; where you return
back into
the criminal system.
Regression - a return to an earlier stage of life or a supposed
previous
life, especially through hypnosis or mental illness, or as a
means of
escaping present anxieties.
Samuel Yochelson - convinced that there is such thing as a
criminal
personality.
Schools of Thought - devices for organizing fundamentally
differing
views of human nature and relating them to issues surrounding
crime
and its control.
Sexual Deviation - a type of mental disorder characterized by
a
preference for or obsession with unusual sexual practices.
          Exhibitionism - a mental condition characterized by the
          compulsion to display one's genitals in public.
          Fetishism - is sexual attraction to objects, situations, or
          body parts not traditionally viewed as sexual.
          Paraphilia - a condition characterized by abnormal
sexual
          desires, typically involving extreme or dangerous
activities.
          Pedophilia - sexual feelings directed toward children.
          Sadomasochism - is the giving or receiving of pleasure,
          sometimes sexual, from acts involving the infliction or
          reception of pain or humiliation.
          Sadism - the tendency to derive pleasure, especially
sexual
          gratification, from inflicting pain, suffering, or
humiliation
          on others.
          Transvestism (also called transvestitism) - is the
practice
          of dressing and acting in a style or manner traditionally
          associated with another gender.
          Masochism - the tendency to derive pleasure, especially
          sexual gratification, from one's own pain or humiliation.
          Voyeurism - Watching others while naked or having
sex,
          generally without their knowledge; also known as
scopophilia
          or scoptophilia.
 Utilitarianism - the belief that legal punishments serve two
          Zoophilia - is a paraphilia involving cross-species vital
sexual functions: 1. deterring persons from committing the crimes
          activity between human and non-human animals or a and
fixation 2. protecting society from those wholes acts threaten the social
          on such practice. order;
the greatest good for the greatest number.
Shaw and Mckay's Ecological Theory - crime is a product of
transitional William Sheldon - an American psychologist who created the
neighborhoods that manifest social disorganization and value field of
conflict. somatotype and constitutional psychology that tried to
correlate body
Sigmund Freud - austrian psychiatrist; his approach: crime is types with behavior,intelligence, and social hierarchy through
but his
one form of deviance. Ivy league nude posture photos.

          ID - contains the inner world of the individual's inborn                                Temperament

          instincts and reflexes.           Viscerotonic - Coined by WH Sheldon, from viscera + -
o- +
          Ego - represents the real world of the individual's           tonic. Designating a personality type characterised as
          conscious reason and common sense.           sociable, easy-going, and comfort-seeking.

