Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

around the World

 Introduction

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely

small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as

chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering .

Fundamental Concepts in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

It’s hard to imagine just how small nanotechnology is. One nanometer is a Medieval

billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter. Here are a few illustrative examples: stained glass
windows are an
There are 25,400,000 nanometers in an inch
example of
A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick how
nanotechnology
On a comparative scale, if a marble were a nanometer, then one meter
was used in the
would be the size of the Earth
pre-modern era.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control (Courtesy:
individual atoms and molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms NanoBioNet)
—the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the buildings and houses we live in,
and our own bodies.

But something as small as an atom is impossible to see with the naked eye. In fact, it’s impossible to see
with the microscopes typically used in a high school science classes. The microscopes needed to see
things at the nanoscale were invented in the early 1980s.

Once scientists had the right tools, such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force
microscope (AFM), the age of nanotechnology was born.

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Today's scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at the
nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter weight,  increased
control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale counterparts.[1]

The word Nanoscience refers to the study, manipulation and engineering of matter, particles and
structures on the nanometer scale (one millionth of a millimeter, the scale of atoms and molecules).
Important properties of materials, such as the electrical, optical, thermal and mechanical properties, are
determined by the way molecules and atoms assemble on the nanoscale into larger structures

Nanotechnology is the application of nanoscience leading to the use of new nanomaterials and nanosize
components in useful products. Nanotechnology will eventually provide us with the ability to design
custom-made materials and products with new enhanced properties, new nanoelectronics components,
new types of “smart” medicines and sensors, and even interfaces between electronics and biological
system…

WHY STUDY NANOSCIENCE & NANOTECHNOLOGY?

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are at the forefront of modern research. The fast growing economy in
this area requires experts who have an outstanding knowledge of nanoscience in combination with the
skills to apply this knowledge in new products. A multidisciplinary scientific education is crucial to
provide industry and research institutes with top quality experts who have a generic background in the
different subdisciplines such as electronics, physics, chemistry, material science, biotechnology, and at
the same time be experts in one particular field. This is what is offered in this master programme.

In the Master of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, you will learn the basics of physics, biology, and
chemistry on the nanometer scale, supplemented by courses on technology and engineering to promote an
understanding of practical applications. [2]

The Nanoscale – How Small Is Nano?

Dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nanometers are known as the nanoscale.
To see where 'nano' fits on the scale of things, check out our metric prefix table with examples and an
interactive tutorial: View the Milky Way at 10 million light years from the Earth. Then move through space
towards the Earth in successive orders of magnitude until you reach a tall oak tree. After that, begin to move
from the actual size of a leaf into a microscopic world that reveals leaf cell walls, the cell nucleus, chromatin,
DNA and finally, into the subatomic universe of electrons and protons.

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 Some examples to demonstrate the size of the nanoscale. [3]

The Imaginative Pioneers of Nanotechnology

The American physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Richard Feynman introduce the concept of
nanotechnology in 1959. During the annual meeting of the American Physical Society, Feynman
presented a lecture entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” at the California Institute of
Technology (Caltech). In this lecture, Feynman made the hypothesis “Why can’t we write the entire 24
volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin?”, and described a vision of using machines
to construct smaller machines and down to the molecular level.[4] This new idea demonstrated that
Feynman’s hypotheses have been proven correct, and for these reasons, he is considered the father of
modern nanotechnology. After fifteen years, Norio Taniguchi, a Japanese scientist was the first to use and
define the term “nanotechnology” in 1974 as: “nanotechnology mainly consists of the processing of
separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule”[5].

After Feynman had discovered this new field of research catching the interest of many scientists, two
approaches have been developed describing the different possibilities for the synthesis of nanostructures.
These manufacturing approaches fall under two categories: top-down and bottom-up, which differ in
degrees of quality, speed and cost.

The top-down approach is essentially the breaking down of bulk material to get nano-sized particles. This
can be achieved by using advanced techniques such as precision engineering and lithography which have
been developed and optimized by industry during recent decades. These include the use of advanced
nanostructure based on diamond or cubic boron nitride and sensors for size control, combined with
numerical control and advanced servo-drive technologies.

