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CIV 4105 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES III (TIMBER AND MASONRY)

Course Description
This course is intended to cover the basic design of structural elements constructed of Masonry
and Timber. The extensive use of masonry and timber in building construction renders the course
on design of masonry and timber structures an important part in training of a well-rounded and
practical degree in civil engineering. Naturally, the course is divided into two parts, namely
masonry and timber.
Course Content

A) MASONRY

1. Structural Masonry: Materials, Structural Forms, Material Properties, Limit State Design

2. Axially Loaded Walls: Design Criteria, Single—Leaf Masonry Walls, Stiffened Single—
Leaf Masonry Walls, Cavity Walls, including Jointed Wall and Grouted Cavity Walls, Walls
subjected to Concentrated Walls, Masonry Column

3. Laterally Loaded Walls: Design Criteria, Single—Leaf Wall, Stiffened Single—Leaf Wall,
Cavity Wall, Single—Leaf Wall with Pre-Compression, Free Standing Boundary Wall, Walls
Containing Openings.

4. Reinforced and Prestressed Masonry: Reinforced Masonry, Reinforced Masonry

Beam, Reinforced Masonry Wall, Prestressed Masonry.

B) TIMBER

1. Wood Buildings: Gravity loads, Deflection Criteria, Lateral Loads and Load
Combinations.

2. Properties of Wood and Grading of Timber: Classification of trees, Cellular makeup,

Effects of Moisture and shrinkage, Growth characteristics and defects, Strength modifiers
for natural defects, Grading of Timber.
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3. Elements Design: Bending Elements (beams, girders and built-up beam sections), Axial
Loaded Elements (Tension; Tension + Bending), Axial Loaded Elements (Compression;
Compression + Bending)
4. Nailed and Bolted Connections: Types of Nails, Factors affecting strength, Laterally
Loaded Connections, Withdrawal Type Connections, Spacing Requirements, Bolted
Connection.

Mode of Assessment
Course work 40%
Final examination 60%
Total 100%

COURSE FACILITATORS
1. Anthony Rucukye-Timber Design
2. Felixon Ngyero –Masonry Design

References

1. Design of Structural Masonry by W.M.C. McKenzie

2. Design of Structural Timber to Eurocode 5 by William M C McKenzie and Binsheng Zhang
3. Design of Structural Elements: Concrete, Steelwork, Masonry and Timber to British
Standards and Eurocodes by Chanakya Arya
4. BS EN 338 Structural timber — Strength Classes
5. BS EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures-Part 1-1 General-Common Rules
and Rules for Buildings
6. BS EN 1991-1-4 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. Part 1-4: General Actions-Wind
Actions
7. US 319:2003 Uganda Standard: Seismic Code of practice for structural design
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TIMBER AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

DEFINITION AND HISTORICAL PURPOSES OF TIMBER

Historical purposes of wood

Wood has been used for many centuries for building (including temporary formwork and
scaffolding, roof trusses and rafters, furniture and fittings), wood frame buildings, wood arches
& Highway/footway bridges, and in wood component structures in combination with other
materials. In this case, the connection between the two dissimilar materials is an engineering
concern.
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Wood has been widely used historically because of several factors, namely:

 It is easily worked and shaped using simple hand tools

 There is a lot of experience in the use of wood; it is a traditional building material
 It has the ability to absorb shocks from sudden loads
 Wood is rust and corrosion free when treated.
 The material is comparatively lightweight yet it retains its strength and toughness
 It is versatile i.e. adaptable to countless variety of purposes.
 It is generally available in most parts of the world (vegetation comprises 30% of the
earth’s land surface).
 It has excellent thermal insulation properties
 Wood surfaces have an attractive appearance
 It is relatively inexpensive.

Recent trends in the global economy have witnessed increased sacrifice of the environment for
the sake of economic enhancement. Forest cover is being radically cleared to pave way for
industrialization and investment. However, from a historical perspective, wood has been and
remains an essential material for the enhancement of human livelihood and well-being.
Consequently, it is necessary to ensure its availability for generations to come. Several measures
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have been forwarded for the conservation of wood sources. These include: -

i) Reforestation
ii) Better forest care and management
iii) Identification and control of pests and diseases
iv) Prevention and control of forest fires
v) Economic use of available timber.

