9
REVIEW ON
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING
Objectives:
 Review the elements of computer
programming with emphasis on good
programming principles.
 Adapt a systematic method of
developing computer programs.
COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING
A computer requires a program to
do any useful work. Programming
languages are used to write computer
program.
Computer Program is a set of
instructions in a programming language
intended to be executed on a computer to
perform a task. Computer programming
involves much more than simply writing a
list of instructions. Problem solving is a
crucial component of programming and
requires a good deal of preplanning. Before
writing a program to solve a particular
problem, you must consider carefully all
aspects of the problem and then develop and
organize its solution.
Computer
Problems - - - - - -
1. Write a program that reads in two
integers and then outputs their sum,
difference, and product.
2. A Celsius (centigrade) temperature
(C) can be converted to an equivalent
Fahrenheit temperature (F) according to
the formula F= C +32. Write a
5
program that reads in a Celsius
temperature and then outputs the
equivalent Fahrenheit temperature.
3. (CP) The relationship between the sides
(a,b) of a right triangle and the
hypotenuse (h) is given by the
Pythagorean formula a2 + b2 = h2.
Write a program that reads in the lengths
of the two sides of a right triangle and
computes the hypotenuse of the triangle.
4. (CP) The area of a triangle whose sides
are a, b, and c can be computed by the
formula A=√ s (s−a)( s−b)( s−c),
(a+b+ c)
where s=
2
. Write a program
that reads in the lengths of the three
sides of a triangle and outputs the area
of the triangle.
Using Conditional Statements
5. (CP) Write a program that gives the user
the choice of computing the area of any
of the following: a circle, a square, a
rectangle, or a triangle. The program
should include a loop to allow the user
to perform as many calculations as
desired. Use a procedure for each of the
different kinds of calculations.
Using Repetitive Statement
6. (CP) Write a program to calculate the
sum: 1+4 + 7 + . . . +100.
7. Write a program to calculate the sum:
1 1 1
1+ + + .. .+ , where terms is
2 3 Terms
specified by the user. This sum is called
harmonic series.
8. (CP) Write a program to list the
numbers from 0 to 25, their squares,
square roots, fourth power, and fourth
root. The output should be in a neat five-
column format.
9. (CP) Write a program that reads in a
number N and then outputs the sum of
the squares of the numbers from 1 to N.
If the input is 3, for example, the output
 should be 14, because 12 + 22 + 32 = 1 Using Arrays
+ 4 + 9 = 14. The program should allow 16. CP) Write a program that reads 10
the user to repeat this calculation as integers into an array, computes the
often as desired. average, largest, and smallest numbers
10. (CP) Write a program to compute the in the array.
factorial of a number (N!). For example, 17. (CP) Write a program that allows the
3! = 1 x 2 x 3 = 6. By convention, 0! is user to type in up to 10 positive numbers
set equal to 1. and then echoes back the numbers typed
11. (CP) A perfect number is a positive in but in reverse order.
integer that is equal to the sum of all 18. (CP) Write a program that reads in an
those positive integers (excluding itself) m by n matrix (m row by n column),
that divide it evenly. The first perfect then reads in an n by p matrix (n row by
number is 6, because its divisors p column), and then computes the
(excluding itself) are 1, 2, 3, and product matrix and displays the two
because 6 = 1 + 2 + 3. Write a program matrices as well as their product matrix
to find the first three perfect numbers on the screen.
(include 6 as one of the three).
12. (CP) Write a program to find all integer
solutions to the equation 4x + 3y – 9z =
5 for values of x, y, and z between 0 and
100.
13. (CP) The value ex can be
approximated by the sum
2 3 n
x x x
1+ x+ + +. ..+ . Write a
2 ! 3! n!
program that takes a value x as input and
outputs this sum for n taken to be each
of the values 1 to 100. The program
should repeat the calculation for new
values of x until the user says he or she
is through.

Using Procedures or Functions for Subtasks

14. (CP) Write a program that reads in a
real number (representing that many
inches) and then outputs the area of a
square with sides of that length and the
area of a circle with a diameter of that
length. Use two procedures to compute
the two areas.
15. Write a procedure that has two formal
parameters, one for the radius of a circle
and one for the circumference. Given a
radius, the procedure computes the
circumference of the circle and stores
the answer in the parameter for the
circumference. Embed this in a program
to compute the circumference of a
circle.
