ESB/Q/R/R 461 – RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Prepared and Presented by

DR ALICE LUNGU (PhD)

The Copperbelt University
 CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Meaning of research
 Methodology versus methods
 Objectives of research
 Nature of research
 Qualities of a good researcher
 Successful researcher
 Characteristics of research
 Categories of research
 References
 INTRODUCTION
 When one thinks of research, what comes to mind is ‘a process
of searching for knowledge’ (Srinivas, 1968; Prathapan, 2014).
 Searching implies that there is a process involved.
 Research therefore, is a quest for knowledge through diligent
search or investigation or experimentation aimed at discovery
and interpretation of new knowledge.
 It is a process of steps used to collect and analyse information
to increase our understanding of a topic or issue (Creswell,
2015).
 It consists of three main steps:
 Pose a question,
 Collect data to answer the question, and
 Present an answer to the question
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research???
 WHAT IS RESEARCH? (CONTD.)
 The Blind Men and the Elephant
 The tale of a group of six blind men who touch
only one part of an elephant in order to learn
what it is like. Based on their individual
experience they suggest that the elephant is like
a wall, spear, snake, tree, fan or rope
 John Godfrey Saxe (1963). The blind men and the
elephant. McGraw-Hill (Cited in Schmaltz, David. 2003
The Blind Men and the Elephant: Mastering Project
Work, San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler)
 WHAT IS RESEARCH? (CONTD.)

 See Schratz & Walker (1995, p. 20-21)

 WHAT IS RESEARCH? (CONTD.)
 Consider the following definitions/ descriptions of
research:
 Research is “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
(Redman & Mory, 1923).
 Research is “a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that
is generally applicable” (Grinnell, 1993, p. 4).
 Research is “a systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem” (Burns, 1997, p. 2).
 Research is defined as “the systematic and objective recording
and analysis of controlled empirical observations that may lead to
the development of principles, laws, or theories resulting in
prediction and possible ultimate control of events” (Gebremedhin
& Tweeten 1994, p. 4).
 WHAT IS RESEARCH? (CONTD.)
 Research:
 intellectual activity
 involves systematic inquiry aimed at accurately
describing and explaining the world.
 Involves various coordinated/ logical steps [to be
covered later].

(Read: Robson (2011, Chapter 1)

