Fuel cell

Fuel cell, any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly
into electricity by electrochemical reactions.

A fuel cell resembles a battery in many respects, but it can supply electrical energy
over a much longer period of time. This is because a fuel cell is continuously
supplied with fuel and air (or oxygen) from an external source, whereas a battery
contains only a limited amount of fuel material and oxidant that are depleted with
use. For this reason fuel cells have been used for decades in space probes, satellites,
and manned spacecraft.
 Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without combustion

by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat.
 History
Discovered by German Scientist G H Shoenbein.

First developed by William Grove.

In 1839, Grove was experimenting on electrolysis (the process by which water is split
into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric current), when he observed that combining the
same elements could also produce an electric current .
 History

1930s -1950s Francis Thomas Bacon, a British scientist, worked on developing

alkaline fuel cells. He demonstrated a working stack in 1958.

The technology was licensed to Pratt and Whitney where it was utilized for the
Apollo spacecraft fuel cells.
 Fuel Cells Characteristics
They generate electricity from the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form
water in a process which is the reverse of electrolysis.
The fuel cell relies on a basic oxidation/reduction reaction, as with a
battery, but the reaction takes place on the fuel rather than the electrodes.

The fuel cell produces electricity as long as the cell receives a supply of
fuel and can dispose of the oxidized old fuel .
In a fuel cell, the anode usually is bathed in the fuel; the cathode collects
and makes available the oxidant (often atmospheric oxygen).

An ion-conducting membrane separates the two, allowing the reaction to

take place without affecting the electrodes.
 How fuel cells work
A fuel cell is an electrochemical system in which the chemical energy of
a fuel is converted directly into electrical energy. A fuel cell works in a
similar way to a primary battery with the difference that the energy is not
stored between the electrodes, but is instead transferred from an external
tank. Because there is no combustion, fuel cells give off few emissions.
Also, having no moving parts, they are quiet.
 How fuel cells work
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen
passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity,
water, and heat.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the
fuel cell through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits
into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The
proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that
can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen
and oxygen in a molecule of water.
A fuel cell system that includes a fuel reformer can obtain hydrogen from any
hydrocarbon fuel – from natural gas, methanol, and even gasoline. Other possible
fuels include propane, hydrogen, anaerobic digester gas from wastewater
treatment facilities, and landfill gas.
How fuel cells work
Parts of a fuel cell

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of
research for fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from
several layers of different materials, as shown in the diagram. The three
key layers in a PEM fuel cell include
 Membrane electrode assembly
 Catalyst
 Hardware
Other layers of materials are designed to help draw fuel and air into the
cell and to conduct electrical current through the cell.
Membrane electrode assembly
The electrodes (anode and cathode), catalyst, and polymer electrolyte membrane
together form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.
 Anode. The anode, the negative side of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts
the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so they can be used in an
external circuit. Channels etched into the anode disperse the hydrogen gas equally
over the surface of the catalyst.
 Cathode. The cathode, the positive side of the fuel cell, also contains channels that
distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It conducts the electrons back
from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the
hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
 Polymer electrolyte membrane. The polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) – a
specially treated material that looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap –
conducts only positively charged ions and blocks the electrons. The PEM is the key
to the fuel cell technology; it must permit only the necessary ions to pass between
the anode and cathode. Other substances passing through the electrolyte would
disrupt the chemical reaction.
Membrane electrode assembly

Catalyst
All electrochemical reactions in a fuel cell consist of two separate reactions:
an oxidation half-reaction at the anode and a reduction half-reaction at the
cathode. Normally, the two half-reactions would occur very slowly at the low
operating temperature of the PEM fuel cell. Each of the electrodes is coated
on one side with a catalyst layer that speeds up the reaction of oxygen and
hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto
carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum
surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The
platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM. Platinum-group metals
are critical to catalyzing reactions in the fuel cell, but they are very expensive.
Membrane electrode assembly

