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Short A.D., and Jackson D.W.T. (2013) Beach Morphodynamics. In: John F. Shroder (ed.) Treatise on
Geomorphology, Volume 10, pp. 106-129. San Diego: Academic Press.
Langrangian circulation Fluid motion where the observer Swash Occurs when a wave reaches the dry shoreline and
follows the fluid particles as they move on a pathline of the immediately collapses and run up the beach face as a thin
whole water mass through space and time. layer of water, known as swash and up rush.
Nearshore zone The area between wave base and the area Swash zone The area between the shoreline where waves
of wave breaking the area over which waves shoal prior to collapse and run up the beach as swash, and the landward
breaking. limit of that swash.
Reflective beach A steep, narrow beach fronted by deeper Tide-dominated beach A beach where the tide range
water, with waves only breaking at the base of the beach and is more than 10 times the wave height. Typified by
being partially reflected back out to sea. a wide intertidal zone and daily migration of the surf
Rip current A narrow strong flow of water from the zone.
shoreline seaward through the surf zone. Tide-modified beach A beach where the tide range is
Sand Grains with diameters between 0.06 mm and 2 mm. between 3-10 times the wave height. Typified by a steeper
Sediment Material that has been eroded and transported high tide beach and wider low tide beach, which may have
by gravity, wind, water or ice; includes silt, sand, gravel, rips.
boulders, and organic debris. Wave-dominated beach A beach where the tide range is
Surf zone The area between the point of wave breaking less than three times the wave height. Typified by surf, bars
and the shoreline, also known as the breaker zone. and rips.
Contains surf zone currents that may move onshore,
alongshore and offshore.
Abstract
The morphodynamic approach to the study of beaches had its origins at the Coastal Studies Institute at Louisiana State
University in the late 1960s and formed the basis of the Australian approach beginning in the mid-1970s where it was
formalized by Wright and Thom (1977). Unlike the previous fragmented approach to beach studies, the morphodynamic
approach provided a time–space framework within which all beach systems could be located at timescales from the
instantaneous to the Quaternary, and spatially across all coastal environments. Equally important was the interdependence
of processes and morphological response, so that beach systems could be studied in a state of dynamic equilibrium with
the prevailing processes and boundary conditions. This approach enabled the full spectrum of beach systems and types to
be identified and characterized and is utilized to examine beach response at scales from the instantaneous, to event, to long
term. This chapter covers the development of the morphodynamic approach; its application within and across the beach
environment; the present level of understanding; and areas requiring more research.
10.5.1 Introduction Wright and Coleman’s (1971) classic study of deltas (also
Wright, 1976). When the CSI moved into beaches in the late
Beach morphodynamics refers to the dynamic interactions 1960s, it coincided with the arrival of Choule Sonu. Sonu
between wave shoaling and breaking processes and bed re- analyzed an 18-month time series of daily beach change col-
sponse across a range of time–space scales. This interaction lected at Nags Head, North Carolina, by then graduate student
becomes more complex with additional processes, such as tide Bob Dolan. He used these data to develop a two-dimensional
and wind, and boundary conditions such as antecedent (2D) beach change model (Sonu and van Beek, 1971). Then,
morphology, geology, sediment characteristics, and biota. The he led the first truly morphodynamic beach experiment called
morphodynamic approach to beaches and coastal systems ‘SALIS’ for sea–air–land–interactions. This experiment took
involves the recognition of the range of interactions occurring place at rip-dominated Destin Beach on the Florida panhandle
across the full beach system (wave base to swash limit). It in the summer of 1971. The study included measurements of
attempts to measure and model both salient processes and sea breeze, which generated the waves, beach and surf
morphological responses, together with the positive and zone topography, wave breaking, and surf zone circulation
negative feedbacks between process and response, which, (Figure 1; Sonu, 1972; Sonu et al., 1973); and out of which
through time, maintain a dynamic equilibrium across the Sonu and James (1973) recognized the Markovian nature of
beach system. beach behavior and Sonu (1973) developed the first three-
The morphodynamic approach to coastal systems had its dimensional (3D) beach model. CSI’s next field experiments
origins at the Coastal Studies Institute (CSI) at Louisiana State on the north Alaskan coast (Figure 2) resulted in Wiseman
University (LSU) in the 1960s, led consecutively by Richard et al. (1973) and Short et al. (1974) applying these models in
Russell, William McIntire, and Jim Coleman. These intrepid their study of the beaches along the north Alaska coast. Short
geoscientists, with Office of Naval Research (ONR) funding, (1975) also used wave measurements and field surveys from
roamed the world’s coasts and in doing so developed a holistic the multibarred, north Alaskan coast to corroborate the link
approach to the study and understanding of coastal systems. between standing waves and bar formation proposed by
This was first applied in a truly morphodynamic approach in Suhayda (1974) and Bowen (1975).
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108 Beach Morphodynamics
Coastal flows
Energy
losses Topography
Boundary layer
flows
Terrigenous
sediments
Sediment transport
Sediment Stratigraphy
loss
Figure 1 Swash zone measurements at Destin, Florida during the Sediment balance
1971 SALIS experiments. Photo by A.D. Short.
Autogenic
sediment
gains and
Erosion/deposition
losses ∆t
Environmental conditions
Figure 3 The morphodynamic relationships between boundary
conditions (topography), inputs, interactions (central boxes) and
resulting surface morphology (topography), and underlying stratigraphy
in the coastal environment. Reproduced from Cowell, P.J., Thom, B.G.,
1994. Morphodynamics of coastal evolution. In: Carter, R.W.G.,
Woodroffe, C.D. (Eds.), Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary Shoreline
Morphodynamics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 33–86.