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD

A typical tree has 3 components that form its structure, i.e. the roots, the trunk/stem and the
crown.

Roots: The roots absorb water and minerals from the soil which are transported via the trunk to
the crown. They also provide efficient anchorage for the growing tree against wind forces

The Trunk: The trunk acts as a two-way transport system for water and minerals up from the
roots to the crown, and sap down from the crown. It provides mechanical strength to the
branches and rigidity to the entire tree structure. Additionally, the trunk stores sap and later
converts it to a form needed for growth.

The Crown: Crown leaves capture as much energy from the sun as possible. This is
accomplished through photosynthesis where light energy from the sun rays enables the leaves to
convert nutrients and minerals received from the soil into nourishment for the plant.
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Bark: This forms the outer layer of the trunk. It is a rough textured dense material and acts as a
protective coating for the inner layers against extreme temperature, drought and mechanical
damage.

Bast: This is the inner bark. It is softer and moister than the outer bark. It conducts sap from the
leaves to the areas of active growth or storage.

Cambium: in this region, growth takes place by the addition of outer layers of new tissue by cell
division.

Growth rings: The growth pattern of trees is such that a new layer of tissue is laid down each
growth season. For trees that grow in temperate regions, these are called annual rings. In some
hardwoods, there may be more than one growth ring per growth year and the growth rings may
be indistinct due to less consistent growth throughout the year.

Medullary rays: there are a small percentage of cells which grow in a horizontal direction, i.e. at
right angles to the growth rings. They are used to transfer food from the inner bark to its storage
points and subsequent conversion areas for use.

Heartwood: this is the central part of the tree concerned with providing mechanical rigidity to
the tree structure and in some trees it is darker in colour.
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Sap wood: it is a thin layer formed by the outer or younger growth layers. In some of its cells,
moisture from the roots is transported up to the crown, while in other; sap from the crown is
stored and later converted. It has a high moisture content and poor durability due to high starch
content.

Pith: it is also called Medulla and it is at the centre of the trunk.

Growth structure of trees

Trees grow to maturity by adding layers of wood cells in concentric rings annually. They are
exogens. New wood is produced outside the previous growth until the main stems/trunks
are large enough to be cut and sawn into timber.

The opposite of this kind of growth are endogens species such as bamboo and certain palms
which have no growth rings and their fibres run parallel to the stems.

Characteristics of good timber

o It should be from the heart of a sound tree and be free from sap.
o It should have straight and close fibres.
o It should be of uniform colour.
o It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is a sign of internal decay.
o It should have regular annular rings. Timber with narrow annual rings is generally the
strongest.
o Freshly sawn surface should give sweet smell and while sawing, the teeth of the saw should
not get clogged.
o It should be free from dead knots, from too many knots, shakes and
other defects.
o It should have firm adhesion of fibers and compact medullary rays.

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER

Timber is classified as

1. Hard wood
2. Soft wood
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Hard woods

These are known as deciduous trees by botanists. They have broad leaves which they
shed seasonally. They are also called Angiosperms or dicotyledonous trees. Hardwood
timber is comparatively heavier and is darker in colour and difficult to work. It is close-
grained and strong. They resist shearing stresses and contain a large percentage of acid.

Examples in Uganda include: -

Botanical name Local or trade name
Kyaya spp Mahogany
Albizia coriaria Mugavu
Chlorophora Excelsa Mvule
Maesopsis Eminii Musizi
Eucalyptus gundis Kalitunsi

This wood is used for furniture, doors and frames, windows, joinery works, etc.

Softwoods

They are known as conifers by botanists. These trees have needle like leaves and are
evergreen. Softwoods are also called gymnosperms and they bear their seeds in cones. Timber
from softwood trees is light in colour and weight and its annular rings are very distinct. It is
strong to resist tension and its texture is soft and regular. Examples in Uganda include: -
Botanical name Local or trade name
Pado carpus spp Podo
Euprassus spp Cypress

They are commonly used for beams, floor planks, roof works, general construction works.

