The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages (M.A.) is an expansive topic that includes many component themes.
Historians agree that the M.A. began with the fall of Rome in 476 AD and went on till the
coming of the Renaissance in the 14th-15th centuries. Therefore, the period of the M.A. lasted
about a millennium (a thousand years: 500 AD – 1500 AD). It is also called the Medieval
Age, and as such, it has three time divisions: early, central and late Middle Ages. The major
aspects or issues of the M.A. were: the Catholic Church and its internal divisions, the
emergence of Islam and the Crusades, the rise feudalism, the invention of new arts and
technical methods in painting, writing, architecture, industry and agriculture. This lecture
outlines briefly the main features of the M.A. as reflected by the changes that happened in
the social, political and economic fields throughout Europe.

With respect to the living conditions, at first, the M.A. was a period of ignorance,
superstition, communal oppression and rural existence. The dominant wealthy individuals
(landowners and big merchants), powerful old families, and institutions (Church and royal
authority-linked structures) controlled the society through arbitrary rules and tyrannical
decisions. The society was still rural living off land farming with landowners using their
huge work force of yeomen and peasants as personal property or slaves (vassals). It was a
class-structured world based on personal wealth possessions, solid family roots and power
relationships.

But, this situation began to change from the 9th century onwards for the better as
Roman-inherited rigid imperial traditions were replaced with new European kingdoms and
nationalist political bodies. For example, the huge Roman Empire in Western Europe broke
up into many small states based on local nationalisms that were less dictatorial than Rome.
France began to rally as a nation from Charlemagne’s time (800 AD) onwards. In fact, it
remained a combination of many duchies and principalities for a long time. In religion,
Christianity expanded further among the people and saw the rise of monasticism as an ideal
form of freer religious life (Eg: Saint Thomas of Aquinas, 1224-1274). It allowed monks or
pastors to set up autonomous sects and learning centres that were relatively independent of
the Pope and papal monarchy. Besides, a new wave of independent thinkers, philosophers
and inventors sprung up in many provinces viewing life with a rational mind, pragmatic
approaches and scientific methods instead of old unclear superstitious ways. For example,
Spanish Arab Andalusia, Persian or Abbasid (Iraq) sciences and discoveries were imported
into Western Europe to reform the society and move into a new age. It should be noticed
that this undertaking was not an official government plan or a state-directed strategy. Rather,
it was the effort of individuals, sponsors or organizations.

These changes of the post-Roman period strengthened in the following centuries

especially the 13th – 14th centuries so as to impact various fields of life. Roman cities
produced major innovators in various fields such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Dante (1265–1321)
and Giotto (1267–1337) Michelangelo….etc . Hence, the M.A. saw gradual advancements
in the following domains in different parts of Europe. In justice, there were the creation of
new law codes such as the Justinian’s Code, government councils (parliaments) and the
famous English Magna Carta (1254). In trade and business, there were the proliferation of
market places, trade fairs and money houses (like banks). In architecture, there was the
building of cathedrals, castles and manors, in new Romanesque, Medieval, and Gothic styles.
More importantly, there was increasing formal learning and education with the creation of
the first universities, (Bologna University, Oxford in 12th century), schools...etc. Arabs had
their first university in Cairo –Egypt- and in Tunisia (Zeitouna) much earlier than that.

In analyzing the M.A. period, historians give credit particularly to the Greek
philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) for the new M.A’s rational thinking, for he
emphasized the importance of using man’s intelligence to reach the ultimate Truth in
answering the questions about human life and the universe. It is certain that in spite of
continuing bloody conflicts and periodical plagues (Black Death 1347-1351), Europe was
changing and expanding in size during the M.A. For example, new cities appeared on the
continent. By 1300, there were fifteen European cities numbering about 50.000 settlers each.
This pioneering urban development entailed inevitably an increase in population, skilled
workers and more specialised jobs and trades. It also encouraged the commercial economy
farther as it enlarged the supply chains for food and luxury goods. Here, it should be noticed
that wealthy people and families contributed money and patronage to help start-up inventors,
traders and thinkers to improve their intellectual innovations. For example, the Medici
family who ruled the city of Florence for over fifty years was famous for sponsoring many
individuals and many developmental projects in the city.

In conclusion, when reviewing the period of the M.A, one discovers that it was a time
of revolutionary change in Europe in most aspects of life. It unleashed the spirit of free
initiative and free enterprise for the individual to devise new approaches and systems to
achieve a better life than in past times under the Roman rule. There were still great
difficulties to move ahead for the European society as a whole, but there were continuous
achievements made in the long march towards a new era. In arts as in science, philosophers,
thinkers and sponsoring patrons were borrowing from other nations and civilizations and
adding their own national touch to create their envisaged new way of life that was
compatible with Middle Ages standards.

Course activity: Write a summary of this lecture highlighting the key points of the text.

Reading list:
-Cambridge Medieval History (Encyclopedia), see volumes 5-8
-Holmes, G. A, The Later Middle Ages, 1272 -1485, (Edinburgh, 1962)
-Huizinga, J, The Waning of the Middle Ages, (London, 1994)