Figure 2 Surveying a north Alaskan barrier island beach in 1972, 1. the character and spatiotemporal variability of coastal en-
while waves break and ice grounds on the offshore bar. Photo by vironmental conditions;
A.D. Short. 2. the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes of
interaction and transformation which operate within the
coastal system to produce morphologic patterns and mor-
Two CSI members of both the Destin and Alaskan field
phologic changes; and
teams, Don Wright and Andy Short, went on to form the
3. the short- and long-term evolutionary sequences that ul-
Coastal Studies Unit (CSU) at the University of Sydney in
timately yield preserved morphologies and stratigraphies,
1976 and in doing so took the morphodynamics approach
and which progressively alter the dynamic environment
with them to Australia. It was in Australia, using the country’s
and process combinations.
vast range of wave–beach–tide environments, that the CSU
team was able to rigorously apply the morphodynamic These interactions, illustrated in Figure 3, show topographic
approach across a wide range of coastal domains. and process boundary conditions; interactions between dy-
The breadth of their approach was detailed in Wright and namic process and morphology that produce sediment trans-
Thom (1977) wherein Wright teamed with another CSI–LSU port and change; and, finally, the topographic expression and
graduate, Bruce Thom, to write the first paper to review the underlying stratigraphy, that partly records these events and that
morphodynamic approach to what they called ‘coastal de- forms the basis of coastal depositional landforms.
positional landforms’. Although the paper had its foundations Wright and Thom (1977) clearly saw the approach being
in their experience at CSI–LSU, they also appreciated the re- applied at all timescales, from the instantaneous to the Qua-
cent advances in mathematical modeling of hydrodynamic ternary, and in all manner of coastal depositional systems
processes and the rapid advances being made in both com- from beaches to deltas and dunes. It is interesting that al-
puter technology and the instrumentation with which to though the beach fraternity has grasped this approach, it has
measure, record, store, and analyze the vast quantities of field not had the same reception in other fields of geomorphology.
data becoming available. For the first time, it was possible to This may be explained in part by the fact that Wright, Thom,
accurately and simultaneously record waves and currents, and colleagues in Australia were already applying it to beach
sediment transport, and bed changes, and to test these against morphodynamics with a series of papers in the late 1970s to
theories of nearshore wave behavior and bed response (e.g., the early 1980s establishing a firm foundation in the beach
Bowen and Inman, 1969, 1971). environment, as well as presenting the now well-entrenched
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Beach Morphodynamics 109
Seasonal wave
Seasons
climate
Seasonal beach cycles
Months Tide cycles storm
events
Instant- Beach migration
Days aneous Beach face Wave trains
beach model. What followed was a series of morphodynamics swash waves, tide, and wind), the sediment of the beach en-
papers and reports from the CSU reporting on: time series of vironment, and any ancillary boundaries, such that changes
beach change (Short, 1978, 1979; Wright et al., 1979; Thom and in one lead to adjustment and changes in the other in an
Hall, 1991); beach experiments across a wide range of wave–tide attempt to maintain a dynamic equilibrium, minimizing the
environments (e.g., Wright et al., 1982a, 1982b, 1982c); dune need for further change. The development of a morphody-
environments (Short and Hesp, 1982; Hesp, 1983); regional- namics approach to beach studies in the 1970s provided
scale morphodynamics and its relation to coastal evolution a major new paradigm that revolutionized the way beaches
across contemporary to Quaternary timescales (Short and Hesp, were studied and accompanied an explosion in our under-
1984; Short and Fotheringham 1986; Short et al., 1986); and standing and study of beach systems. In theory, at least, it
across the shoreface (Cowell et al., 1992, 1999). enabled the study of beaches to be scaled up from the in-
The best review of the morphodynamic approach can be stantaneous to the Quaternary and vice versa. The fragmented
found in Cowell and Thom (1994) where, following on from approach to beaches and beach systems was replaced with an
Wright and Thom (1977), they emphasized the applicability integrated approach that linked the full spectrum of beaches
of the approach across a broad range of time and space scales in time and space. Within each beach system, the morpho-
(Figure 4). The following year, Wright (1995) published his dynamics approach accommodated the 2D, cross-shore rela-
book dealing with the morphodynamics of continental tionship between shoaling and breaking waves, the surf zone
shelves, thereby taking the approach into the larger time and and swash, and the underlying mobile topography, including
space scale (Figure 5). The morphodynamic approach can the nearshore slope, surf zone topography, and beach face
therefore be applied to any geomorphic system across any slope; as well as 3D beach responses to changing wave–tide
time and space scale. The remainder of this chapter focuses on conditions. Between beach systems, the approach explains
its application across the beach–shoreface environment, as the transition in processes and form across the spectrum from
defined in Figure 5. high-energy, wave-dominated beaches to low-energy tide-
dominated systems. The level of interactions and explanation
can be scaled from the instantaneous as the boundary layer
10.5.2 Beach Morphodynamics interacts with sand gains and bedforms, through beach
erosion–accretion cycles, to large-scale coastal behavior, to
Beach morphodynamics refers to the mutual interaction be- Holocene and Quaternary shoreline evolution and stratig-
tween hydrodynamic processes (principally shoaling-breaking raphy (Figure 4).
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110 Beach Morphodynamics
y
x
Dunes and Beach Upper shoreface Lower shoreface
backshore berm
Surf zone Nearshore (wave shoaling zone) Offshore
Low tide
Limit of runup
Break Wave base?
in slope?
(a) Johnson shoreface
Seasons
Years
Decades
(c) Time-scale dependent extent of shoreface
Centuries
Millennia
Figure 5 The shoreface is affected by shoaling waves, breaking waves and swash at scales from instantaneous to millennia. Each produces a
characteristic bed response and all are linked through time and space by morphodynamic couplings. Reproduced with permission from Cowell,
P.J., Hanslow, D.J., Meleo, J.F, 1999. The Shoreface. In: Short, A.D. (Ed.), Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics. Wiley,
Chichester, pp. 37–71.