          Superego - inner world of the individual's ideal
          expectations and conscience; the conceptions of what
the
          individual considers to be morally good.
Social Bond Theory - relation between social factors and
individual
activities; individuals become free to commit crimes when
their ties
to society are broken.
Spiritual School - based on determinism; human behavior is
determined
by God or demons or Satan.
Stanton Samenow -  convinced that there is such thing as a
criminal personality.
Thomas Hobbes - he believed that man is egotistical and self-
centered;
if he thought he could get away with it, then he would commit
the crime.
Type of Physique
          Ectomorph - a person with a lean and delicate body
build. Are
          tall and thin and less social and more intellectual.
          Mesomorph - a person with a compact and muscular
body build.
          Have well-developed muscles and an athletic
appearance. They
          are active, aggressive, sometimes violent, and more
likely
          to become criminals.
          Endomorph - a person with a soft round body build and
a Avoidant Personality Disorder - experience long-standing
          high proportion of fat tissue. Have heavy builds and are
          slow moving. They arte known for lethargic behavior
          rendering them unlikely to commit violent crime and
more
          willing to engage in less strenuous criminal activities
such
          as fencing stolen property.
Typology of Crime - involve classifying offenses or offenders
according
to some criteria of relatedness or similarity.
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          Somatonic - active, dynamic; walks, talks, gestures
          assertively and behaves aggressively.
          Cerebrotonic - Introvert and full of functional
complaints
          to allergies, skin troubles, chronic fatigue, insomia,
          insensitive skin, and to noise, shrinks from crowds.
XYY Syndrome - these people are very tall and
disproportionate;
more inclined to commit crimes.
Human Behavior and Crisis Management
Reviewer
Automatic Cues or Fixed Action Responses - these are
responses that
are usually found or used among animals when you instruct
them to do
something. For example, in an animal show, animal trainers
use a
whistle to elicit a specific response from an animal.
Antisocial Personality Disorder - is characterized by a long-
standing
pattern of a disregard for other people’s rights, often crossing
the
line and violating those rights. It usually begins in childhood
or
as a teen and continues into their adult lives.
Anxiety - a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease about
something
with an uncertain outcome.
Apathy - lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern.
feelings of
inadequacy and are extremely sensitive to what others think
about
them. These feelings of inadequacy leads to the person to be
socially
inhibited and feel socially inept. Because of these feelings of
inadequacy and inhibition, the person with avoidant
personality
disorder will seek to avoid work, school and any activities that
involve socializing or interacting with others.
Borderline Personality Disorder - (BPD) is a pervasive
pattern of
instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image and
emotions.
People with borderline personality disorder are also usually
very
impulsive, oftentimes demonstrating self-injurious behaviors
(risky
sexual behaviors, cutting, suicide attempts).
Compulsion - A sudden and irresistible force compelling a
person to
do some action.
Conditions and Factors that surrounds and influences an
individual           notes, and ensuring that the Primary Negotiator sees and
that can cause certain behavior patterns.
1. Environment
2. Society                                                                associated with the suspect to compile a criminal history
3. Heredity
4. Learning
Counter-Surveillance - any method either physical or
technical
employed by the offender(s) to detect Law Enforcement
involvement
or the use of surveillance.
Courier - the person(s) delivering the concessions(s), which,
purports
to be, that being demanded by the offenders.
Criminal Behavior - is intentional behavior that violates a
criminal
code; intentional in that it did not occurs accidentally or
under duress.
Criminal Psychiatry - a branch of psychiatry that deals with
the
evaluations, prevention and cure of criminal behavior.
Criminal Psychology - a branch of psychology that deals with
the study
of behavior and mental processes of the criminal.
Criminal Siege - is a result of a perpetration of crime that
went
wrong and the criminals were trapped or cornered by law
enforcers. In
many cases, hostage taking is violent and unplanned.
Criminal Sociology - a branch of sociology that studies about
the
criminal and to its relation to the social structure of
organization
of society as well the process on how the criminal learn the
behavior,
both criminal and non-criminal.
Crisis - Any situation that is threatening or could threaten to
harm
people or property, seriously interrupt operations, damage
reputation
and/or negatively impact the bottom line.
Crisis Intervention - focuses on studying an individual’s life
in
order to defuse the destructive effects of the unusual stress
being
experienced, and then assisting the individual in crisis to go
back
to his or her normal condition before the crisis.
Crisis Management - is the expert handling of a situation to
reduce or
eliminate danger or destruction.
108
Crisis Negotiation - the use of communication techniques and
strategies
to influence a person to change his/her behavior in accordance
with
goals within legal, ethical and moral constraints.
      Crisis Negotiation Team - Composition
      1. Primary Negotiator - actually communicates with the
subject.
      2. Secondary Negotiator - (Backup) assists the primary
negotiator
         by offering advice, monitoring the negotiations, keeping
         hears everything in the proper perspective.
      3. Intelligence Liaison/Recorder - interviews individuals
         and a history of mental illness, as well as to gather other
         relevant information. He is also in charge of the
recordings
         of all conversations.
      4. Negotiation Team Leader - the most senior member of
the team
         act as a leader. His primary responsibility is to act as a
         buffer between command personnel and the Negotiation
Team.
         He/She advises the Incident/On-Scene Commander on
the best
         negotiating strategies and co-ordinates the process with
the
         SWAT and the forward command resources.
      5. Board Negotiator - he/she maintains a visual display of
all
         information relevant to the negotiations, i.e. deadlines,
         demands and details of persons known to be in the
stronghold.
Deadlock - means no deal and no agreement—in other words,
failure of
the negotiation.
Debriefing - shall be conducted after each positive police
action to
evaluate and study operational lapses. Proper assessment of
the
situation is an important key to a successful operation during
hostage-taking scenarios. Debriefing also assists in
determining and
establishing best practice.
Delusion - is a belief held with strong conviction despite
superior
evidence to the contrary.
Dependent Personality Disorder - is characterized by a long-
standing
need for the person to be taken care of and a fear of being
abandoned
or separated from important individuals in his or her life. This
leads the person to engage in dependent and submissive
behaviors
that are designed to elicit care-giving behaviors in others. The
dependent behavior may be see as being “clingy” or “clinging
on”
to others, because the person fears they can’t live their lives
without the help of others.
Depressive and Suicidal - is an individual who has no contact
with
reality. He/She is characterized by the following:
a. Irritable depressed mood
b. Diminished interests
c. Weight loss and fatigue
d. Insomnia or hypersomnia
e. Psychomotor agitation or retardation
f. Feeling of worthlessness and guilt
g. Lack of concentration
h. Thoughts of death.
Deviant Behavior - a behavior that deviates from the norms
and
standards of the society. It is not criminal behavior but it has
the tendency to become abnormal behavior, it will become
criminals
when it violates the provision of the criminal law.
Emphaty - is the ability to understand and share the feelings
of
another. It is where the negotiator tries to perceive the
emotional
state or condition of the subject and feedback a response that
demonstrates his/her understanding of the subject.
Hematophobia - an abnormal and persistent fear of blood.
Histrionic Personality Disorder - is characterized by a long-
standing
pattern of attention seeking behavior and extreme
emotionality.
Someone with histrionic personality disorder wants to be the
center
of attention in any group of people, and feel uncomfortable
when they
are not. While often lively, interesting and sometimes
dramatic, they
have difficulty when people aren’t focused exclusively on
them.
