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MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
George Boole
(1815 - 1864)
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this
sentence we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this
sentence is ambiguous. Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in
mathematics.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is
no ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
How beautiful!
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second an order and the third a
Tomorrow is Friday
is not a statement. The sentence is correct (true) on a Thursday but not on other days. The same
person is referred to and for variable places such as “here”, “there” etc., For
Would you call this a statement? Note that the period mentioned in the
sentence above is a “variable time” that is any of 12 months. But we know
that the sentence is always false (irrespective of the month) since the
maximum number of days in a month can never exceed 31. Therefore, this
sentence is a statement. So, what makes a sentence a statement is the fact
that the sentence is either true or false but not both.
(v) There is no rain without clouds. (vi) How far is Chennai from here?
(ii) This sentence is also false since there are sets which are not finite.
Hence it is a statement.
(iii) It is a scientifically established fact that sun is a star and, therefore, this
sentence is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(iv) This sentence is subjective in the sense that for those who like
mathematics, it may be fun but for others it may not be. This means that this
sentence is not always true. Hence it is not a statement.
EXERCISE 14.1
1. Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your
answer.
We now look into method for producing new statements from those that we
already have. An English mathematician, “George Boole” discussed these
methods in his book “The laws of Thought” in 1854. Here, we shall discuss
two techniques.
NOTE While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, “It is not
the case” or “It is false that” are also used.
The denial of this sentence tells us that not everyone in Germany speaks
German. This does not mean that no person in Germany speaks German. It
says merely that at least one person in Germany does not speak German.
(ii) is rational.
is not rational.
(ii) There does not exist a quadrilateral which has all its sides equal.
It is not the case that there does not exist a quadrilateral which has all its
sides equal.
This statement tells us that there is something wrong with the bulb or there
is something wrong with the wiring. That means the given statement is
actually made up of two smaller statements:
connected by “or”
p: 7 is an odd number.
q: 7 is a prime number.
(iii) All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are complex.
p: It is raining.
q: It is cold.
The connecting word is ‘and’.
p: 0 is a positive number.
q: 0 is a negative number.
(iii) A person who has taken Mathematics or Computer Science can go for
MCA.
p: A square is a quadrilateral.
We know that both these statements are true. Here the connecting word is
‘and’.
Both these statements are false and the connecting word is ‘or’.
Both these statements are true. Here the connecting word is ‘or’.
p: is a rational number.
q: is an irrational number.
The first statement is false and second is true. Here the connecting word is
‘or’.
p: 24 is a multiple of 2.
q: 24 is a multiple of 4.
r: 24 is a multiple of 8.
All the three statements are true. Here the connecting words are ‘and’.
EXERCISE 14.2
p: 42 is divisible by 5, 6 and 7.
q: 42 is divisible by 5.
r: 42 is divisible by 6.
s: 42 is divisible by 7.
Here, we know that the first is false while the other two are true.
(ii) 0 is less than every positive integer and every negative integer.
(iii) All living things have two legs and two eyes.
p: A line is straight.
Both these statements are true, therefore, the compound statement is true.
Both these statements are false. Therefore, the compound statement is false.
p: Two lines in a plane either intersect at one point or they are parallel.
We know that this is a true statement. What does this mean? This means
that if two lines in a plane intersect, then they are not parallel. Alternatively,
if the two lines are not parallel, then they intersect at a point. That is this
statement is true in both the situations.
In order to understand statements with “Or” we first notice that the word
“Or” is used in two ways in English language. Let us first look at the
following statement.
A student who has taken biology or chemistry can apply for M.Sc.
microbiology programme.
Here we mean that the students who have taken both biology and chemistry
can apply for the microbiology programme, as well as the students who
have taken only one of these subjects. In this case, we are using inclusive
“Or”.
(ii) Here also “Or” is inclusive since school is closed on holiday as well as
on Sunday.