10.5.2.1 Beach Time Series Wright et al., 1985); bar number (B! Short and Aagaard,
1993); and embaymentized circulation (d’, Short, 1999); all of
The Australian approach to beach morphodynamics sparked
which are summarized in Table 1 to provide an overview of
an immediate reaction as other coastal groups took on a more
the contribution of various environmental parameters to the
morphodynamic approach to the beaches they were studying.
description and classification of beach type and state. The O
This was first manifest in a number of publications primarily
was modified by Klein and Menezes (2001) in their study of
based on time series of beach change from a wide range of
Brazilian beaches; while McLachlan et al. (1993) also used O
micro- through macro-tidal regimes, as well as swell through
in their examination of the relationship between beach ecol-
sea conditions (e.g., Aubrey, 1979; Willyams, 1980; Goldsmith
ogy and morphodynamic state. In Australia, Hegge et al.
et al., 1982; Shaw, 1985; Short, 1992; Carter and Orford,
(1996) proposed a morphodynamic classification of sheltered
1993; Wijnberg and Wolf, 1994; Klein and Menezes, 2001;
beaches; whereas more recently Short (2010a) has examined
Norcross et al., 2002). The most ambitious was at Duck, North
the role of geological inheritance in influencing contemporary
Carolina where Lippmann and Holman (1990) pioneered the
beach behavior and linked barrier type and volume to
use of video technology to monitor long-term beach change
wave–beach morphodynamics (Short, 2010b).
and classify beach states; whereas the regular Duck cross-shore
surveys were used by Larson and Kraus (1994) and Lee et al.
(1998) to monitor longer-term and storm-driven beach 10.5.2.3 Beach Experiments
change. It quickly became apparent that the wave-dominated
(micro-tidal) beach model of Wright and Short (1984) was The morphodynamic approach was also applied to beach ex-
not directly applicable to meso- to macro-tidal situations and periments involving selection of type sites and measurements
to multibar (predominately sea) environments. This situation of both processes and beach response across a wide range of
has been remedied through fieldwork in higher-tide ranges environments. Experiments continued in eastern Australia
and sea environments. (Masselink and Hegge, 1995; Turner, 1995); western Australia
(Masselink et al. 1997, Masselink and Pattiaratchi, 1998,
2001); New Zealand (Brander and Short, 2000); Canada
(Greenwood and Davidson-Arnott, 1979; Canadian Coastal
10.5.2.2 Empirical Relationships
Sediment Study, Willis, 1987); Japan (Horikawa, 1988); and
Because of the inherent complexity of the beach environment, in the USA, where the Field Research Facility at Duck has
an empirical approach has been successfully used to predict a been the focus of ongoing multifaceted experiments since
range of beach conditions, including beach type (relative tide the 1980s. Bryan et al. (1998) used field observations from
range (RTR), Masselink and Short, 1993); beach state (O, the Duck DELILAH experiments to verify that bar-trapped
Wright and Short, 1984); changes between beach states (Oe, edge waves can be the dominant edge wave modes driving
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Beach Morphodynamics 111
Table 1 Impact of environmental parameters on beach type, state, stability, circulation, and bar number
Tide range Wave height Wave period Sediment size Embayment geometry (Gradient)
–1
TR (m) Hb (m) T (s) Ws (m s ) D50(mm) Sl (m) Cl (m) tanb
longshore currents over the bar, a mechanism predicted by Hughes and Turner, 1999, for review). Morphologically, the
Bryan and Bowen (1996). swash zone is planar and seaward sloping, and expressed
On the USA west coast, Seymour (1989) coordinated the sometimes as low-elevation swash bars associated with inter-
ambitious Nearshore Sediment Transport experiments. More storm or post-storm recovery periods. Occupying a low vertical
recently MacMahan et al. (2004, 2006, 2009) have investigated structure, swash bars can, and frequently do, superimpose
the rip-dominated Monterey Bay beaches, where they have themselves on top of the much more visually apparent inter-
conducted some of the most advanced experiments monitoring tidal bars at the beach. Swash bars usually move shoreward
surf zone bathymetry and both Eulerian and Lagrangian cir- and spill into the troughs of larger bars, helping to refill the
culation. This approach has also been successfully applied by main beach volume and to accrete the back beach zone
Austin et al. (2010) on macro-tidal English beaches. (Jackson et al., 2007).
In Europe, there has been a surge in beach studies since the The wave conditions of the inner surf zone and the local
early 1990s, many in sea-driven and/or meso- to macro-tidal beach gradient will largely drive the hydrodynamics of the
environments, particularly in the United Kingdom (Jago and swash zone. Within dissipative beaches, incident wave energy
Hardisty, 1984; Kroon and Masselink, 2002; Voulgaris et al., dissipates and decays shoreward across the surf zone. There is
1998; Masselink and Puleo, 2006; Masselink et al., 2008b; a simultaneous growth in infragravity energy, as energy is
Jackson et al., 2007; Austin et al., 2009; Masselink et al., 2006, transferred from one wave mode to the other. The latter
2009, 2010); Spain (Guillen and Palanques, 1993); Denmark therefore generally dominates the inner surf zone where it is
(Aagaard et al., 1998a, 1998b, 2002; Vinther et al., 2004; manifest as wave setup and setdown. During larger wave
Greenwood et al., 2004; Hughes et al., 2007); and France conditions, as the surf zone widens and dissipation increases,
(Levoy et al., 2000, 2001; Anthony et al., 2004; Lafon et al., the infragravity element increases even more. Conversely, on
2005; Masselink et al., 2008a; Dehouck et al., 2009; Almar more reflective steeper beaches, incident waves are dissipated
et al., 2010). much less and wave energy propagates with little hindrance to
reach the beach, contributing higher-incident wave energy
levels at the swash zone (Ruessink et al., 1998).
Field studies have shown there to be a combination of
10.5.2.4 Swash Morphodynamics
shoreward sediment transport in the uprush and seaward sedi-
The swash zone represents an important wave-driven transport ment transport in the backwash (Miles et al., 2006). This results
zone in all beach systems and is the visible expression of both in a high, total sediment transport, but a sometimes small, net
beach erosion and accretion. It is defined as the section of the transport (e.g., Butt and Russell, 1999; Osborne and Rooker,
beach profile where fluid coverage is intermittent, or that part 1999). The overall direction of transport and therefore profile
of the beach which stretches from the bore collapse point (on change will be dictated by the subtle balance of two large sedi-
the beachface) to the highest limitation of the uprush (see ment transport magnitudes (Osborne and Rooker, 1999).