 METHODOLOGY VERSUS
METHODS
 Methodology and Methods are often (incorrectly)
used interchangeably.
 While these are interlinked they serve different
roles in the research process.
 Research methodology has many dimensions and
research methods do constitute a part of the
research methodology.
 METHODOLOGY VERSUS
METHODS (CONTD.)
 For instance, methods are specific techniques,
tools or procedures applied to achieve a given
objective.
 The collection of “specific techniques we use in a study to
select cases, measure and observe social life, gather and
refine data, analyse data, and report on results”
(Neuman, 2014, p. 2).
 “Methods are merely technical rules, which lay down the
procedures for how reliable and objective knowledge can
be obtained” (Brewer, 2000, p. 2).
 Some methods used in research include interviews,
observations, document analysis, and surveys.
 METHODOLOGY VERSUS
METHODS (CONTD.)
 Methodology on the other hand, refers to a systematic way
of doing research, of which research methods are part.
 According to Neuman (2014, p. 2) methodology means
“understanding the entire research process - including its social-
organizational context, philosophical assumptions, ethical
principles, and the political impact of new knowledge from the
research enterprise.”
 In describing methodology, Brewer (2000, p. 2) explains that “if
'methods' are technical rules that define proper procedures,
'methodology' is the broad theoretical and philosophical framework
into which these procedural rules fit.”
 Examples of methodologies: Ethnography, Narrative,
Phenomenological, Grounded Theory, and case studies (Creswell,
2012).
 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH
 Research helps us to:
 Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it
 E.g. Exploratory or formulative research
 Portray accurately the characteristic of a particular
individual, situation or a group
 E.g. Descriptive research
 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
 E.g. Diagnostic research
 Research adds to our knowledge.
 Addresses gaps in knowledge
 Expands knowledge
 Replicates knowledge
 Adds voices of individuals to knowledge
 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Research increases the body of knowledge
 discover new facts
 verify and test important facts
 Research provide the basis for action
 analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify
the cause and effect relationship
 It helps us to understand the consequences on
man of any social phenomenon
 test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables
 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Research provides solutions to existing social
problems.
 overcome or solve the problems occurring in our
everyday life
 find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social
problems
 develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to
solve and understand scientific and non-scientific
problems.
 OBJECTIVES/ PURPOSES OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Research helps improve practice.
 gain new ideas for their job.
 gain new insights into approaches.
 Practitioners can connect with other practitioners.
 Research helps inform policy debates.
 Research allows people to weigh different perspectives
on issues.
 Research enables people to make informed decisions
regarding policy.
 NATURE OF RESEARCH
 Generally, research:
 Is generated by a question or problem;
 Has clearly defined aim/objectives;
 Involves a specific programme of work;
 Is aimed at increasing understanding by facts or ideas
and reaching some conclusions about their meaning;
 Requires relevant data;
 Requires reasoned argument to support conclusions
 (See Walliman, 2001)
 NATURE OF RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Also remember that Research is…
 Is never perfect!;
 Is uncertain and contingent;
 Aims to generalise [but it is not possible!]
 Provides bits and pieces of a puzzle [describing an
elephant!];
 Encourages Competition and criticism.
 Can be quantitative, qualitative or a mix of both;
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD
RESEARCHER
 A good researcher normally possesses the
following qualities:
 Intellectual Curiosity
 Prudence
 Healthy Criticism
 Intellectual Honesty
 Intellectual creativity
 Objectivity
 Democratic
 Patience and pursuance.
(See Prathapan, 2014, p. 18)
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD
RESEARCHER (CONTD.)
 Successful Researcher
 To be a successful researcher, you need:
 knowledge of your discipline, field and/or topic,
and the place of research within these;
 knowledge of the craft of research to enable
you to make sound decisions; and
 understanding of the ethical responsibilities of
a researcher
 PROBLEMS WITH RESEARCH TODAY
 Contradictory or vague findings
 Questionable data
 Unclear statements about the intent of the study
 Lack of full disclosure of the data collection
procedure
 Inarticulate rendering of the research problem
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH
 Research is…
 Empirical
 It is based on observations and experimentation on theories.
 Systematic
 Follows orderly and sequential procedure
 Controlled
 All variables except those that are tested/ experimented upon
are kept constant.
 Logical
 It is based on valid procedures and principles.
 (See Prathapan (2014, p.7); Gebremedhin, T. G. & L. G. Tweeten
(1994, p. 4))
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Research is…
 Cyclical

 It starts with a problem and ends with a problem

(Leedy & Ormrod, 2015; Prathapan, 2014).
 Analytical
 It employs the use of proven analytical procedures in
gathering data, whether historical, descriptive,
experimental, and case study.
 Critical
 It exhibits careful and precise judgment.
 [Prathapan (2014, p.7); Gebremedhin & Tweeten (1994, p. 4)]
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH (CONTD.)
 Research is…
 Methodical
 It is conducted in a methodical manner without bias
using systematic methods and procedures.
 Replicability
 Research design and procedures are repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results.
 (See Prathapan (2014, p.7); Gebremedhin & Tweeten (1994, p.
4))
 CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH
 Research can be grouped in four main
categories as follows:
 Purpose/ Objectives (Exploratory, descriptive,
explanatory);
 Application (Basic and applied);
 Mode of Inquiry (Qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed-method); and
 Time (longitudinal and cross-sectional).
 Purpose for Research
 Research enables researchers…
 To explore a phenomenon to gain insight
 To probe an issue and explain it
 To describe a phenomenon/ problem;
 To evaluate an implemented solution
 (see Babbie 2017).
 Application of Research
 Research can be either basic or applied.
 Basic research - research that advances knowledge of
the fundamentals of how the social world works, and
develops general theoretical explanation (Fraenkel, et
al., 2011).
 Applied Research - is designed to solve practical
problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge's sake (Bordens & Abbott,
2017).
 Mode of Inquiry/ Research Approaches

 Research can also be described in terms of mode of

inquiry/ research approach.
 Creswell (2014, p. ) defines research approaches as
“plans and the procedures for research that span the
steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.”
 There are three main approaches to research, namely:
 Quantitative;
 Qualitative; and
 mixed-methods approaches.
Mode of Inquiry/ Research Approaches
Quantitative Approach
 Validation of facts,
estimates, relationships
 Descriptive and causal
 Deductive
 Positivism/ empiricism
 Mostly structured questions
 Large sample, statistical
validity
 Surveys
 Generally deals in numbers,
logic and the objective
Qualitative Approach
 Discovery of new ideas, insights
and feelings
 Usually exploratory
 Inductive
 Interpretivism/ constructivism
 Open-ended, semi-structured,
unstructured, probing questions
 Small sample, not generalizable
 In-depth interviews, observations,
document analysis, etc.
 Generally presented in words,
images and the subjective
 Similarities and Differences Between
Quantitative and Qualitative Research