MANUFACTURE OF TIMBER

Logging

Logging consists of the following stages

 Felling: involves selecting and cutting down trees using axes, cross saws or power saws
 Bucking: is the removal of branches and cutting 3-15 metre pieces
 Skidding: assembling together of felled pieces
 Hauling: transporting the pieces to a saw mill.
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Saw milling or conversion

This refers to the process of sawing the felled trunks into marketable sizes of timber. It consists
of

 Sawing: the logs are sawn into manageable sizes

 De-barking: the process of removal of the bark from the logs
 Head sawing: involves the cutting of timber into various sizes and shapes. This is
either done by plain sawing (and billet sawing) or Quarter sawing
 Edge trimming: extra sawing done for further accuracy.

SEASONING

This is a process of drying timber in a controlled manner to reduce the moisture content to below
20% without introducing unwanted defects such as splits or distortions. Unseasoned timber has
moisture in both the cell cavities and the cell walls.

The Fiber Saturation Point is the point at which all the free water has been removed from the cell
cavities (approximate water content of 20%) and it results in reduction of the effective bulk
density. Drying beyond this point causes shrinkage of the timber.

There are two methods of seasoning timber. A combination of the two methods however gives
the quickest and satisfactory results.

Natural air seasoning

The timber is stacked in open air in
open sided sheds to promote drying
without artificial assistance.

Timber is kept clear of the ground to

prevent rain splashes. The adjacent
pieces of timer are separated by 25mm air
spaces.
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This method has the advantages of being very cheap and results in very little loss of quality if it is
done properly.

Disadvantages:

 It takes a long time and space is utilized for long periods.

 There is little control of the moisture loss or gain since it is dependent upon weather
conditions.

Kiln drying

This method employs a heated (up to 800C), ventilated, and humidified chamber. This method is
used to

 Humidify the circulating air in order to control the rate of evaporation

 Provide uniform air circulation with sufficiently high velocity for economic operation.

Air circulation carries the heat from the steam pipes to the timber and takes away the evaporated
moisture. To a great extent the manner of air circulation determines the type of kiln. Where the
air flow is maintained by natural means, it is known as natural draught kiln. Where the air blow is
accelerated by blowers or fans, it is known as a forced-draught kiln.

It has the advantage of being rapid and thus timber can be readily used for structural purposes.

STRESS GRADING OF TIMBER

Stress grading of timber is the assessment of the strength properties of timber sections. Timber is
a natural organic material and therefore is subject to wide variability because of environmental,
species and genetic effects. This variability affects both visible quality and strength.

If, for any particular property and species only one design stress were specified, this would have
to be set so low (to allow for variability) that the material would have a very limited structural
application. In consequence, a number of stress grades have been adopted, leading not only to a
more economic use of the material but also to a higher yield of structurally useful material.

There are two main methods for stress grading for solid timber
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1. Visual stress grading

In visual grading, data obtained from clear material (straight grained and free from knots and
fissures) are analyzed statistically for each species and basic stresses for each property are
derived. These basic stresses are then reduced by factors which take into account of the strength-
reducing effects of the permissible growth characteristics for each stress grade. The procedure
involves the inspection of all four faces of the timber over its whole length to assess defects
which result in strength reduction.
The process is quite slow and does not take into account the density of the material. Visual
stress grading is good for both softwoods and hardwoods. At the present time, there are two sets
of quality requirements for visual stress grading, one for softwoods and one for hardwoods.
BS4978 sets the requirements for 2 grades of solid softwood timber (both SS and GS). BS 5756
sets the standards for tropical hardwoods.

2. Mechanical grading.
Mechanical stress grading is a method of non-destructive testing each piece to be graded. The
piece is bent under a constant central load over a constant short span. The strength of the material
can then be calculated accurately from the resultant deflection. The method correlates stiffness
and bending strength properties of timber sections.

Mechanical stress grading is more reliable and rapid than the visual stress grading. The task of a
structural engineer is simplified by grouping timber species into 16 strength classes for which
typical design parameters e.g. grade stresses and moduli of elasticity have been produced.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMBER

i) Strength
The basic strength values of timber are determined on small clear specimens of wood and these
figures do not take into account the effect of naturally occurring characteristics and other factors.
For the purpose of design, the effect of naturally occurring characteristics and other factors shall
be considered as specified below

 Density: The greater the density of the timber, the more the strength
 Moisture content: Increased moisture content results in lower timber strength
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 Grain structure: discontinuity causes a reduction in timber strength. Close grained timber
is stronger than loose grained timber. 6 rings per 2.5cm should be considered as the
minimum requirement for the closeness of grain in structural timber. If it is not possible
to observe the rings, this provision should be overruled.
 Defects: these may arise due to growth, conversion or seasoning and they may affect the
timber strength. Defects include knots, checks, cracks, splits, etc. These defects reduce
the resistance to shear almost directly in proportion to the size of the check or shake.

ii) Moisture content

The percentage moisture content of timber is based on the oven-dry weight of wood. For
determining moisture content, at least three representative random samples should be tested. The
samples should be dried in an oven at a temperature of 1000C to 1050C till the dry weight is
constant.