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112 Beach Morphodynamics
Resulting shear stresses from the overturning wave front plus local forms (accommodation space) and changes. The volume of
turbulence creates ideal conditions for suspending and trans- beach sediment fluctuates in time and space as it is worked
porting sediment. Work has shown higher turbulence during upon by dynamic forcing through the action of waves and
uprush events than during back rush phases and therefore overall currents (Jackson et al., 2005; Jackson and Cooper, 2009).
net transport is usually onshore within the swash environment Those forces are themselves mediated by certain geological and,
(Butt et al., 2004). Houser and Barrett (2010) found a strong in places, biological parameters. These include rock and reef
relationship between the behavior of the inner bar, the nature of boundaries and outcrops which change bed roughness, influ-
the swash, and whether the swash zone eroded or accreted. ence wave refraction, attenuation and breaking, and moderate
Considering the swash in more detail, Guard and Baldock (2007) water flow through the beach (McNinch, 2004). Much of
examined the influence of the seaward boundary condition on our thinking on beach morphodynamics is dominated by
the internal swash hydrodynamics, which they found to be consideration of unconstrained beach environments, particu-
dependent on the shape and wave length of the incident bore. larly in the profile dimension. This is exemplified by the 2D
The swash zone is therefore an important element of the shoreline profile of equilibrium concept and the Bruun rule.
coastal beach system, providing the conduit through which Our understanding of the relationship between dynamic
bars attach to the shore and resupply the beach and ultimately forcing and beach response, expressed as combined indices
backshore (Jackson et al., 2007) and provide aeolian sand for such as the surf-scaling parameter, O and relative tide range
foredune construction (Aagaard et al., 2004). However, during (RTR), has evolved into a suite of conceptual models of beach
periods of high waves, the swash zone sediments become morphodynamics (Table 1). Although the identification of
saturated and sediment is eroded and transported into the beach states using this approach has been used widely, there
surf zone. have been some noted differences between beach states pre-
dicted and beach states observed (Jackson et al., 2005; Gómez-
Pujol et al., 2007). This is partially a product of the lag
10.5.2.5 Geological Control on Beach Morphodynamics
between changing processes and beach response. Furthermore,
All beaches exist within a particular 3D geological framework, where the volume of beach sediment is constrained in depth
which determines the boundaries within which the beach (Figure 6) through the presence of an immobile substrate or
Figure 6 Example of subsurface geological control present on beaches along the Ards Peninsula, Northern Ireland. Here sandy beaches are
accommodated within the local geology which at times is seen protruding through the beach matrix. The volume of sand within the beaches is
likely to be finite, highly mobile with unstable beach states, driven by local wave events. Reproduced from Ordnance Survey Northern Ireland.
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Beach Morphodynamics 113
(a) 1977
On a global scale, satellite imagery, such as that presented examination of all beach systems and today is the major
by Google Earth,TM provides complete spatial coverage of the source of images for any presentation on beaches.
world’s beaches. Although limited in its temporal domain, the Remote-sensing techniques will likely be the most realistic
wide coverage and high resolution permits the desktop way forward in providing useful data for studies of nearshore
morphodynamics. They represent a method capable of col-
lecting information over the required spatial and temporal
scale to be of use in future investigations and therefore help
examine more realistically the behavior of nearshore circu-
lation patterns and associated coastal responses in this com-
plex environment.
10.5.2.11 Modeling
Modeling beach morphodynamics requires the ability to
model all the parameters outlined in Figure 3. To date, this is
not possible, so at best models are restricted to 2D represen-
tations of cross-shore behavior or to generating 3D patterns
that, although resembling aspects of beach morphology, have
no physical linkage. The most commonly used models are
therefore based on 2D representation, which can only repli-
cate the 3D beach environment, by generating multiple
transects. The best known of these are the increasingly re-
Figure 11 Argus time exposure image of Palm Beach, Australia. The
dundant Bruun rule (Pilkey and Cooper, 2004), which some
intensity fluctuations in the real time images have been averaged,
still use, and increasingly S-Beach (CHL, 1989) and GENESIS
resulting in a stable depiction of the wave-breaking pattern which
reflects the bar and rip pattern. Reproduced from Ranasinghe, R., (Hanson and Kraus, 1989), which are both used to model
Symonds, G., Black, K., Holman, R., 2004b. Morphodynamics of cross-shore response to changing conditions. The shoreface
intermediate beaches: a video imaging and numerical modelling translation model (STM) (Cowell et al., 1992) is used to plot
study. Coastal Engineering 51, 629–655, with permission from cross-shore response at scales from days to millennium. More
Coastal Engineering. recently, the XBeach model, in development since 2006, is a
10
00
55
−10
11
06
00
16
61
0
50
16
61
0
00
17
61
0
50
17
61
0
00
18
61
0
50
18
61
Figure 12 LiDAR (LADS) image of Magilligan, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland, revealing a complex picture of successive foredune ridges
as well as nearshore bathymetry. Image resolution is at 4 m spacing of sample points; vertical exaggeration 3 $. Reproduced from Jackson,
D.W.T., Beyers, J.H.M., Lynch, K., Cooper, J.A.G., Baas, A.C.W., Delgado-Fernandez, I., 2011. Investigation of three-dimensional wind flow
behaviour over coastal dune morphology under offshore winds using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and ultrasonic anemometry. Earth
Surface Processes and Landforms 36, 1113–1124.