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The bottom-up approach refers to the build-up of nanostructures from the bottom: atom-by-atom or
molecule-by-molecule by physical and chemical methods which are in a nanoscale range (1 nm to 100
nm) using controlled manipulation of self-assembly of atoms and molecules. Chemical synthesis is a
method of producing rough materials which can be used either directly in product in their bulk disordered
form, or as the building blocks of more advanced ordered materials. Self-assembly is a bottom-up
approach in which atoms or molecules organize themselves into ordered nanostructures by chemical-
physical interactions between them. Positional assembly is the only technique in which single atoms,
molecules or cluster can be positioned freely one-by-one.

The general concept of top down and bottom up and different methods adopted to synthesized
nanoparticles by using these techniques are summarized in Figure.[6]

Figure . The concept of top down and bottom up technology: different methods for nanoparticle
synthesis[6].

History of Nanotechnology

Nanoparticles and structures have been used by humans in fourth century AD, by the Roman, which
demonstrated one of the most interesting examples of nanotechnology in the ancient world.

The Lycurgus cup, from the British Museum collection, represents one of the most outstanding
achievements in ancient glass industry. It is the oldest famous example of dichroic glass. Dichroic glass
describes two different types of glass, which change color in certain lighting conditions. This means that
the Cup have two different colors: the glass appears green in direct light, and red-purple when light shines
through the glass.

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The Lycurgus cup. The glass appears green in reflected light (A) and red-purple in transmitted light (B).
Reproduced with permission from reference[7].

In 1990, the scientists analyzed the cup using a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to explain the
phenomenon of dichroism [8]. The observed dichroism (two colors) is due to the presence of
nanoparticles with 50–100 nm in diameter. X-ray analysis showed that these nanoparticles are silver-gold
(Ag-Au) alloy, with a ratio of Ag:Au of about 7:3, containing in addition about 10% copper(Cu)
dispersed in a glass matrix[9,10].

The progression in nanotechnology due to the blessings of nanoscience are summarized in the Figure.

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 Figure: Progresses in Nanotechnology.

Modern Era of Nanotechnology

There was a progress in nanotechnology since the early ideas of Feynman until 1981 when the physicists
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invented a new type of microscope at IBM Zurich Research
Laboratory, the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) [11,12]. The STM uses a sharp tip that moves so
close to a conductive surface that the electron wave functions of the atoms in the tip overlap with the
surface atom wave functions. When a voltage is applied, electrons “tunnel” through the vacuum gap from
the atom of the tip into the surface (or vice versa). In 1983, the group published the first STM image of
the Si(111)-7 × 7 reconstructed surface, which nowadays can be routinely imaged as shown in Figure .
[13,14]

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Figure; STM image of the Si(111)-7 × 7 reconstructed surface showing atomic scale resolution of the top-
most layer of silicon atoms. Reproduced with permission from reference[14].

A few years later, in 1990, Don Eigler of IBM in Almaden and his colleagues used a STM to manipulate
35 individual xenon atoms on a nickel surface and formed the letters of IBM logo (Figure ) [15]. The
STM was invented to image surfaces at the atomic scale and has been used as a tool with which atoms
and molecules can be manipulated to create structures. The tunneling current can be used to selectively
break or induce chemical bonds.

35 Xenon atoms positioned on a nickel (110) substrate using a STM to form IBM logo. Reproduced with
permission from reference[15].

Nanotechnology: Past Present and Future

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Nanotechnology: Past Present and Future[16].

Different types of nanoparticles

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Nanoparticles can be classified into different types according to the size, morphology, physical and
chemical properties. Some of them are carbon-based nanoparticles, ceramic nanoparticles, metal
nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles and lipid-based nanoparticles.

Carbon-Based Nanoparticles

Carbon-based nanoparticles include two main materials: carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and fullerenes. CNTs
are nothing but graphene sheets rolled into a tube. These materials are mainly used for the structural
reinforcement as they are 100 times stronger than steel.

CNTs can be classified into single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs). CNTs are unique in a way as they are thermally conductive along the length and
non-conductive across the tube.