 NUMERICAL
METHODS
Introduction
The advancement of computer
technology and its availability has affected
education in many aspects. To prepare
students for current and future challenges, an
introduction to computer-based methods are
needed. Currently, practical mathematical
problems demand the use of computers to
obtain solutions in a timely manner and with
acceptable accuracy.
Computers have increased the
number of alternative solution procedures
that are available to professionals. Whereas
the experts of past generations were limited
to graphical, analytical, and simple empirical
methods, experts can now consider
numerical and simulation methods in their
design work.
Numerical methods are used to
produce quantitative approximations to
solutions of mathematical problems; they
have become increasingly important as
access to computing tools has become
easier.
Numerical methods can be used to
solve a variety of quantitative problems
faced by many. For many mathematical
problems, an analytical solution is either
impossible or the cost or effort of
performing an analytical solution would be
prohibitive. Furthermore, in an effort to
achieve greater accuracy in mathematical
solutions, more complex analyses are being
used. Very often, the complexity of the
problem becomes such that an analytical
solution is not possible. In cases where
analytical solutions are not practical or the
problem is very complex, numerical
methods can often be used to find a solution.
Numerical methods are techniques
by which mathematical problems are
formulated so that they can be solved with
arithmetic operations. It provides the
transition from the mathematical model of a
problem (the equations or functions obtained
in calculus or algebra, etc) to an
ALGORITHM that we can program to
obtain the solution of the problem in the
form of numbers.
Numerical methods combine two of
the most important tools in the engineering
repertoire: mathematics and computers. In
fact, numerical methods can be loosely
defined as computer math.
The problem-solving traits and
modeling background of experts enable
them to be successful in both technical and
non-technical endeavors. The traditional
technical activities include research, design,
testing, manufacturing, and education.
For example, engineers depend
heavily on mathematical modeling in
performing their tasks. These models must,
of course, yield physically meaningful
solutions if they are to be useful. Solutions
may be obtained by standard mathematical
techniques if the models are simple enough.
Even in such cases, however, the values of
the solutions may require a large amount of
calculation. Computers are ideal tools for
such tasks because they can perform
calculations very quickly and because,
unlike people, they are neither subject to
tedium nor prone to clerical mistakes. The
direct methods for solving systems of
simultaneous linear equations are examples
of numerical methods for calculating
solutions from mathematically well-
established forms.
Other types of numerical methods
are those aimed at solving problems for
which solutions cannot be obtained by
ordinary mathematical manipulation. In
these cases, we replace the mathematical
equations to be solved by discrete processes
and try to obtain sufficiently accurate
numerical approximations of the solutions.
Many of these methods require iteration of a
process until convergence to a solution is
achieved. Others, like the methods for
solving ordinary differential equations,
require us to proceed in a step-by- step
fashion from an initial condition to a
specified destination.
Implementation of numerical
methods on computers requires a
programming language through which we
can provide instructions to the computer.
One might wonder at this point why
we bother to study numerical methods if
codes for the common methods already exist
in commercial packages. Some reasons for
doing so are listed below:
 Routines may not be available for the
language or the type of computer we are
using.
 An affordable commercial package may
not contain all of the methods we need.
 Adaptation of methods to fit special
situations may be impossible to
accomplish with pre-written tools.
 Programming our own routines helps us
to understand the steps of a process
more fully; it also allows us to explore a
problem beyond the mere determination
of a solution. Such exploration may
provide insights that can expand our
view of a particular problem or help us
in a different problem.
 Even if pre-written codes are available,
an understanding of the numerical
processes allows us to choose the best
method among several for performing a
task.
 We become better educated in the tools
of our profession.
Characteristics of
Numerical Methods
1. The solution procedure is iterative, with
the accuracy of the estimated solution
improving with each iteration.
2. The solution procedure provides only an
approximation to the true solution.
3. An initial estimate of the solution may
be required.
4. The solution procedure is conceptually
simple, with algorithms representing the
solution procedure that can be easily
programmed on a digital computer.
5. The solution procedure may
occasionally diverge from rather than
converge to the true solution.
Numerical Methods and
Engineering Practice
There are a number of reasons why
you should study numerical methods.