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Beach Morphodynamics 117
2D model that considers wave propagation, long waves, and the relationship between beach morphodynamics and local
mean flow, sediment transport and morphological changes of biological behavior has received only modest attention
the nearshore area, beaches, dunes, and back-barrier during over the years. Within sandy beach systems, both benthic
storm conditions. The model is still in its infancy, but has been and in situ biota are dependent on habitat type and stability
used recently by Roelvink et al. (2009) to assess dune erosion and water circulation, and as these vary through time so
and breaching along a number of sandy, dune-fringed sites on must the biota adjust to wave, tide, and storm forcing. The
the coast of the Netherlands. beach biota both represent an important coastal ecosystem
Morphodynamic models often demonstrate poor per- and provide also positive and negative feedback on bed
formance when compared with natural beach response behavior. Within certain beach environments, bioturbation
(de Vriend et al., 1993; Nicholson et al., 1997; Sutherland (feeding birds, worm casts, etc.) of the sediments can play
et al., 2004) partly because the physical processes that are important roles in sediment dynamics (Grant et al., 1982;
driving morphological change occur on much shorter time- Jackson et al., 2005), commonly leading to increased sedi-
scales than the actual changes themselves. Short-term forcing ment transport potential. For example, bioturbation may lead
parameters such as tides and waves drive the redistribution of to roughening of the surface, reduced sediment cohesion and
sediment across particular 3D framework surfaces. This pro- higher mobility of the sediment itself (Fries et al., 1999;
duces sediment transport pathways that are driven temporally Quaresma et al., 2004). Conversely, algal mats and seagrass
and spatially by both cyclical and random events, leading to debris on the surface may help bind the surface sediments into
highly complicated fluid and sediment motions, making a less mobile substrate, increasing the energy levels at which
realistic modeling extremely difficult. Attempts at under- the sediment can move (Grant et al., 1986; Escartin and
standing the behavior of these systems have been undertaken Aubrey, 1995).
using a number of techniques and applied under a range of
scales. One approach that is gathering increasing momentum
is the concept of system self-organization (Falqués et al., 10.5.3 Beach Morphodynamics – Status
2008). Nonlinear behavior in any natural system can exhibit
complex patterns that in themselves are not related to similar In the 40 years since beaches were first viewed from a mor-
patterns within an associated forcing environment. Observed phodynamic perspective, there has been a surge in the number
rhythmic patterns found within 3D beach morphology (e.g., of coastal groups working on beaches; the variety of beach
cusps) have been proposed to be driven by self-organized environments being investigated; and the sophistication of
processes related to the interaction between fluid flow and both hardware and software used to monitor, measure, model,
morphology. If we consider a hypothetical situation with an and analyze beach systems. Where does this leave us in 2011?
initial linear (flat) sediment surface (e.g., beach face) with One way to assess our present understanding and application
uniform wave forcing, it gives rise to beach morphology in of beach morphodynamics is to use Figure 4 as a framework
equilibrium. In reality, this could not be sustainable as het- within which to locate progress since the 1970s with the four
erogeneous breaking wave conditions would give a nonuni- major space–time approaches: instantaneous, event, large
form energy distribution along this morphology. If one scale (engineering), and geological.
perturbation occurs as a result, then this sets up a chain
reaction of events and leads to a spontaneous growth of
10.5.3.1 Instantaneous
morphological features across what was once a smooth
surface. Nearshore models describing morphodynamic self- At the instantaneous level (seconds to hours) there has been
organization generally consist of the following elements: (1) limited progress owing to the difficulty in obtaining mean-
wave transformation – refraction, shoaling, and breaking ingful measurements at this scale, in particular, during high-
descriptors; (2) mean currents and water levels over hetero- energy events. There are also inherent problems associated
geneous bathymetry; (3) sediment transport induced by wave with scaling up the complex interactions and nonlinear rela-
and currents; and (4) bathymetric updating (Caballeria et al., tionships based on those measurements. Most studies at this
2002; Reniers et al., 2004; Coco and Murray, 2007; Gallagher, level tend to focus on boundary-layer dynamics and sediment
2011). Although still in its infancy compared to other scientific transport, most of which, by logistical necessity, are confined
analyses of complex systems, the self-organization concept to fair weather conditions, whereas most change takes place
appears to be a pragmatic approach for modeling coastal during high-wave conditions. Some of the most ambitious
morphodynamics across a range of spatial and temporal experiments took place during the 1990s at the Duck facility
scales. However, as discussed below, there remain concerns including DELILAH (1990), Duck94, and Sandy Duck (1997).
about this approach. The aims of Sandy Duck were to measure small- and medium-
scale sediment transport and morphology (sediment grains to
100 m scale); wave shoaling, wave breaking, and nearshore
10.5.2.12 Beach Ecology
circulation; and swash processes including sediment motion,
Sandy beach ecology is generally related to morphodynamic with the overall aim of integrating these across the time–space
conditions (waves, tide and sediment) occurring at a site and scales.
ecologists have commonly attributed zonation of organisms On the west coast was the similarly ambitious 1978–81
in the intertidal zone to certain elevation levels of wave–swash Nearshore Sediment Transport Study (Seymour 1989) and
exposure (e.g., McLachlan and Jaramillo, 1995; Alves and in Canada the 1983 Canadian Coastal Sediment Study
Pezzuto, 2009). Although characteristically linked in nature, (Willis, 1987). More recent research at this level has been
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118 Beach Morphodynamics
undertaken in Denmark by Aagaard and colleagues (see e.g., laws whose observable manifestations depended on a number
Aagaard et al., 1998a, 1998b, 2002); and the Coastal Process of bulk site characteristics such as beach slope and wave height
Research Group at Plymouth which has been working at and period. By sampling a set of end-member beaches, insight
timescales from the instantaneous to event to seasonal across a into the underlying physics should be made obvious (Holman
range of generally meso- and macro-tidal beaches around and Stanley, 2007). The Argus network now includes 10
southern England and in France (see e.g., Masselink et al., cameras worldwide; whereas the comparable European
2008a, 2008b; 2010; van Houwelingen et al., 2008). All the CoastView project involves cameras operated by 12 groups
above led to considerable improvement in our understanding (Huntley and Stive, 2007).