(iii) Here “Or” is exclusive because it is not possible for two lines to
intersect and parallel together.
(iv) Here also “Or” is exclusive because a student cannot take both French
and Sanskrit.
Then, when q is true r is false and when r is true q is false. Therefore, the
compound statement p is true.
Consider another statement.
p: 125 is a multiple of 7 or 8.
q: 125 is a multiple of 7.
r: 125 is a multiple of 8.
Both these statements are false. Therefore, the compound statement is false.
(ii) To enter into a public library children need an identity card from the
school or a letter from the school authorities.
p: is a rational number.
q: is an irrational number.
Here, we know that the first statement is false and the second is true and
“Or” is exclusive. Therefore, the compound statement is true.
q: To get into a public library children need a letter from the school
authorities.
Children can enter the library if they have either of the two, an identity card
or the letter, as well as when they have both. Therefore, it is inclusive “Or”
the compound statement is also true when children have both the card and
the letter.
A word closely connected with “there exists” is “for every” (or for all).
Consider a statement.
This means that if S denotes the set of all prime numbers, then for all the
members p of the set S, is an irrational number.
1. For every positive number x there exists a positive number y such that
y < x.
2. There exists a positive number y such that for every positive number x,
we have y < x.
Although these statements may look similar, they do not say the same thing.
As a matter of fact, (1) is true and (2) is false. Thus, in order for a piece of
mathematical writing to make sense, all of the symbols must be carefully
introduced and each symbol must be introduced precisely at the right place
– not too early and not too late.
The words “And” and “Or” are called connectives and “There exists” and
“For all” are called quantifiers.
EXERCISE 14.3
(i) All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are not complex.
(iii) The sand heats up quickly in the Sun and does not cool down fast at
night.
(iv) x = 2 and x = 3 are the roots of the equation 3x2 – x – 10 = 0.
2. Identify the quantifier in the following statements and write the negation
of the statements.
(ii) To apply for a driving licence, you should have a ration card or a
passport.
14.5 IMPLICATIONS
In this Section, we shall discuss the implications of “if-then”, “only if” and
“if and only if ”.
The statements with “if-then” are very common in mathematics. For
example, consider the statement.
r: If you are born in some country, then you are a citizen of that country.
Then the sentence “if p then q” says that in the event if p is true, then q
must be true.
One of the most important facts about the sentence “if p then q” is that it
does not say any thing (or places no demand) on q when p is false. For
example, if you are not born in the country, then you cannot say anything
about q. To put it in other words” not happening of p has no effect on
happening of q.
Another point to be noted for the statement “if p then q” is that the
statement does not imply that p happens.
p : a number is a multiple of 9.
q: a number is a multiple of 3.
3. p only if q.
5. ∼q implies ∼p.
(ii) If you are born in India, then you are a citizen of India.
(ii) If you are not a citizen of India, then you were not born in India.
(ii) If you do all the exercises in the book, you get an A grade in the class.
(iii) If two integers a and b are such that a > b, then a – b is always a
positive integer.
(ii) If you get an A grade in the class, then you have done all the exercises
of the book.
(iii) If two integers a and b are such that a – b is always a positive integer,
then
a > b.
q : ab is a rational number.
⇔
‘If and only if’, represented by the symbol ‘ ‘ means the following
equivalent forms for the given statements p and q.
(iv) p ⇔q
Consider an example.
(i) p: If a rectangle is a square, then all its four sides are equal.
q: If all the four sides of a rectangle are equal, then the rectangle is a square.
SOLUTION (i) A rectangle is a square if and only if all its four sides are
equal.
(ii) A number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible
by 3.
EXERCISE 14.4
(ii) If the two lines are parallel, then they do not intersect in the same plane.
(iv) You cannot comprehend geometry if you do not know how to reason
deductively.
(i) You get a job implies that your credentials are good.
(ii) The Bannana trees will bloom if it stays warm for a month.