1. Numerical methods are extremely
powerful problem-solving tools. They
are capable of handling large systems of
equations. As such, they greatly enhance
your problem-solving skills.
2. Many problems cannot be approached
using canned programs. If you are
conversant with numerical methods and
are adept at computer programming, you
will have the capability of designing
your own programs to solve problems
without having to buy expensive
software.
3. Numerical methods are an efficient
vehicle for learning to use computers. It
is well known that an effective way to
learn programming is to actually write
computer programs.
4. Numerical methods provide a vehicle
for you to reinforce your understanding
of mathematics. One function of
numerical methods is to reduce higher
mathematics to basic arithmetic
operations.
Numerical Errors
An error in estimating or determining a
quantity of interest can be defined as a
deviation from its unknown true value.
Errors can be classified based on their
sources as non-numerical and numerical
errors.
Non-numerical errors include (1)
modeling errors, (2) blunders and mistakes,
and (3) uncertainty in information and data.
Numerical errors include the following:
1. Truncation Errors – results from the
termination of an infinite series
expansion after a finite number of terms.
2. Round-off Errors – results when
numbers are shortened to fit into
computer words of limited length.
3. Mathematical-approximation Errors –
result from using approximate
mathematical expressions for a Mathematical
relationship or solution. For example,
numerical methods sometimes call for
the use of a linear model for
representing nonlinear mathematical
expressions.
4. Error (e) – is the difference between the
computed (xc) and true (xt) values of a
number x.
e=x c −x t
5. Relative True Error (er) – is defined as
the error e relative to the true value.
x c −x t
e=
xt
Modularity in
Programming
Modules are code segments for
performing specific tasks; they are variously
known as procedures, functions,
subroutines, etc., depending on the
language. Some advantages of modularity in
programming are as follows.
We can deal with a complicated
problem more easily if we can break it down
into relatively small, manageable pieces.
A code segment of the task that
must be performed at different stages of the
problem has to be written only once.
Modules may be tested
independently of other parts of the code; in
this way, debugging (or error detection and
correction) is simplified.
Well-chosen modules for production
codes simplify program maintenance and
upgrading because modification of one
module either leaves other modules
unaffected or minimizes any necessary
changes in other modules.
Background
The following are the types of mathematical
subject areas that are covered in this course:
1. Roots of Equations. The solution of
many scientific and engineering
problems requires finding the roots of
equations that can be nonlinear. These
problems are concerned with the value
of a variable or a parameter that satisfies
a single equation.
2. Simultaneous Linear Equations. Many
engineering and scientific problems can
be formulated in terms of systems of
simultaneous linear equations. When
these systems consist of only a few
equations, a solution can be found
analytically using the standard methods
from algebra, such as substitution.
However, complex problems may
involve a large number of equations that
cannot realistically be solved using
analytical methods. In these cases, we
will need to find the solution
numerically using computers.
3. Numerical Integration. A physical
interpretation of numerical integration is
the determination of a close
 approximation to the area under a curve
of a function that has been determined
either from experimental data or from a
mathematical expression. Numerical
integration formulas play an important
role in the solution of differential
equations.
4. Ordinary Differential Equations.
ODE’s are of great significance in
engineering practice. This is because
many physical laws are expressed in
terms of the rate of change of a quantity
rather than the magnitude of the quantity
itself. Two types of problems are
addresses: initial-value and boundary-
value problems.
5. Partial Differential Equations. PDE’s
are used to characterize engineering
systems where the behavior of a
physical quantity is expressed in terms
of its rate of change with respect to two
or more independent variables. The
course is intended to provide an
introduction to methods of PDE and will
focus on the classical problems of
parabolic, elliptic, and hyperbolic
equations with relatively simple
domains. The methods that will be
considered are finite-difference methods
in which derivatives of a function are
replaced by finite-difference equations.
6. Curve Fitting. In engineering, curve
fitting plays an important role in the
analysis and interpretation of
experimental data and in the correlation
of mathematical models formulated
from fundamental engineering
principles. It involves the determination
of a continuous function which results in
the most “reasonable” or “best” fit of
experimentally measured values of
(x1,y1) through (xn,yn). The least-
squares approximation is one form of
curve fitting in which we seek the
parameters of a given model that best fit
the data