Hardware
Magnified image of catalyst in
contact with the solid polymer
electrolyte membrane of a fuel
cell. The catalyst is rough and
porous so that the maximum
surface area of the platinum can
be exposed to the hydrogen or
oxygen. The platinum-coated
side of the catalyst faces the
PEM.
 Membrane electrode assembly
The backing layers, flow fields, and current collectors are designed to maximize the current
from a membrane/electrode assembly.
The backing layers – one next to the anode, the other next to the cathode – are usually made of a
porous carbon paper or carbon cloth, about as thick as 4 to 12 sheets of paper. The backing
layers have to be made of a material (like carbon) that can conduct the electrons that leave the
anode and enter the cathode. The porous nature of the backing material ensures effective
diffusion (flow of gas molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration) of each reactant gas to the catalyst on the membrane/electrode assembly. The gas
spreads out as it diffuses so that when it penetrates the backing, it will be in contact with the
entire surface area of the catalyzed membrane.
The backing layers also help in managing water in the fuel cell; too little or too much water can
cause the cell to stop operating. Water can build up in the flow channels of the plates or can clog
the pores in the carbon cloth (or carbon paper), preventing reactive gases from reaching the
electrodes.
The correct backing material allows the right amount of water vapor to reach the
membrane/electrode assembly and keep the membrane humidified. The backing layers are often
coated with Teflon to ensure that at least some, and preferably most, of the pores in the carbon
cloth (or carbon paper) do not become clogged with water, which would prevent the rapid gas
diffusion necessary for a good rate of reaction at the electrodes.
 Membrane electrode assembly

Photograph of the bipolar plates that serve as

both flow field and current collectors in PEM
fuel cells. The plates are made of a lightweight,
strong, gas-impermeable, electron-conducting
material-graphite or metals are commonly used,
although composite plates are now being
developed.
Membrane electrode assembly
The first task served by each plate is to provide a gas "flow field." Channels are
etched into the side of the plate next to the backing layer. The channels carry the
reactant gas from the place where it enters the fuel cell to the place where it exits.
The pattern of the flow field in the plate (as well as the width and depth of the
channels) has a large impact on how evenly the reactant gases are spread across the
active area of the membrane/electrode assembly. Flow field design also affects water
supply to the membrane and water removal from the cathode.
Each plate also acts as a current collector. Electrons produced by the oxidation of
hydrogen must (1) be conducted through the anode, through the backing layer, along
the length of the stack, and through the plate before they can exit the cell; (2) travel
through an external circuit, and (3) re-enter the cell at the cathode plate. With the
addition of the flow fields and current collectors, the PEM fuel cell is complete;
only a load-containing external circuit, such as an electric motor, is required for
electric current to flow.
 Working Principle of PEMFC
A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and
oxygen to create electricity by an electrochemical process.

A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin

electrodes (a porous anode and cathode). Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel,
is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates hydrogen's negatively charged
electrons from positively charged ions (protons).
At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with
species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions,
respectively .
 Working Principle of PEMFC
The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to
the positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to
reach the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical current.

The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several factors, such as
fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the pressure at
which the gases are supplied to the cell.
Still, a single fuel cell produces enough electricity for only the smallest applications.
Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically combined in series into a fuel cell stack.
A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of fuel cells.
How a Fuel Cell Works (Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC))
 Classification of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind
of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the
fuel required, and other factors.

There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with
its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications.
 Classification of Fuel Cells
Based on the type of Electrolyte
1. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)
2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
3. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell(PEMFC)
Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) and
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
 Classification of Fuel Cells
Based on Types of Fuel and oxidant
1. Hydrogen (pure)-Oxygen (pure) fuel cell
2. Hydrogen rich gas-air fuel cell
3. Ammonia –air fuel cell
4. Synthesis gas- air fuel cell
5. Hydro carbon (gas)- air fuel cell

Based on operating temperature

Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed
hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a
solution of potassium hydroxide (chemically,
KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is
about 70 percent, and operating temperature is
150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees
F). Cell output ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5
kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo
spacecraft to provide both electricity and
drinking water. They require pure hydrogen
fuel, however, and their platinum electrode
catalysts are expensive. And like any container
filled with liquid, they can leak.
Drawing of an alkali cell.
 Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature
compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates
(chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60
to 80 percent, and operating temperature is about 650 degrees C
(1,200 degrees F). Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW)
have been constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100
MW. The high temperature limits damage from carbon
monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and waste heat can be
recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-
catalysts are inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other
cells. But the high temperature also limits the materials and safe
uses of MCFCs–they would probably be too hot for home use.
Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the
reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to
compensate.
Drawing of a molten carbonate cell
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC)
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use
phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency
ranges from 40 to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C
(about 300 to 400 degrees F). Existing phosphoric
acid cells have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW
units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon
monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use.
If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed.
Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and
internal parts must be able to withstand the
corrosive acid.
Drawing of how both phosphoric acid fuel cells operate.
 Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells
work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a
thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50
percent, and operating temperature is about 80
degrees C (about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs
generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid,
flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these
cells operate at a low enough temperature to make
them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels
must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is used on
both sides of the membrane, raising costs.
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic
compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60
percent, and operating temperatures are about 1,000
degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F). Cells output is up to
100 kW. At such high temperatures a reformer is not
required to extract hydrogen from the fuel, and waste
heat can be recycled to make additional electricity.
However, the high temperature limits applications of
SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid
electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.