(iv) To get an A+ in the class, it is necessary that you do all the exercises of
the book.
4. Given statements in (a) and (b). Identify the statements given below as
contrapositive or converse of each other.
(i) If you do not have winter clothes, then you do not live in Delhi.
What does the statement mean? What would it mean to say that this
statement is true and when this statement is not true?
The answer to these questions depend upon which of the special words and
phrases “and”, “or”, and which of the implications “if and only”, “if-then”,
and which of the quantifiers “for every”, “there exists”, appear in the given
statement.
We shall list some general rules for checking whether a statement is true or
not.
In order to prove the statement “if p then q” we need to show that any one
of the following case is true.
xy = (2m + 1) (2n + 1)
= 2(2mn + m + n) + 1
We assume that q is not true. This implies that we need to consider the
negation of the statement q. This gives the statement
∼q : Product xy is even.
This is possible only if either x or y is even. This shows that p is not true.
Thus we have shown that
∼q ⇒ ∼p
NOTE The above example illustrates that to prove p ⇒ q, it is enough
to show
∼q ⇒ ∼p which is the contrapositive of the statement p ⇒ q.
EXAMPLE 14 Check whether the following statement is true or false by
proving its contrapositive. If x, y ∈ Ζ such that xy is odd, then both x and y
are odd.
p : xy is odd.
Now ∼q : It is false that both x and y are odd. This implies that x (or y) is
even.
Therefore, xy = 2ny for some integer n. This shows that xy is even. That is
∼p is true. Thus, we have shown that ∼q ⇒ ∼p and hence the given
statement is true.
p: is irrational
2. Show that the statement “For any real numbers a and b, a2 = b2 implies
that
a = b” is not true by giving a counter-example.
4. By giving a counter example, show that the following statements are not
true.
(i) p: If all the angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is an obtuse
angled triangle.
(ii) q: The equation x2 – 1 = 0 does not have a root lying between 0 and 2.
5. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? In each
case give a valid reason for saying so.
Miscellaneous Examples
Here both the component statements are true and therefore, the compound
statement is true.
SOLUTION (i) The negation of p is “It is false that p is” which means
that the condition x2 > x does not hold for all real numbers. This can be
expressed as
(iv) The negation of the given statement is ∼s: There exists a student who
does not study mathematics at the elementary level.
To check the validity of “p if and only if q”, we have to check whether “if p
then q” and “if q then p” is true.
CASE 1 If p, then q
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
CASE 2 If q, then p
t: If you drive over 80 km per hour, then you will get a fine.
When you drive over 80 km per hour, you will necessarily get a fine.
(i) p: For every positive real number x, the number x – 1 is also positive.
(i) p: A positive integer is prime only if it has no divisors other than 1 and
itself.
(iii) r: You can access the website only if you pay a subsciption fee.
(i) p: If you watch television, then your mind is free and if your mind is
free, then you watch television.
(ii) q: For you to get an A grade, it is necessary and sufficient that you do
all the homework regularly.
p : 25 is a multiple of 5.
q : 25 is a multiple of 8.
6. Check the validity of the statements given below by the method given
against it.
7. Write the following statement in five different ways, conveying the same
meaning.
SUMMARY
– The role of “And”, “Or”, “There exists” and “For every” in compound
statements.
– p implies q (denoted by p q)
– p only if q
– ∼q implies ∼p
Historical Note
The first treatise on logic was written by Aristotle (384 B.C.-322 B.C.). It
was a collection of rules for deductive reasoning which would serve as a
basis for the study of every branch of knowledge. Later, in the seventeenth
century, German mathematician G. W. Leibnitz (1646 – 1716) conceived
the idea of using symbols in logic to mechanise the process of deductive
reasoning. His idea was realised in the nineteenth century by the English
mathematician George Boole (1815–1864) and Augustus De Morgan
(1806–1871) , who founded the modern subject of symbolic logic.