Type of Muscles

Skeletal
• Voluntary muscle; controlled
consciously
• Over 600 throughout the body
• Accounts for ½ body weight of most
humans, irrespective of size

Smooth
• Involuntary muscle; controlled
unconsciously
• In the walls of blood vessels &
Skeletal System Sliding Filament Theory – Muscular Contraction internal organs
A motor neuron, with signals from the brain via the spinal
5 functions cord releases an action potential (message). The action Cardiac
• Support potential travels along the membrane of the muscle cell • Controls itself with assistance from
(sarcolemma) and through the T tubules to the sarcoplasmic the nervous and endocrine systems
• Movement
reticulum releasing calcium & binds to the actin filaments, • Only in the heart
• Protection
• Storage revealing active binding sites. This allows the globular heads Type of Muscle Action
• Blood cell production of the myosin filaments to bind to these filaments. Once
binding has occurred creating cross-bridges, the globular Concentric: muscle shortens, e.g., lifting a
2 divisions heads tilts and drags the actin & myosin filaments in opposite weight during a bicep curl
• Axial directions. This tilting is called the power stroke and requires Sliding filament theory: actin filaments
the presence of energy. The pulling of the muscle filaments are pulled together
• Appendicular Motor Unit
results in muscle shortening and generation of muscle force.
Bones in the human Isometric/Static: muscle does not appear
body to be moving. Muscle is generating force
• 206 without the length of a muscle changing,
e.g., holding a heavy box steady
Bones in a human hand Sliding filament theory: myosin cross-
• 27 bridges are formed, but actin filaments
are not moved
Purpose of short bones
• Stability Eccentric: muscle lengthens, e.g.,
lowering a weight during a bicep curl
• Support
Sliding filament theory: actin filaments
• Movement
are pulled farther away from the centre of
• Shock absorption
the sarcomere, i.e., stretching it
 Naming Skeletal Muscles

Direction of the muscle fibre or the muscle itself: named in

reference to the midline or long axis of a limb bone, e.g.,
rectus (straight), oblique (slanted).

Relative size of the muscle: e.g., maximus (largest),

minimus (smallest), longus (long).

Location of the muscle: named for the bone with which

they are associated, e.g., the temporalis & frontalis muscles
overlie the temporal and frontal bones.

Number of origins: e.g., biceps = 2 origins.

Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion: named for

their attachment sites e.g., the sternocleidomastoid muscle
has its origin on the sternum & clavicle & inserts onto the
mastoid process of the temporal bone.

Shape of the muscle: distinct shape to identify the muscle,

e.g., deltoid means triangular.

Action of the muscle: e.g., flexor, extensor, adductor, etc.

Skeletal Muscle Structure ATP breaks down to phosphate + ADP + energy

Accumulation of lactic acid inhibits further

glycolysis and decreases the muscle fibres
calcium-binding capacity, therefore impeding
muscular contraction.
Oxidative system is the primary method

VO2 = Q x a-VO2 diff.

of energy production during endurance
events due to its capacity to yield large
amount of energy.

The Muscle Pump

Veins carry blood back to the heart with
the help of breathing, the muscle pump
Muscle Fibre & valves.
 Aerobic glycolysis, the Krebs Ergometers Indirect Calorimetry Movement of Blood within the Heart
Cycle, the Electron Transport Ergo=work,
Chain meter=measure % of O2 – 20.93% & % of Blood which has been de-oxygenated arrives and
Used to produce CO2 – 0.03% present in enters the right atrium of the heart. This blood then
repeatable workloads atmospheric air flows through a valve into the right ventricle to be
during which pumped to the lungs for re-oxygenation. The re-
physiological changes • Volume of air breathed oxygenated blood returns and enters the left atrium
can be monitored out of the heart, then flows through a valve into the left
• Arm crank • % of O2 in expired air ventricle. From here blood is pumped to the body
• Treadmill • % of CO2 in expired air systems.
• Versa climber To calculate the amount of
• Cycle ergometer O2 being consumed & CO2
• Bench stepping being produced
• Rower
VO2 Max
• Upper limit of a person’s ability to
increase O2 uptake for energy
generation during exercise
• Generally considered best
indicator of cardiovascular
endurance & aerobic fitness
Oxidation of Carbohydrate • Can differ according to sex, body
1. 1 molecule of glycogen yields 2 ATP in glycolysis + pyruvic acid size, age, & is greatly influenced
2. Pyruvic acid from glycolysis, in the presence of oxygen is by the level of aerobic training
converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) • Expressed relative to body weight
3. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle (mitochondria) and forms 2 ATP, in ml of O2 consumed per kg body
CO2 and hydrogen (H) weight per min (ml.kg-1.min-1)
4. H is transported to the electron transport chain (mitochondria)
5. Electro transport chain converts the H atoms to produce 28 ATP &
water
6. 1 molecule of glycogen can generate approx. 32 molecules of ATP

Measuring VO2 in Exercise

Equation for aerobic metabolism (oxidative system) = Food + O2 —>
ATP + heat + CO2 + H2O