Drawing of a solid oxide cell

Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell
Are hydrogen fuel cells renewable?

Both convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric
power. However, the fuel cell will produce electricity as long as fuel
(hydrogen) is supplied, never losing its charge. ... Renewable energy sources,
like the sun and wind, can't produce energy all the time.
 Advantages
•Fuel cell power is usually proposed as the green, alternative to the internal
combustion engine, fuelled only hydrogen and leaving no pollutants other than
water.
•Simple fuel requirements needing hydrogen fuel only, taking their oxygen from
the air.
•No recharging is necessary.
•No time lost through recharging. (Acts like a perpetual primary cell)
•So long as fuel provided, the cells can provide constant power in remote
locations.
•Practical fuel cells already have efficiencies as high as 60%
•Fuel cells deliver maximum efficiency at low power levels.( This is the reverse of
the internal combustion engine)
•For transport applications fuel cell vehicles offer higher "well to wheel" (WTW)
efficiencies than conventional internal combustion engines.
 Fuel Cell Efficiency
The fuel cell thermodynamic efficiency is given by the ratio of the Gibbs function
change to the Enthalpy change in the overall cell reaction. The Gibbs function change
measures the electrical work and the enthalpy change is a measure of the heating
value of the fuel.
Efficiency = (dG/dH) X 100 %
For the hydrogen -oxygen reaction: dH = - 68,317 cal/g mole of H2, and dG = -
56,690 cal/g mole of H2 .

The efficiency of the Ideal Fuel Cell is therefore:

Efficiency = (56,690/68,317) X 100 = 83%
Fuel Cell Efficiency
Another measure of the fuel cell efficiency is known as the "Voltage Efficiency" and
is the ratio of the actual voltage under operating conditions to the theoretical cell
voltage.

Voltage Efficiency = (Actual Voltage)/(Theoretical Voltage) = (VA / 1.23)

 Shortcomings
The environmentally friendly credentials of fuel cells overlook the processes needed to generate
and distribute the hydrogen fuel. Fuel cells merely shift the pollution from the vehicle to some
other location.

Today, 98% of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuel sources.

According to researchers Andrew and Jim Oswald from Warwick University: To replace petrol
and diesel used for road transport in Britain with hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of water
would require the building of 100 nuclear power stations or 100,000 wind turbines. If the wind
turbines were sited off-shore, this would mean an approximately 10-kilometre-deep strip of
wind turbines encircling the entire coastline of the British Isles. If sited on-shore then an area
larger than the whole of Wales would have to be given over to wind turbines.
 Shortcomings
A major factor inhibiting market take off is the lack of available infrastructure to provide
the hydrogen fuel. Hydrogen fuel can be supplied in pure form in cylinders or the on board
cylinders can be refilled at special refueling stations. Despite safety precautions there is
still a perception by the general public that hydrogen fuel is unsafe.

Alternatively hydrogen can be generated on board, as required, from hydrocarbon fuels

such as Ethanol, Methanol, Petrol or Compressed Natural Gas in a process known as
reforming. This is not an ideal solution. Reforming generates carbon dioxide as a waste
product losing some of the green benefits of fuel cells. It is also expensive and it is like
carrying your own chemical plant with you, but it does simplify the fuel supply
infrastructure problem, however the fuel could just as easily power an internal combustion
engine directly.
 Shortcomings
Even ignoring these problems there are still many shortcomings in using fuel cells
for prime motive power.

The low cell voltage 0.6 - 0.7 Volts means that the system needs a lot of cells to
obtain a normal operating voltage of 200 - 300 Volts to power the drive train motor.

Power is generated as required but the process is not reversible within the fuel cell
and so, like a primary cell, it can not accept regenerative braking loads.

Fuel cells generate electrical energy but they can not store electrical energy.
 Shortcomings

Fuel cells have a low dynamic range and slow transient response which causes an
unacceptable lag in responding to calls for power by the driver. A power boost from
a battery or from supercapacitors is therefore needed to achieve the desired system
performance.