Where G1 is the original weight and G2 is the oven-dry weight.

Classification of timber by moisture content

 Moist-35% and above

 Air dry-15% to 20%
 Room dry-8% to 13%
15% is the acceptable standard for structural timber.

In a living tree M.C may be as high as 200%. The average moisture content that timber assumes
in service is called Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). In most cases, the M.C at construction
time will be higher than the EMC of the building.

Water contained in the cell cavity is known as free water and that within the cell walls is known
as bound water. As wood dries, the first water to be driven off is free water. The M.C that
corresponds to a complete loss of free water is called Fibre Saturation Point (FSP). No changes
in volume or other structural properties are associated with changes in moisture content above
the FSP.
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However, with M.C below the FSP, bound water is lost and volume change occurs. If moisture is
lost, wood shrinks. Decrease in M.C below the FSP is accompanied by increase in all strength
properties. The accompanying shrinkage does offset some of these increases but the net effect of
a loss of M.C below the FSP will be a benefit.

iii) Timber infestation

Timber in a dry and well ventilated place or continuously submerged under fresh water will last
indefinitely. However, when subjected to alternate dry and wet conditions or used in dark, damp
and unventilated positions, it deteriorates very soon. Timber may be infested by insects and
fungal attack.

a) Insects: These include wood boring insects, beetles, marine organisms, etc.
 Wood boring: most commonly termites. Termites exist in several types such
as subterranean termites (which require access to soil and water), Dry wood
termites, and tree dwelling termites. Damage due to wood boring insects can
be prevented by using metal shields. Alternatively, poisoned cell barriers can
be used.
 Bettles: these include Lyctidae (tree powder post beetles), Lyctus (attack
sapwood of poorly seasoned hardwood), Anobiidae (digest cellulose and
hemi-cellulose), and bost Hichid bettles which even attack bamboo.
 Marine organisms: these can be categorized as crustaceans and Molluscs.
b) Fungal attack: this includes both the destructive and non-destructive fungi. Destructive
fungi include soft rot, brown rot and white rot.

iv) Fire resistance

Timber has relatively low fire resistance. Fire proofing is a process of making timber resistant to
fire to a degree that is difficult to ignite and will not support its own combustion. The
recommended method is by pressure impregnation of timber with chemicals such as ammonium
mono or diphosphate, sodium arsenate, etc.

Because timber is a combustible material, its use of timber is limited to:-

• Buildings of limited floor areas

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• Height limited to two or even 3 floors depending on occupancy

• Usually residential buildings

For heavy timber, large size wood members in a fire form a protective coating of char insulating
the inner core. Fire protective coatings can also be used to increase fire resistance.

DEFECTS OF TIMBER
Defects of timber can be grouped in to two categories: those developed during the growth of the
tree (natural defects) and those developed after the tree has been cut (include chemical defects,
conversion defects and seasoning defects).

Defects developed during the growth of the tree.

These are natural defects that arise during the tree’s growth period. They include:

i) Category I consists of

 Checks, shakes and splits. Shakes

are separations of fibre along the
grain developed in the standing tree.
They are caused by the development
of high internal stresses probably
caused by the maturity of the tree.
The shake is the result of stress
relief and in the first place results in
a single longitudinal crack from the
heart and through the diameter of
the tree.