of the range of motions in the surf zone and their impact on In recent years, beach experiments have also tended to
sediment entrainment and transport. However, linking these focus more on the event scales, commonly coupled with video
to the next step, the formation, movement, and erosion of monitoring to obtain at least an understanding of bulk mor-
mesoscale topography including the swash zone, bars, trough phological changes. Lippmann and Holman (1990) used the
and channels, is proving more difficult. Duck video to characterize the full sequence of beach types
observed. Aagaard and Holm (1989) monitored wave run-up;
Shand (1999) monitored bar migration patterns; van Encke-
10.5.3.2 Event vort and Ruessink (2003a, 2003b) monitored bar patterns
The beach changes at the event scale (days to years) are the over weekly to yearly timescales; and more recently, Almar
most readily observable and remain the focus of most mor- et al. (2010) have monitored bar migration during storm
phodynamic studies. It spans the time frame of most field events.
experiments; of all shoreline monitoring programs; of LiDAR Today videos can monitor shoreline position and change
and video technology; and of the major storm and recovery (Turner et al., 2006), surf zone topography and beach state
events that periodically impact the coast. It is also the scale (Ranashinghe et al., 2004b; Figure 11), bar migration (Shand,
that the public, politicians, and the media turn to when 1999); wave period and bathymetry (Aarninkhof et al., 2003;
looking for the impacts of climate change, even though the Stockdon and Holman, 2000); breaker wave height and per-
impacts are usually not detectable at this scale. iod across the surf zone (www.coastalcoms.com/); shoreline
oscillation (swash) including wave runup and infragravity
setup and setdown (Holland and Holman, 1993); and surf-
10.5.3.2.1 Beach experiments zone currents (Chickadel et al., 2003). They can also be used
Beach experiments still remain the most productive means for counting people on the beach (www.CoastalCOMS.com).
of investigating beach morphodynamics, particularly those Since the mid-1990s, CoastalWatch.com has monitored over
that encompass both hydrodynamic processes across the 100 coastal sites globally. The data from these sites are being
surf zone and the associated morphological change. Our used by their research arm CoastalCOMS to provide time
ability to investigate both these areas has been enhanced in series of beach state and morphological change. The data are
recent years with improved instrumentation, in particular, the being interrogated to provide accurate measurements of
acoustic doppler current profiler (ADCP) for Eulerian flows shoreline position and change, wave height and period,
and the use of global positioning system (GPS) buoys to infragravity wave period, wave runup and setup; and surf zone
monitor Lagrangain flows. These have been used in the surf currents, as well as counting people on the beach. In Australia
zone to monitor 3D current and wave flows, particularly in rip and the US, these data are being used to monitor shoreline
currents. Surf zone topography can now be measured using change and public safety.
GPS-depth sounders mounted on jet skis. When combined, One of the most ambitious programs to monitor beach–
these provide the most comprehensive overview of beach nearshore changes has been associated with the Tweed River
morphodynamics over timescales of hours to days. The Sand Bypassing System (TREBS) on the border of New South
best examples of this approach have been undertaken by Wales and Queensland (Figure 10). Established in 2000, it has
MacMahan et al. (2009) along the rip-dominated beaches of been continuously bypassing sand under the Tweed River at a
Monterey Bay. rate between 500 000 and 600 000 m3 yr–1. Detailed seabed
surveys on both sides of the bypass site, coupled with wave-
10.5.3.2.2 Video and remote technology rider data and modeling of cross-shore sediment transport,
The event level understanding has seen most progress. This have resulted in the development of very accurate models of
has been achieved through the monitoring and measurement cross-shore and longshore transport (Boswood et al., 2001).
of beach processes and changes using a range of techniques; These data clearly demonstrate that most transport takes place
the use of empirical relationships to explain this change; and during high-wave events on the inner and outer bar, with
the limited application of both edge wave, self-organizing and relatively little moving along the shoreline. The results are in
modeling approaches to predict the changes. The advent of stark contrast with some of the more simplistic models of
increasingly low-cost video cameras and their application to longshore transport.
monitor surf zone behavior, through the Argus video-moni- LiDAR technology developed during the 1990s can now
toring system, for example, has provided the greatest insight provide very accurate 3D mapping of the land surface in-
into the nature and behavior of the surf zone topography cluding beaches and shallow seabed. This has been applied in
across a wide range of settings. The Argus system was de- the coastal zone to accurately map the beach environment
veloped under the hypothesis that nearshore hydrodynamics (Figure 11) and monitor beach changes, particularly following
and morphodynamics are governed by a finite set of physical serve coastal erosion events. In the era of rising sea level,
Author's personal copy
Beach Morphodynamics 119
0
0
0
10
5
0
20
0
m 10
300
0m
15
0 0
10
0 50
0 0
20 10
0m 0m
30 15
0 0
10
0 50
0 0
20 10
0m 0m
30 15
Figure 13 The 13 wave-dominated (1–6), tide-modified (7–9), and tide-dominated (10–13) beach states occurring around the Australian coast.
See Figure 14 and Table 1 for their relation to wave height, sand size, O, and RTR. Reproduced from Short, A.D., Woodroffe, C.D., 2009. The
Coast of Australia. Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 288 pp.