Most designs need to work at high temperatures in order to achieve reasonable

operating efficiencies. To generate the same efficiencies at lower temperatures
requires large quantities of expensive catalysts such as platinum.
 Shortcomings

Low temperature freeze-up of the electrolyte.

Electrodes which are prone to contamination.

Due to the need to use of exotic materials and complex system designs the system
are still very expensive.

Theoretically a fuel cell should be all that is needed to power an electric vehicle,
however batteries are still needed to support fuel cell systems.
 Battery Support

Batteries are needed in fuel cell vehicle applications for the following functions:
•During start- up to heat the fuel cell stack and the electrolyte to the optimum
working temperature
•To pump the working fluids through the stack (air, hydrogen, water)
•To power the reformer if hydrogen is generated on board
•To provide short term power boosts to compensate for the fuel cell's slow response
to sudden power demands (acceleration)
•To capture regenerative braking energy
•To power the vehicle's low voltage electrical systems
 Applications
For automotive applications fuel cells are only suited to hybrid applications for
providing the base power load with the demand peaks and troughs, and regenerative
braking, being accommodated by batteries or booster capacitors. The fuel cell can
therefore be dimensioned to work at its optimum working point, providing the
average power rather than the peak power requirement permitting significant cost
savings.

Fuel cells have been used successfully in aerospace applications.

Simple low power demonstrator kits are available for education purposes.

Perhaps the best applications for fuel cells will be for high power load levelling.

Prototypes of Direct Methanol cells are currently being trialled for mobile phone
and laptop computer applications.
 Costs
For a true comparison of alternative system efficiencies, costs and benefits, each
alternative should be based on the same fuel source. Using oil as the original source
of the energy the "well to wheel" cost provides a rational comparison of the energy
utilisation efficiency of different systems.
But oil is not the only source of energy. Electrical energy used to power electrical
vehicles or to produce the hydrogen to feed the fuel cells can be derived from a wide
variety of sources. These may include power stations fuelled by oil, or coal or hydro
or nuclear power, or renewable resources such as wind, wave and solar power. There
can thus be a huge variation in costs and environmental impacts depending on the
methods used to supply the necessary fuel.

Although many working systems for different applications have been built, practical,
cost effective products are still perhaps ten years away.
 Specifications
Fuel cell power generation unit

Specifications Remarks

Power generation output 250W - 700W

Electrical efficiency 39% (38%) *1 *2

Total efficiency 95% *1

Cell design life 80,000 hours

Output voltage AC100 / 200V

Ambient temperature -10°C - 43°C

Hot water temperature >60°C at exit

Fuel City gas / LPG

Noise 37dB (A)

Operation mode Automatic (learning control type)

Start-up time >60 min. (70 min.)

Dimensions W780 × D300 × H1000mm

Weight (dry) 94kg

Option:
Cold-region model, domestic natural gas model
*1
See the low-heating value reference (LHV). At rated operation.
*2
The values in brackets indicate the case using LPG.

Hot water storage tank unit

By Chofu Seisakusho By Noritz
Storage tank capacity 200L 200L
Dimensions W750 × D440 × H1760mm W750 × D440 × H1755mm
Weight (dry) 92kg 92kg
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
waves, and geothermal heat.
Fuel cells can use hydrogen produced from renewable electricity sources or be
powered by other fuels, such as natural gas. They are basically emission-free, quiet
and efficient, and very reliable. ... Fuel cells can also meet daily needs and provide
consistent, high-quality power regardless of electric grid disruptions.
Difference between Fuel cell and Battery
Battery Fuel Cell
1) Battery is a close system. Fuel cell is open system.

2) Chemical Changes occurs There is no change in chemical

composition of electrolyte.
3) Fuel supply intermittent. Fuel supply continuous.

4) No isothermal reaction Isothermal reaction inside.

inside.
5) Supply power for definite Fuel cell supply power for
length of time. indefinite length of time.
Hydrogen benefits
Widespread use of hydrogen as an energy source in this country could help address
concerns about energy security, global climate change, and air quality. Fuel cells are
an important enabling technology for the hydrogen future and have the potential to
revolutionize the way we power our nation, offering cleaner, more efficient
alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other fossil fuels. Hydrogen's main
benefits are:
 Stronger national energy security
 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions
 Improved air quality
 Increased energy efficiency.