Fullerenes are the allotropes of carbon having a structure of hollow cage of sixty or more carbon atoms.
The structure of C-60 is called Buckminsterfullerene, and looks like a hollow football. The carbon units
in these structures have a pentagonal and hexagonal arrangement. These have commercial applications
due to their electrical conductivity, structure, high strength, and electron affinity.

Ceramic Nanoparticles

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Ceramic nanoparticles are inorganic solids made up of oxides, carbides, carbonates and phosphates.
These nanoparticles have high heat resistance and chemical inertness. They have applications in
photocatalysis, photodegradation of dyes, drug delivery, and imaging.

By controlling some of the characteristics of  ceramic nanoparticles like size, surface area, porosity,
surface to volume ratio, etc, they perform as a good drug delivery agent. These nanoparticles have been
used effectively as a drug delivery system for a number of diseases like bacterial infections, glaucoma,
cancer, etc

Metal Nanoparticles

Metal nanoparticles are prepared from metal precursors. These nanoparticles can be synthesized by
chemical, electrochemical, or photochemical methods. In chemical methods, the metal nanoparticles are
obtained by reducing the metal-ion precursors in solution by chemical reducing agents. These have the
ability to adsorb small molecules and have high surface energy.

These nanoparticles have applications in research areas, detection and imaging of biomolecules and in
environmental and bioanalytical applications. For example gold nanoparticles are used to coat the sample
before analyzing in SEM. This is usually done to enhance the electronic stream, which helps us to get
high quality SEM images.

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Semiconductor Nanoparticles

Semiconductor nanoparticles have properties like those of metals and non-metals. They are found in the
periodic table in groups  II-VI, III-V or IV-VI. These particles have wide bandgaps, which on tuning
shows different properties. They are used in photocatalysis, electronics devices, photo-optics and water
splitting applications.

Some  examples of semiconductor nanoparticles are GaN, GaP, InP, InAs from group III-V, ZnO, ZnS,
CdS, CdSe, CdTe are II-VI semiconductors and silicon and germanium are from group IV.

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Polymeric Nanoparticles

Polymeric nanoparticles are organic based nanoparticles. Depending upon the method of preparation,
these have structures shaped like nanocapsular or nanospheres. A nanosphere particle has a matrix-like
structure whereas the nanocapsular particle has core-shell morphology. In the former, the active
compounds and the polymer are uniformly dispersed whereas in the latter the active compounds are
confined and surrounded by a polymer shell.

Some of the merits of polymeric nanoparticles are controlled release, protection of drug molecules, ability
to combine therapy and imaging, specific targeting and many more. They have applications in drug
delivery and diagnostics. The drug deliveries with polymeric nanoparticles are highly biodegradable and
biocompatible.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles are generally spherical in shape with a diameter ranging from 10 to 100nm. It consists
of a solid core made of lipid and a matrix containing soluble lipophilic molecules. The external core of
these nanoparticles is stabilized by surfactants and emulsifiers. These nanoparticles have application in
the biomedical field as a drug carrier and delivery and RNA release in cancer therapy.

Thus, the field of nanotechnology is far from being saturated and it is, as the statistic says, sitting on the
staircase of an exponential growth pattern. It is basically at the same stage as the information technology
was in the 1960s and biotechnology in the year of 1980s. Thus it can easily be predicted that this field
would witness a same exponential growth as the other two technological field witnessed earlier.[17]

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Applications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology and nanomaterials can be applied in all kinds of industrial sectors. They are
usually found in these areas:

  Electronics

Carbon nanotubes are close to replacing silicon as a material for making smaller, faster and more
efficient microchips and devices, as well as lighter, more conductive and stronger quantum
nanowires. Graphene's properties make it an ideal candidate for the development of flexible
touchscreens.

  Energy

A new semiconductor developed by Kyoto University makes it possible to manufacture solar

panels that double the amount of sunlight converted into electricity. Nanotechnology also lowers
costs, produces stronger and lighter wind turbines, improves fuel efficiency and, thanks to the
thermal insulation of some nanocomponents, can save energy.