Hostage - an individual who has been held by the perpetrators
against
his/her will.
Hostage-taker(s) - an individual or group of person who hold
another
person(s) against his/her/their will as bargaining chips for
purposes
of demanding certain amount of money, self-protection,
thwarting any
police action, or pursuing personal interest or that of the
general
public.
Hostage Taking - is a situation that set of circumstances
wherein a
suspected law violator is holding a person in captive by the
use of
force or threat of violence.
Hot Debrief - short debriefing conducted by negotiating team
prior to
turn over to another set of negotiating team.
Human Behavior - is refers to the manner, the way in which a
human
react to his environment.
Illusion - is a distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain
normally organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. Though
illusions distort reality, they are generally shared by most
people.
Impulsion - a strong urge to do something.
Incident/On-Scene Commander - the senior officer in
command of the
incident.
Inside Agent - a person who is in any advantageous position
109
(e.g.
employed by the victim or victim’s organization) which
allows them
to gather intelligence or carry out counter surveillance on
behalf
of the offenders.
Intermediary - any person authorized by the Incident/On-
Scene
Commander to communicate with the hostage-takers either
upon the
request of the latter or to facilitate smooth communication
between
the designated negotiators and the hostage-takers. All actions
of the
intermediary are supervised by the negotiators.
Kidnapper(s) - an individual or group of persons who
kidnapped or held
another person against his/her will as bargaining chips for
purposes of
demanding certain amount of money, self-protection,
thwarting any
police action, or pursuing personal interest.
Learned - an operant behavior which involves cognitive
adaptation that
enhances the human being’s ability to cope with changes in
the
environment and to manipulate the environment.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder - is characterized by a
long-standing
pattern of grandiosity (either in fantasy or actual behavior), an
overwhelming need for admiration, and usually a complete
lack of empathy
toward others. People with this disorder often believe they are
of
primary importance in everybody’s life or to anyone they
meet.
Negotiation - to communicate on a matter of disagreement
between two
parties, with a view to first listen to the other party’s
perspective
and then attempt to arrive at a resolution agreed by consensus.
Negotiator - a trained PNP personnel or any person
authorized by the
Incident/On-Scene Commander to negotiate for and in behalf
of the
police.
Neighborhood Check – the process of getting information
from a person
who knew the victim particularly in the neighborhood with the
purpose
of obtaining material information about the victim and
probable suspect.
Obsession - an idea or thought that continually preoccupies or
intrudes
on a person's mind.
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder - (OCD) is an anxiety
disorder
characterized by intrusive thoughts that produce uneasiness,
apprehension, fear or worry (obsessions), repetitive behaviors
aimed
at reducing the associated anxiety (compulsions), or a
combination of
such obsessions and compulsions. Symptoms of the disorder
include
excessive washing or cleaning, repeated checking, extreme
hoarding,       incident is to prevent it from occurring. Not all incidents
preoccupation with sexual, violent or religious thoughts, are
relationship-related obsessions, aversion to particular numbers       preventable like natural disasters. Some preventable
and incidents
nervous rituals such as opening and closing a door a certain       may be detected too late to prevent them.
number of    c. Preparation - 2 Forms of preparation
times before entering or leaving a room.          1. Preparation of the response designed to prevent the
incident
Paranoid - is a mental disorder characterized by paranoia and          2. Preparation for the incident.
a pervasive, 2. Incident Occurrence - is the instance in time at which the
long-standing suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of incident
others.    occurs or starts to occur if it has not been prevented.
3. Post-Occurrence Phase - during this phase, the incident may
Paranoid Personality Disorder - are generally characterized get
by having    worse. This Phase consists of the following:
a long-standing pattern of pervasive distrust and    a. Recognition
auspiciousness of    b. Response
others.  A person with paranoid personality disorder will          1. Initial Response
nearly          2. Consolidation
always believe that other people’s motives are suspect or even          3. Stand down
malevolent.    c. Recovery
Individuals with this disorder assume that other people will    d. Investigation
exploit, 4. Post-Incident Phase - incident is likely to have a finite
harm, or deceive them, even if no evidence exists to support lifetime.
this    Most incidents will conclude without intervention. However,
expectation. without
   intervention the effects of the incident may be worse or the
Pay-off – the act of exchanging an agreed amount between the    incident may last longer. This Phase Consist of the
family and following:
the kidnappers at a designated time and place for the safe    a. Restoration - once the incident is over, normality returns
release of over
the victim.       a period of time which can take months or years for very
severe
Personality Disorder - is not a mental disorder. Individuals       incidents.
with    b. Investigation - may be performed after the incident
personality disorders can function in the world to a high level, concludes
e.g.       to provide information and evidence for any hearing,
look after themselves, business, finance, etc. However, they inquiries
fail to       and criminal prosecution.
function normally in terms of their relationship with other    c. Post-Incident Discussion Activities - activities include
people.       immediate incident debriefs and other types of incident
They have dramatic/aggressive clusters of behavior.       discussions occurring some time after the incident
concludes.
      Characteristics of a Person with Personality Disorder       The aim of the debriefs is to identify areas for
      1. No conscience – lacks guilt or remorse, inability to love, improvement.
         no empathy. A Bully.
      2. Selfish, no loyalty Phobia - is an overwhelming and unreasonable fear of an
      3. Manipulative/charmer – likes power/controlling others object or
      4. Sexually experimenting situation that poses little real danger but provokes anxiety and
      5. Seeks immediate gratification, thrill seeker avoidance.
      6. Low anxiety, blames others – never their fault
      7. Frustration tolerance low – may turn to his/her for Proof of life - positive proof that the hostage is alive, obtained
stimulation from a reliable or verified source.
      8. Low self esteem, poor achievement history
      9. Poor planner – lacks follow through Psychotic – (Paranoid Schizophrenic) is a mental disorder
      10.Probable marital and employment problems which means
      11.Chaotic family relationship that individuals affected cannot function in the world
      12.Excessive/exorbitant and adequately on
      13.Changing demands a day-to-day basis. They see the world as disorder and they are
      14.Suicide potential high desperately trying to make sense of it. They have
      15.Seeks attention/audience odd/eccentric clusters
      16.Wants to prove can do something of behavior and fear/terror may be their underlying emotion.
      17.May like attention and not want to end incident
      Characteristics of a Psychotic Individual
Phases of a Crisis       1. Disorganized Thinking
1. Pre-Incident Phase - is the period of time prior to an          a. Delusions, false beliefs – often of persecution or
incident             grandeur despite evidence to the contrary.
   occurring. This Phase consists of the following:          b. Thoughts spill out in no logical order, leaps from one
   a. Prediction - determination of what incident is going to             idea to another.
occur       2. Disturbed Perception - Hallucinations, all 5 senses with
      and when it is going to occur, is the key to minimizing the no
      effects of the incident.          known cause.
   b. Prevention - the best way to minimize the damage done       3. Inappropriate emotions/actions - Laughs at funerals,
by an cries when
110
         others laugh, performs compulsive or senseless acts e.g. description,
         rocking, rubbing, twisting hair. normal behavioral patterns, family dynamics and known
      4. Socially withdrawn, aloof, detached friends and
      5. Disoriented/confused/paranoid acquaintances.
      6. Argumentative, suspicious of others, over reacts
      7. Acts peculiarly such as collecting rubbish and talking to
         himself/herself
      8. Belief that his/here body/thoughts is controlled by
         external force.