LiDAR mapping is now being used to map areas of potential beach types and their associated environmental controls from
inundation. high-energy wave-dominated through to the lowest energy
beaches fronted by mud flats (Figures 13 and 14; Short,
10.5.3.2.3 Beach types and states 2006). As mentioned above, the morphodynamics of many of
In Australia, Short (2006) completed a 14-year circum- these systems, particularly in higher energy micro- through
Australia research project that provided information on macro-tidal environments are now being investigated. The same
every Australian beach, and from this the full spectrum of cannot, however, be said for beaches at the lower energy end
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120 Beach Morphodynamics
0 HT
HT
0 0
10 LT
1 00 LT 2 00
00
2 0m
30
0m
30
11. Beach + sand flats
8. Reflective + low tide bars and rips
0 HT
HT
0 0
10 LT
LT
100 200
200 0m
30
0m
30
12 and 13. Beach + tidal sand/mud flats
9. Ultradissipative
HT
0 0 HT
LT
0 0
10 10 LT
0 0
20 20
0m 0m
30 30
Figure 13 (Continued)
of the spectrum, where the infrequency of dominant processes 10.5.3.3 Large Scale Coastal Behavior (Engineering)
makes field experimentation logistically difficult. Houser and
Hill (2010) conducted one of the few field experiments across a Following a low-key, invited symposium in Amsterdam in
lower-energy environment. They measured wave attenuation 1989 (Terwindt and Battjes, 1990), large-scale coastal behavior
across a sand flat and found that attenuation increased with (LCSB) (years–decades–centuries) burst upon the inter-
increasing wave height and/or decreasing water depth. This national scene with a 1993 conference in Clearwater, Florida
provides a mechanism for limiting sediment resuspension and (List, 1993). The rapid rise of the study of LSCB is owing
accumulation of fine sediments on the flats. to its relevance (decades to 100 years) for coastal planning,
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Beach Morphodynamics 121
3.0
Ω
2.5 0 5 10 15
0
1
Wave height (m)
2
2.0 5 43 WD
6
1.5 8
TM
1.0
9 10
0.5 10 7
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1.8
1.6
1.4 20 11
Sand size (m)
1.2
TD
RTR
1.0
0.8
0.6
30
0.4
12
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
90
80 40
70
Relative tide range
60
50
40 13
30 50
20
10
0 Tidal flats
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) Beach state (b)
Figure 14 (a) The relationship between beach state and wave height, sand size and relative tide range (bars ¼ standard deviation) (Short, 2006);
and (b) the relationship between beach type and O (Hb/Tws) and RTR (TR/Hb). WD ¼ wave dominated; TM ¼ tide modified; TD ¼ tide dominated.
Numbers (see Figure 12) refer to modal beach state location on Australian coast. Based on data from Short, A.D., 2006. Australian beach
systems – nature and distribution. Journal of Coastal Research 22, 11–27.
management and, particularly, politicians in an era of which have now recorded monthly beach behavior for periods
climate change. Moderate progress has occurred here with of 30–40 years. The Duck facility, for example, commenced in
some of the longer-term monitoring sites now having 1977, and daily video monitoring began in 1986. In Australia,
been observed for several decades and providing an accurate the Moruya surveys initiated by Thom and Mclean in
insight into decadal scale changes, trends, and climatic 1972 (Thom and Hall, 1991) provide extremely valuable
forcing. At the same time, 2D shoreface modeling has pro- information on the size of storm demand and the rate of
gressed substantially since the Bruun Rule, with an array of beach and foredune recovery. The Narrabeen surveys initiated
models including SBeach (CHL, 1989), GENESIS (Hanson by Short in 1976 provided the first of a growing body of evi-
and Kraus, 1989) and STM (Cowell et al., 1992). Although dence of the link between beach oscillation and rotation and
some models use the self-organizing approach to predict various climate indices such as the Southern Oscillation Index
patterns in beach and surf zone topography, they are not (SOI) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) (Ranasinghe
based on any physical connection to the salient environ- et al., 2004a; Short and Trembanis, 2004; Harley et al.,
mental parameters and produce intriguing patterns rather 2011). What is important about these relationships is that they
than robust predictions. can provide a surrogate for how the wave climate might be-
The renewed focus on longer-term beach behavior that have in a changing climate and thereby how beaches may
commenced in the late 1960s was followed by the establish- behave in the future. Weinberg and Terwindt (1995) utilized
ment of a few long-term, beach-monitoring sites, some of decades of shoreline monitoring to quantify the behavior of
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122 Beach Morphodynamics
the Dutch coast, whereas in Ireland, Cooper et al. (2007) re- 10.5.4.1 Impacts of Climate Change
ported on decadal scale coastal behavior based on a 170-year
How beaches will respond to climate change, in particular,
record. On the US west coast, Komar et al. (2001) and Dingler
how climate change leads to continued sea-level rise, are
and Reiss (2002) monitored the impact of El Nino-SOI
questions being asked by scientists, managers, and politicians.
(ENSO)-generated cyclone conditions.
However, it is the coastal scientists and engineers that must
The past decade has also seen the increasing application of
provide the answers. The simplistic approach is to apply the
the results of event and LSCB studies to address coastal
Bruun rule (Bruun, 1962). However, several studies have
management issues, particularly in the field of beach safety
questioned this approach as being too simplistic and too
(Short and Hogan 1994; Scott et al., 2007; MacMahan et al.,
ignorant of the many ancillary parameters that can affect
2010) and shoreline management (Turner et al., 2006; Turner
shoreline response (Pilkey and Cooper, 2004). The most so-
and Anderson, 2007). These approaches are also being called
phisticated of these approaches is the application of the STM
upon to provide insight into the coastal impacts of climate
developed by Cowell et al. (1992) and applied to climate
change, particularly the impact of rising sea level and changing
change scenarios by Cowell et al. (2006). The STM considers
wave climate.
all parameters that may modify the shoreface, including
its topography and composition, cross-shore sediment char-
acteristics, all potential sources and sinks of sediment, and
10.5.3.4 Geological
structures such as seawalls.