  Biomedicine

The properties of some nanomaterials make them ideal for improving early diagnosis and
treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or cancer. They are able to attack cancer cells

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selectively without harming other healthy cells. Some nanoparticles have also been used to
enhance pharmaceutical products such as sunscreen.

Environment

Air purification with ions, wastewater purification with nanobubbles or nanofiltration systems

for heavy metals are some of its environmentally-friendly applications. Nanocatalysts are also
available to make chemical reactions more efficient and less polluting.

  Food

In this field, nanobiosensors could be used to detect the presence of pathogens in food or

nanocomposites to improve food production by increasing mechanical and thermal resistance
and decreasing oxygen transfer in packaged products.

  Textile

Nanotechnology makes it possible to develop smart fabrics that don't stain nor wrinkle, as well as
stronger, lighter and more durable materials to make motorcycle helmets or sports equipment.

NANOTECHNOLGY IN THE FUTURE

There are bright and dark spots in the future of nanotechnology. On the one hand, the sector is
expected to grow globally, driven by technological advances, increased government
support, increased private investment and growing demand for smaller devices, to name a
few. However, the environmental, health and safety risks of nanotechnology and concerns
related to its commercialisation could hamper market expansion.

The United States, Brazil and Germany will lead the nanotechnology industry in 2024, with
an important presence in the Top 15 Asian countries such as Japan, China, South Korea, India,
Taiwan and Malaysia. The cosmetics sector will climb positions stealing third place from the
biomedical sector in a ranking that will be led by electronics and energy, as it is now.[18]

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References

1. https://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/what/definition
2. https://www.emm-nano.org/what-is-nanoscience-nanotechnology
3. https://www.nanowerk.com/nanotechnology/introduction/
introduction_to_nanotechnology_1.php
4. Feynman, R.P. There’s plenty of room at the bottom. Eng. Sci. 1960, 23, 22–36.
5. Taniguchi, N.; Arakawa, C.; Kobayashi, T. On the basic concept of nano-technology. In
Proceedings of the International Conference on Production Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, 26–29
August 1974.
6. Iqbal, P.; Preece, J.A.; Mendes, P.M. Nanotechnology: The “Top-Down” and “Bottom-Up”
Approaches. In Supramolecular Chemistry; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 2012
7. The British Museum. Available online:
www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_ object_details.aspx?
objobjec=61219&partId=1 (accessed on 22 July 2019).
8. Barber, D.J.; Freestone, I.C. An investigation of the origin of the colour of the Lycurgus Cup by
analytical transmission electron microscopy. Archaeometry 1990, 32, 33–45. [CrossRef]
9. Freestone, I.; Meeks, N.; Sax, M.; Higgitt, C. The Lycurgus Cup—A Roman nanotechnology. Gold
Bull. 2007, 40, 270–277. [CrossRef]
10. Freestone, I.; Meeks, N.; Sax, M.; Higgitt, C. The Lycurgus Cup—A Roman nanotechnology. Gold
Bull. 2007, 40, 270–277. [CrossRef]
11. Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H.; Gerber, C.; Weibel, E. Tunneling through a controllable vacuum gap. Appl.
Phys. Lett. 1982, 40, 178. [CrossRef]
12. Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H.; Gerber, C.; Weibel, E. Tunneling through a controllable vacuum gap. Appl.
Phys. Lett. 1982, 40, 178. [CrossRef]
13. Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H.; Gerber, C.; Weibel, E. 7 × 7 Reconstruction on Si(111) Resolved in Real
Space. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1983, 50, 120–123. [CrossRef]
14. Institute of Physics Polish Academy of Sciences. Available online:
http://info.ifpan.edu.pl/~{}wawro/ subframes/Surfaces.htm (accessed on 22 July 2019).
15. . Eigler, D.M.; Schweizer, E.K. Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope.
Nature 1990, 344, 524–526. [CrossRef]
16. https://gaeu.com/artiklar/this-is-nanotechnology-one-of-the-fastest-growing-
markets-in-the-world/
17. https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4938
18. https://www.iberdrola.com/innovation/nanotechnology-applications

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