 Similarities
 Both forms of research follow the six steps in the process of
research
 Both forms of research have introductions that establish the
importance of the research problem
 Both forms of research use interviews and observations
 Differences
 Quantitative data collection is more closed-ended; qualitative
data collection is more open-ended
 Quantitative data analysis is based on statistics; qualitative data
analysis is based on text or image analysis
 Quantitative reporting has a set structure; qualitative data
reporting is more flexible
 Time Dimension of Research
 Research can be longitudinal or cross-sectional.
 Longitudinal research refers to research/ a study that
takes place over time while cross-sectional research is
research that confines itself to taking a snapshot at a
specific time.
 The fundamental difference between cross-sectional
and longitudinal studies is that cross-sectional studies
take place at a single point in time and that a
longitudinal study involves a series of measurements
taken over a period of time.
Further Category of Research
Primary Research
 Original collection or
analysis of data to answer
a new research question or
to produce new knowledge.
 Work with data
 It can also involve the
Secondary Research
 The search for published
sources describing the
results of research or
information provided by
others.
 Involves studying works

original analysis of of other researchers

secondary data.  May be used to support

primary research
(literature review)
 ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING
RESEARCH
 Learn about the procedures involved in applying
for approval from your campus institutional
review board
 Recognize guidelines from professional
associations
 Use ethical practices throughout research
 Use respectful data collection procedures
 Show respect to audiences who read and use
research study information
 References
 Babbie, E.R. 2010 The Practice of Social Research, 12e,
Australia: Wadsworth
 Babbie, E. R. 2017 The Basics of Social Research, 7e,
Australia: Wadsworth.
 Bailey, K. D. 1978 Methods of Social Research, 3e, New
York: Free Press.
 Bordens, K. S. and B. B. Abbott 2017 Research Design
and Methods: A Process Approach, 10e, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
 Brewer, J. D. 2002 Ethnography, Buckingham: Open
University Press.
 References
 Buchanan, D. A. & A. Bryman 2007 “Contextualizing
Methods Choice in Organizational Research”.
Organizational Research Methods, 10(3), pp. 483-501.
 Burns, R. B. 1997 Introduction to Research Methods, 2e,
Melbourne: Longman.
 Creswell, J. W. 2014. Research Design, 4e, Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
 Creswell, J. W. 2012 Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design:
Choosing Among Five Approaches, 3e, Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
 Fraenkel, J., Wallen, and H. Hyun 2011 How to Design and
Evaluate Research in Education, 8e, Ohio: McGraw-Hill.
 References
 Gebremedhin, T. G. and L. G. Tweeten 1994 Research
Methods & Communication in the Social Sciences, USA:
Praeger.
 Grinnell, R. Jr (Ed.) 1988 Social Work Research and
Evaluation, 3e, Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock.
 Holosko, M. J. 2010 “An Overview of Qualitative Research
Methods” ” In Bruce Thyer (Ed.) The Handbook of Social
Work Research Methods, 2e, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
 Hurley, W. L., Denegar, C. R, and J. Hertel 2011 Research
Methods: A Framework for Evidence-Based Clinical
Practice, Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
 References
 Kothari, C. R. 2004 Research Methodology, 2e, New Delhi:
New Age International.
 Lancaster, G. 2005 Research Methods in Management,
Oxford: Elsevier.
 Mertens, D. M. 2010 Research and Evaluation in
Education and Psychology, 3e, Los Angeles: Sage.
 Neuman, W. L. 2014 Social Research Methods: Qualitative
and Quantitative Approaches, 7e, Essex: Pearson.
 Prathapan, K. 2014 Research Methodology for Scientific
Research, New Delhi: I.K. International.
 References
 Ragin, C. C. and L. M. Amoroso 2019 Constructing Social
Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method, 3e, Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
 Redman, L. V. and Mory, A.V.H. 1923 The Romance of
Research, Madison, Wisconsin: The Williams & Wilkins
Company, pp. 6-10.
 Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2016 Business
Research Methods, 7e, Essex: Pearson.
 Schutt, R. K 2012 Investigating the Social World, 7e, Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
 Walliman, N. 2001 Your Research Project: A Step-By-Step
Guide for the First-Time Researcher, London: Sage.