Others are: -

 Cracks and fissures

 Twisted fibres
 Heart shakes
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ii) Rind galls, Burr and curl

 Rind galls are peculiar swellings or indentations caused generally by the growth of layers
of sap wood over wounds that remain after a branch of tree has been imperfectly cut off.
These new layers do not unite properly with the old lot; thereby leaving cavities, where
in the timber starts to decay.
 Burr: buds
 Curl: points where a large branch intersects with a trunk.

iii) Upsets
Occur during the growth of the tree, when fibers are sometimes injured due to crushing resulting
in the breakage of continuity of fibers.

iv) Knots
Occur either at the root of a branch that is embedded in the stem. They are the result of trees
attempt to make branches in the early growth of the tree. They may also be the residue of a small
twig, shoot, etc that dried or was broken off by man or an animal in the wood and the tree
subsequently continued its growth over this wood.

Knots may be dead or loose, live or

sound, inter-grown and encased. When a
knot can be separated from the body of the
wood, it is known as a dead or loose knot.
Dead loose knots are extremely dangerous
to machinists. The cutters may pick these up
and eject them rapidly towards the operator.

Live knots are firmly attached to timber

and cannot be separated.

Timber with too many knots or with loose notes should not be used for structural purposes.
The more knots, the less the quality. The total knot area is used to determine the Knot Area
Ratio (KAR) which indicates the acceptability of a given piece of timber.

v) Annual Ring width: The greater the width of annual rings, the less the strength of
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the timber.

vi) Sap wood: sap wood is considered as easier to treat using preservatives, however is
less resistant to decay than heartwood. For strength consideration, no
distinction should be made between the heart wood and sap wood.
vii) Insect attack: see timber infestation
viii) Grain defects: Occur in the form of twisted grain, cross-grain or spiral grain. They
induce subsequent problems of distortions in use.
ix) Reaction wood: this is developed by the tree to resist wind or other forces that try
to bend the trunk or the branches. Such growth is denser and stronger than the
normal growth in any species. In hardwoods, reaction wood occurs on the side of
the trunk which is in tension and is referred to as tension wood, while in
softwoods, it normally forms on the side of the trunk in compression, and is then
known as compression wood.

Defects developed after the tree has been cut

These include:

i) Decay: this includes Dry rot and Wet rot.

 Dry rot is an attack on a timber by a fungus. The fungus reduces the
timber to a dry powder. Unseasoned timbers became an easy prey
to the fungus. To prevent dry rot, only seasoned timber should be
used. Also it should be ensured that the timber is used in a way that
there is free access to fresh air to all parts of the timber.
 Wet rot is decay of timber due to alternate wetting and drying. This
is not a fungal attack, but natural degradation that occurs due to
micro-organism action.
ii) Chemical defects: occur when timber is used in unsuitable positions or
with other reactive materials.
iii) Conversion defects: Wane and slope of grain are the most common conversion
defects.
 Wane occurs due to disproportionate volumetric changes in the
timber as it dries. Occurs when a corner of the piece is cut too close
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to the outer circumference of the tree.

 Slope of grain: this results where the tree does not grow straight or where the
log has not been cut parallel to the direction of growth. The mechanical
properties of wood are quite sensitive to fibre and ring orientation. For
example parallel-to-grain tensile or compressive strength property values are
generally 10 to 20 times greater than those perpendicular to grain. Deviations
from straight grain in a typical board are termed slope of grain or cross-grain.
The terms relate the fibre direction to the edges of the piece. Any form of
cross grain can have detrimental effects on mechanical properties.
iv) Seasoning defects: these may occur due to poor stacking of timber, inadequate spacing,
excessive or uneven drying, etc. They include cupping, twisting, wash boarding,
springing and Bowing, checks, Honey combing, and splits.
 Bowing: Bowing is a concave/convex distortion along the
length of the board. It is a seasoning and /or storage
defect caused by the failure to support the board with
stickers at sufficient intervals. The boards own weight
and probably those above it bears down and the
resultant bow is inevitable. This defect can and should
be avoided by careful use of stickers supporting the
board at the correct width.
 Springing: Spring: A spring is a concave/convex distortion
along the length of the board again but this time the
distortion is in the flat plane of the board. Usable
timber may be recovered from these boards by cutting a
straight edge and resawing. The grain direction however
may not be satisfactorily for aesthetics.
 Cupping: because of varying shrinkage rates, tangential
boards tend to cup because of the geometry of the
annual ring. It can be seen that some rings are much
longer than the others close to the heart. Therefore, they
will be more shrinkage at these parts than others-cupping
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is the result

 Splits: a separation of the wood fibres along the grain forming a fissure that extends through
the board from one side to the other. It is usual in end grain and is remedied by cutting away
the defected areas. All boards should have an allowance so that some end grain may be cut
away because of possible shakes or splits.
 Checks: A separation of the fibers along the grain forming a fissure which shows up on one
face or at the end grain but does not continue through to the other side.
 Twisting: Spiral or corkscrew distortion in a longitudinal direction of the board.