Rapport - a close and harmonious relationship in which the

people
concerned understand each other’s feelings or ideas and
communicate.

Schizoid Personality Disorder - is a personality disorder

characterized
by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency towards
a
solitary lifestyle, secretiveness, and emotional coldness.

Schizophrenic - is an individual who has no contact with

reality.
He/She is usually characterized by the following:
a. He/She is a psychotic;
b. He/She has a fundamental personality disorder;
c. He/She exhibits symptoms such as hallucinations, voices,
obscene
   language, giggling, self absorbed smile and sudden breaks in
flow
   of thinking.

Stockholm Syndrome - term that refers to a situation during

hostage
taking where the victim develops rapport and becomes
sympathetic with
his/her captor.

Stronghold - any location or structure, fixed or mobile, where

the
hostage is being held.

Suicide Intervention - the use of communication techniques

and
strategies to influence a person to change behavior and
reconsider
his desire to commit suicide.

Tactical Interrogation - refers to the act of questioning or

eliciting
information from a suspect to produce information of tactical
or
operational value.

Time - is the most important element of hostage negotiation.

Victim -  the person/company/organization to whom the

unwarranted
demand or threat is directed or intended, or is expected by the
offenders to respond.

Victim Communicator - the individual communicating

directly with the
people making the threat(s), demand(s) or issuing instructions.

Victimology – the process of obtaining a detailed account of

the
victim’s lifestyle and personality that can assist in determining
the
nature of the disappearance, the risk level of the victim, and
the
type of person who could have committed the crime. It also
includes
complete information regarding the victim’s physical
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