Power in Watts
Force (2.5kp x 9.81) x Distance (60rpm x 6m)/ Time 60 secs = 147.15
watts
Cardiovascular Functions Vascular System Blood Distribution
• Delivery (e.g., O2 & nutrients) • Arteries: largest vessels, carry blood away from • Blood distribution is varied and is based on the needs of tissues;
• Removal (e.g., CO2 & waste products) the heart the most active tissues receive the most blood
• Transportation (e.g., hormones) • Arterioles: smaller vessels, extension of arteries, • At rest, the most metabolically active tissues receive the
• Maintenance (e.g., body temp. & pH) lead to capillaries greatest blood supply – 27% liver, 22% kidney, 15% skeletal
• Preventions (e.g., infection – immune • Capillaries: narrowest vessels, exchange muscle
function) between blood and tissue • During endurance exercise: increased blood flow to skeletal
• Venules: lead out of capillaries, extension of muscle – 80% available blood
Cardiac Cycle
veins • After a big meal: increased blood flow to the digestive system
Refers to the events that occur between 2
• Veins: carry blood back to the heart • During heat stress: increased blood flow to the skin
consecutive heart beats.
• Diastole: relaxation phase during
which the chambers fill with blood
• Systole: contraction phase during
which the chambers expel blood
Systolic over diastolic as systolic pressure
is greater since blood is expelled.
Relative Distribution of Q during exercise
The shift in blood flow during exercise (to
accommodate the increased O2 demand
of PA) to muscles is accomplished by
reducing blood flow to kidneys, liver,
stomach, & intestines. To a lesser extent
brain & skin are also affected during max
exercise. Blood flow redirected to the
working muscles
Composition of Blood
• RBCs: O2 travels through the body by
binding to haemoglobin in RBCs

Bound to haemoglobin (20-33%)

• WBCs: protect the body from disease
organism invasion Linear Relationships The Physiological Processes that Allow the Human Body to
• Platelets: assist in blood clotting • HR Move (Perform Work)

Blood plasma (67-80%)

Blood also plays a role in regulating temp. • O2 consumption • Integumentary system: covers the skin
Heat is picked up from the core of the • Workload/Intensity • Skeletal & Muscular systems: support & movement
body or from areas of increased metabolic At each workload HR plateaus during a constant • Nervous & Endocrine systems: control & communication

activity (e.g., muscular contraction) &
dissipates that heat throughout the body
or to the skin when the body is
overheated.
rate of submax work (steady state). The plateaus
occurs at the optimal HR for meeting circulatory
demands at that rate of work. The lower the
steady state, the more efficient the heart.
CO2 Transport
• Cardiovascular system: transport
• Respiratory system: exchange
• Lymphatic & Immune systems: protection & defence
• Digestive, Hepatic & Renal system: regulation
O2 System Delivery
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing):
movement of air into & out lungs
2. Pulmonary diffusion: change of O2 &
CO2 between lungs & blood
3. Transport of O2 & CO2 via blood
4. Capillary gas exchange: exchange of
VO2 & CO2 between capillary blood &
metabolically active tissues
Respiration
Delivery of O2 to & removal of CO2
from tissue
External: ventilation & exchange of
gases in the lung. Involves
pulmonary ventilations & diffusions
Internal: exchange of gases at tissue
level (between tissue & blood).
Involves capillary gas exchange
Regulators of Pulmonary Diffusion
• Central chemoreceptors in the brain respond
to changes in CO2 & H+
• Peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta &
carotid artery respond to changes in PO2, CO2
& H+
• Muscle mechanoreceptors located in joints &
muscles, detect movement
• Conscious control – e.g., increasing breathing
Respiratory System
From the nose & mouth, air travels
through the pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi & bronchioles
until it reaches the smallest
respiratory unit: the alveolus (plu.
alveoli). Gas exchange occurs
between alveolus & pulmonary
capillaries = pulmonary diffusion

Ventilatory Response to Exercise Factors of O2 Uptake & Delivery Pulmonary Diffusion

The onset of PA is followed by a 2-
phase increase in ventilation. First
immediate & dramatic increase,
then a continued more gradual
increase in ventilation. The first
increase is fast, therefore, most
likely to be due to
mechanoreceptors picking up
change in movement. The second
more gradual increase is likely due
to changes in temp., chemical
status. Post exercise there is a
gradual decrease due to slow
changes in acidity, temp. & CO2
1. O2 content of blood
2. Amount of blood flow
3. Local conditions within muscle
(acidity, incr. temp., incr. CO2 all
contribute to O2 delivery & uptake by
muscles
PO2 & PCO2 in Blood
Notes how the partial pressure of O2
& CO2 change at different locations
due to O2 consumption & CO2
production during respiration (making
ATP energy molecules via oxidative
system) at the muscle, then re-
oxygenation at lungs
• Removes CO2 from
returning venous blood
• Occurs across the thin
respiratory membrane of
the capillary
• Gas exchange depends
primarily on the partial
pressure of each gas. Gases
move from high pressure
to low pressure
• O2 enters the blood and
CO2 leaves it
Arteriovenous O2 Diff.
The amount of O2 taken up by
the tissues is proportional to
its use for oxidative energy
production. Therefore, as
muscles perform more
aerobic/oxidative energy
production, the rate of O2 use
increases & the a-VO2 diff also
increases.
O2 Transport
O2 transported by blood either
combined with haemoglobin in
RBCs (>98%) or dissolved in
blood plasma (<2%)