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Timber is preserved to increase its durability and resistance to insect attack and fungal decay.

Requirements of preservatives

 They must be poisonous to agents of decay and hence able to prevent or delay the decay.

 They should have high toxicity to wood destroying insects or fungi

 Should have permanency when applied
 Be economic to use
 Availability
 Penetrability
 Non-poisonous to humans, plants and animal life
 Non-corrosive to other building materials
 Should possess non-flammable qualities.

Classification of preservatives

a) Type I (Tar oil preservatives)

The major substance is coal tar creosote. It is water repellant and is applied by pressure
impregnation. It has high toxicity, relatively high permanence and is non-corrosive.

Disadvantages of this type include:

 They encourage flammability

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 Possess a bad odour

 Difficult to apply to paint treated timber
 Not suitable for internal use.

b) Type II (Organic Solvent Preservatives)

This type includes copper napthenate, zinc napthenate, D.D.T and others. They are used after
dissolving them in suitable organic solvents like solvent naptha, and petroleum products, such as
kerosene and white spirits. The choice of solvent depends on the solubility of the preservatives
and the use to which the treated timber is to be used.

Advantages:

 They are clean to handle and are permanent.

 They allow for the decoration of timber with a variety of paints.
 They are non-corrosive, and offer good penetration.
 There is no need to re-dry the timber once they are applied.

Disadvantage

Some of the solvents are volatile and inflammable; hence care is necessary in handling the
solutions.

c) Type III ( Water soluble ‘leachable’ and ‘fixed’ preservatives)

These are organic or inorganic salts, soluble in water. They include copper chrome Arsenate,
Zinc Chloride, Zinc meta arsenate, etc. They are comparatively inexpensive, easy to transport
and odourless except for sodium-penta-chloro-phenate and involve little fire hazard.

These preservatives are non-staining and timber treated with these preservatives can be painted
or varnished when dry. They are suitable for interior finishing. The ‘leachable’ type of water
soluble preservatives gradually lose concentration owing to the dissolving effect of water. The
‘fixed’ type on the other hand fix in the timber in the wood so that the toxic salts become
difficult to leach by the action of water. These however, require 3 to 6 weeks of treatment to
complete the fixation process.

Preparation for preservative treatment

The following stages are necessary:

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1. Seasoning up to at least the Fibre saturation point

2. All cutting and machining should be completed
3. The timber surface should be clean and dry

Methods of preservation

These methods depend on the end use of the timber, the risk category (the nature of the exposure
of the timber to the elements), and the amenability of species of timber to treatment.

a) Surface application
This is done by spraying or brushing in the preservative for a short period. At least two coats
should be applied. The second and subsequent coats should not be applied until the first has dried
or soaked into the wood. Where practicable, the treatment is done hot. Alternatively, the timber
can be flooded with the preservative to encourage absorption. Reasonable penetration is possible
for permeable timbers.

The method has limited scope and it is the least effective method. It is used mostly for treating
material at a site, remedial re-treatment of cut surfaces of insitu timber by solvent and emulsion
based treatment.

b) Immersion
In this treatment the timber is debarked and submerged in the preservative solution for a
sufficiently long period until the required absorption of the preservative is obtained. Organic
solvents are used and pre-heating may be used to encourage penetrability. The period of
immersion varies from a few seconds (deluging) to several days (steeping).

c) Hot and cold open tank process

Here, large metal tanks are used in which both the timber and preservative are heated to 800C for
several days. It is allowed to cool until the required absorption is obtained. During the heating
period, the air in the timber expands and is partially expelled. During the cooling, the residual air
in the timber contracts creating a partial vacuum which caused the preservative to be sucked into
the timber.