The geological scale (centuries to millennium) has seen Response to changes in wave climate will be just as im-
some exceptional work being undertaken by Goodwin (2003) portant on many beaches, as wave climate will vary the in-
and Goodwin et al. (2006) who are reconstructing long-term tensity, frequency, and direction of major events, causing
wave climate and using it to explain Holocene shoreline changes in the level of beach oscillation, longshore and cross-
evolution along parts of southeast Australia. Apart from shore transport, and on embayed beaches – beach rotation.
this groundbreaking research, there has been little other pro- The most productive approach to date has been the use of
gress, primarily because there has been little interest in longer-term wave-beach monitoring programs, that have pro-
applying morphodynamic principles to long-term shoreline vided a sufficiently long time series (years–decades) to permit
evolution. Interestingly, as Figure 4 illustrates, this was one of preliminary correlation with climate indices such as the SOI
the tenants of the original Wright and Thom (1977) paper, and PDO (Short and Trembanis, 2004; Ranasinghe et al.,
which was in fact titled ‘Coastal depositional landforms’. 2004a). Although beaches make the headline in the climate
However, as is common within the community of geo- change debate, it is in fact the lower-lying, low-gradient coastal
morphologists, most of those interested in longer time frames areas that will be most impacted by sea-level rise. The approach
have yet to grasp the interdependence on processes as well for these coasts is to use LiDAR mapping to produce high-
as stratigraphy. resolution maps that identify areas of potential inundation.
Figure 15 High waves have inundated the beach and are eroding
the dune in this view of Narrabeen beach, Australia. Photo by A.D.
Short.
Figure 17 Transition from a cuspate pattern to a straight berm over a six-day period, Tairua Beach, New Zealand. Reproduced from Almar, R.,
Coco, G., Bryan, K.R., Huntley, D.A., Short, A.D., Senechal, N., 2008. Video observations of beach cusp morphodynamics. Marine Geology 254,
216–223.
approach to the systems they study. Although the beach lends resulting turbulent mixing that occurs within planar and
itself to this approach, with highly visible and measurable barred systems. The shear stress parameter is currently only
processes and rapid and visible changes, all other geomorphic afforded a single, homogeneous value in models, but in reality
systems, no matter what time–space scale, can be studied from is likely to be spatially and temporally heterogeneous across
a morphodynamic perspective. the beach face zone. This shortcoming has serious reper-
The morphodynamic approach has been utilized for cussions for modeling efforts.
the study of beach systems for over 40 years. Combined Finally, while this chapter has focused on beach morpho-
with increasingly sophisticated field instrumentation and dynamics one must ask why a similar approach has not been
experimentation, it is providing a unified understanding taken up not only in other coastal fields but also in other fields
of both the complex and dynamic interactions within of geomorphology. Woodroffe (2003) has shown how it can
these systems. Although beaches occur across a wide range of be applied across the full range of coastal fields from beach to
wave–tide–sediment environments, located within an ever- muddy shore, rocky coast and coral reefs, and as mentioned
changing range of boundary conditions, all beaches can be earlier it has been applied across the Quaternary in relation to
readily located within a relative small range of beach types and coastal evolution. However, this has not been so in related
states, types that are both predictable and, at an empirical geomorphological fields. In part, this can be explained by its
level, readily explained. early and rapid acceptance by coastal scientists who can clearly
The issues still facing the study of beaches include our see and monitor the dynamic interactions that are beach
inability to scale up from first principles because of the in- morphodynamics. However, although coastal scientists have
herent nonlinearities, positive and negative feedback, and initiated its application into coastal dunes, this has not been
overall 3D complexities of surf zone interactions. Another the case with dune scientists focused on arid systems, nor the
major issue is the edge waves versus self-organization debate. fluvial, glacial, desert, mountain, and other geomorphologists.
While we still await substantial confirmation of field evidence Perhaps each needs a seminal paper, such as Wright and Thom
of the geomorphological work of edge waves, likewise, self- (1977) to kick start a fresh paradigm in their respective fields,
organization models produce interesting and realistic patterns followed by research applying it to their landscapes.
but their operation continues to elude field verification. For
example, the concept of the system self-organization of beach
cusps results in predictions of erosion and accretion and
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Vinther, N., Nielsen, J., Aagaard, T., 2004. Cyclic sand bar migration on a spit- CENTER: Field Research Facility.
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Author's personal copy
Beach Morphodynamics 129
Biographical Sketch
Andrew Short is a coastal geomorphologist specializing in coastal processes and beach dynamics. He has degrees
from the University of Sydney, University of Hawaii, and Louisiana State University and has worked on the coasts
of North and South America, including north Alaska and Hawaii, Europe, New Zealand, and the entire Australian
coast. He is presently Honorary Professor in the School of Geosciences at the University of Sydney, Adjunct
Professor in the Griffith (University) Centre for Coastal Management, Senior Coastal Scientist (part-time) with
CoastalCOMS.com, Scientific Adviser to Surf Life Saving Australia, Deputy Chair of National Surfing Reserves
(Australia), and on the Executive Committee of World Surfing Reserves. He also runs his own consultancy called
Coastal Studies and serves on the NSW Coastal Panel and the Eurobodalla Coastal Management Advisory
Committee. He has written 12 books including ‘The Coast of Australia’’ published in 2009, over 200 scientific
publications. His extensive contribution to both coastal science and beach safety was recognised on Australia Day
2010 with an Order of Australia Medal.
Short has also investigated all 10685 mainland beaches (inc Tasmania) plus another 1500 beaches on 30 major
islands, and all 1245 Australian coastal barrier systems. The beach information is available on line (http://
beachsafe.org) and as an Iphone app. It is also written up in an eight volume eight beach series, one for each state
and territory, published by Sydney University Press.
Derek Jackson is a Professor of Coastal Geomorphology at the Centre for Coastal & Marine Research, School of
Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster in Northern Ireland. Since graduating in 1993 as PhD student of the
late Bill Carter at Ulster, he has focused his research efforts on examining coastal morphodynamics and geo-
morphology at a number of spatial and temporal scales. Specifically, this includes aeolian sediment transport on
beaches and dunes, nearshore wave/sediment transport processes as well as investigating long-term coastal
change. He has worked on beaches and dunes of the UK, Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal, Japan, and U.S.A. Prof.
Jackson acts as advisor to European Union and UK funding bodies and is a peer review college member for the UK
Natural Environment Research Council. He has published extensively in the field of coastal morphodynamics and
is currently co-director of the Centre for Coastal & Marine Research at the University of Ulster, a Fellow of the
Royal Geographical Society and Fellow of the Geological Society of London.