The method is very efficient and ensures penetration in permeable timber. It is simple to use and
economical. However, control problems do arise. The method is used for treating fence posts with
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creosote.

d) Pressure vacuum treatment

This is the most efficient and controllable method of timber preservation. It can be widely and
economically used. Pressure may be applied in two ways:

i) Full cell or bethel process:

Large enclosed pressure vessels are used and timber is placed in a vacuum and maintained for 1
hour. Preheated preservative is then introduced while maintaining the vacuum. The pressure is
gradually increased and maintained for some time to allow full penetration of the chemicals. The
pressure is then reduced and the vessel is emptied. The vacuum is then reintroduced for a short
while to clean the surface.

ii) Empty cell process

Timber in the pressure vessel is subjected to one initial pressure while the cylinder is filled with
preservative. The vacuum is then applied as described in the full cell process.

e) Diffusion process
This method does not require seasoned timber. High moisture timber may be used. Boron
compounds are applied to the timber surface and the timber stacked in a shade to control the loss
of moisture.

TIMBER PRODUCTS

Most timber products are the direct consequence of the excellent bonding properties of the
material. Smooth flat surfaces are easily obtained by planing and present a porous surface into
which adhesives can penetrate. The adhesive therefore grips the wood, providing bond strengths
that are often in excess of the cohesive strength of the material.

Timber products may offer the following advantages over solid timber:
 They are competitive in price on account of lower wastage rates. Smaller sections of the
tree, together with defective pieces and off-cuts, which are not suitable for solid timber
are often acceptable for timber products
 Products can be produced in much larger sizes than can be obtained in solid timber-for
example sheets or long lengths
 Defects associated with solid timber can be removed or made less significant
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 Weaknesses and distortion associated with the grain can be at least partly overcome.

Areas in which timber products could cause problems are:

 The product can only be as good as the adhesive used in its production. Some products
deteriorate quickly in damp conditions-as might prevail on a building site during
construction or in areas such as kitchens and bathrooms.
 Some adhesives increase wear and tear on cutting tools used for processing products
 Some timber products are not as aesthetically attractive as their solid timber counterparts
 Bending strengths are not in general as good as those of solid timber parallel to the grain
 Creep levels may be increased.

Timber products include wood fibre boards, glue laminated timber and plywood.

Wood fibre boards

These are produced by breaking wood down into its fibres and then pressing them together. The
product obtained depends on the process used (wet or dry), the adhesive used (if any) and the
pressure applied. They all have smooth surfaces reflecting their fibrous nature. These products
are classified by BS EN 316. Examples include:-

i) Hardboards: characterized by high densities, bending strengths and bond strengths. They
are widely used for internal linings for floors (under sheet coverings) and door skins.
They have also been used, fixed to a timber frame to carry loads over small internal
openings.
ii) Medium boards: can be used where low cost linings with better acoustic or thermal
insulation are required. They can also be plastered

iii) Softboards: mores suitable for ceiling applications where abrasion is not a problem. They
have good sound absorption properties
iv) MDF boards: these boards incorporate a synthetic adhesive and are produced using heat
and pressure. They are generally weaker than hardboards and standard types must be kept
dry. Smooth, high quality surfaces are obtainable and for this reason they are often
shaped and surfaced with a thermoplastics skin to produce substitutes for wood
mouldings with good dimensional stability at low cost.
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v) Particle boards (chipboards): formed by compressing small particles together under high
pressure. The process results in sheets with a fine, smooth surface but a coarser core.
They therefore should not be planed as the surface quality would be lost. Load bearing
versions of these materials in tongue and grooved form are excellent for flooring,
producing a flat smooth surface at a fraction of the cost of solid timber. For bathroom and
kitchen areas moisture resistant forms are required.

Glue laminated timber

A single product is built up of several layers of wood whose grain directions are substantially
parallel. Advantages include:-

 Increased strength
 Increased size
 Minimal defects
 Possible use of different species.
Plywood

Thin layers of wood are bonded together in such a way that the grain of each layer is at right
angles to the grain of the adjacent layer. Plywoods therefore have good strength properties in
both directions with better nailability near the edge than other sheet products. Odd numbers are
used to give a balanced construction and to reduce tending to cup. Each layer of plywood is
called a veneer.

Advantages

 Excellent strength across and along the panel

 Tendency to swell and shrink is neutralized
 Not easy to split
 Greater impact resistance to blows than ordinary wood
 Can be bent more easily
 Offers numerous decorative uses due to colour, texture, etc.
 Easy to apply decorations on the faces.