Appendices

Numerical Weather Prediction and Data Assimilation, First Edition.

Petros Katsafados, Elias Mavromatidis and Christos Spyrou.
© ISTE Ltd 2020. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Appendix 1

Inertial and rotating reference frame: Suppose that we have at our disposal two
reference frames, one inertial and one rotating, having common origin and common
z-axis, while it is possible for a vector to be represented in component form in either
frame. The rotating frame moves around the z-axis with an angular velocity of Ω
(rad/s). This case is represented below.

   
Consider a random vector function A and let us call i , j and k the unit
  
vectors of the absolute inertial coordinate system, while i ′ , j ′ and k ′ are the unit
vectors of a relative coordinate system that rotates in connection to Earth. At any
time, it is valid:
      
A = Α x i + Α y j + Α z k = Α′x i′ + Α′y j ′ + Α′z k ′ [A1.1]
172 Numerical Weather Prediction and Data Assimilation


The right-hand side of equation [A1.1] represents the variable A analyzed in the
relative coordinate system, while the left-hand side represents the variable analyzed
in the absolute system. According to the above equation, the total time derivative of

A at the inertial system is given by:

d a A dAx  dAy  dAz 
= i+ j+ k =
dt dt dt dt ( A.1)
   [A1.2]
dAx′  dAy′  dAz′  di ′ dj ′ dk ′
i′ + j′ + k ′ + Ax′ + Ay′ + Az′
dt dt dt dt dt dt

Note that the unit vectors of the relative coordinate system vary in terms of their
direction. Furthermore, the equations below are always valid, regardless of the
direction of the unit vectors:
  
di ′   dj ′   dk ′  
= Ω × i′ , = Ω × j ′ and = Ω × k′ [A1.3]
dt dt dt

Eventually, placing equations [A1.3] into [A1.2]:


d a A dAx′  dAy′  dAz′       
= i′ + j′ + k ′ + Ax′ (Ω × i ′) + Ay′ (Ω × j ′) + Az′ (Ω × k ′) =
dt dt dt dt
dAx′  dAy′  dAz′       
i′ + j′ + k ′ + (Ω × Ax′ i ′) + (Ω × Ay′ j ′) + (Ω × Az′k ′) =
dt dt dt
dAx′  dAy′  dAz′     
i′ + j′ + k ′ + Ω × ( Ax′ i ′ + Ay′ j ′ + Az′k ′) 
dt dt dt
 
d a A dA  
= + Ω× A [A1.4]
dt dt

As mentioned above, the vector A is a random function. By setting in place of
 
A the position vector R , equation [A1.4] results in [A1.5]:
 
d a R dR      
= + Ω × R  Va = V + Ω × R [A1.5]
dt dt

which means that the absolute velocity Va is equal to the relative velocity plus the
velocity due to the motion of the relative coordinate system. The previous equation
can be derived by another way. Let us consider that a body moves in relation to a
coordinate system fixed in the space (inertial reference frame), but it is stationary in
relation to a relative coordinate system (e.g. a fixed body at a certain point M on the
 Appendix 1 173

surface of the Earth). In this case, it is valid that r = R cos ϕ , where R is the radius
of the Earth at the location of M, r is the distance of M that is perpendicular to the
axis of rotation and φ is the latitude of M (Figure A1.1).

Then, it is true that:

      
V = 0, Va = VΩ = Ω × R = Ω × r [A1.6]

However, if the body is moving in relation to the Earth (i.e. V ≠ 0 ), it will travel

on the relative coordinate system at a space interval equal to Vdt (within a time
interval dt), while on the inertial coordinate system, the body will travel at a space

interval equal to Va dt . The point under consideration will also move due to the
  
rotation of the Earth at a space interval equal to VΩ dt = (Ω × R) dt .

Obviously, as shown in Figure A1.1, it is valid that:

      
Va dt = Vdt + VΩ dt  Va dt = Vdt + (Ω × R)dt 
        [A1.7]
Va = V + Ω × R  Va = V + Ω × r

Figure A1.1. Relation between the absolute and the relative

velocity at the rotating coordinate system fixed to the Earth
174 Numerical Weather Prediction and Data Assimilation

Accordingly, using the expressions [A1.4], [A1.5] and [A1.6], equation [A1.8]
can be obtained:
     
d aVa dVa   d aVa d (V + Ω × R )    
= + Ω × Va  = + Ω × (V + Ω × R )
dt dt dt dt
  
dV d (Ω × R)     
= + + Ω × V + Ω × (Ω × R )
dt dt
 
dV  dR     
= + Ω× + Ω × V + Ω × (Ω × R )
dt dt
 [A1.8]
dV       
= + Ω × V + Ω × V + Ω × (Ω × R ) 
dt
 
d aVa dV     
= + 2(Ω × V ) + Ω × (Ω × R)
dt dt

dV     
= + 2(Ω × V ) + Ω × (Ω × r )
dt

Del operator ( ∇ ): The del operator is a vector differential operator. In Cartesian
coordinates, it is written as:

 ∂  ∂  ∂ 
∇= i + j+ k [A1.9]
∂x ∂y ∂z

Gradient of a scalar ( ∇S ): By definition, the gradient of a scalar (S) is a vector
given by:

 ∂S  ∂S  ∂S 
gradS = ∇S = i+ j+ k [A1.10]
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
Divergence of a vector ( ∇ ⋅ A ): The divergence of a vector
   
( A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) is scalar given by:

   ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az
divA = ∇ ⋅ A = x + + [A1.11]
∂x ∂y ∂z
 Appendix 1 175

Total differentiation: For a variable which is a function of time and location at a

specific time {e.g. A = A[ x (t ), y (t), z(t), t] }, the total derivative can be expanded in
Cartesian coordinates as follows:

dA ∂A dt ∂A dx ∂A dy ∂A dz
= + + + 
dt ∂t dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
[A1.12]
dA ∂A ∂A ∂A ∂A ∂A  
= + u+ v+ w= + (V ⋅∇) A
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

where the total derivative dA dt of a variable A is its rate of change following the
motion, and ∂A ∂t is the time rate of the variable’s variation at a fixed point (local
derivative).
     
Curl of a vector ( ∇ × A ): The curl of a vector ( A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) is similarly
a vector that is given by:
  
i j k
  ∂ ∂ ∂
∇× A = [A1.13]
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

   
Evidence of the expression ( −Ω × (Ω × R ) = Ω 2 r ): The angular velocity vector
(in rad/s) and the radius vector of the Earth (in m) in spherical–altitude coordinates
  
(Figure A1.2a) are defined as: Ω = Ω cos ϕ j ′ + Ω sin ϕ k ′ (Figure A1.2b) and
 
R = Rk ′ .

(a) (b) (c)

Figure A1.2. a) Symbols of the spherical coordinate

  system. R is the radius of the
Earth, φ is the latitude, λ is the longitude, and i ′, j ′, k ′ are the west–east, south–
north and vertical unit vectors respectively, b) components of the angular velocity
vector of the Earth and c) centrifugal acceleration components
176 Numerical Weather Prediction and Data Assimilation

 
The term Ω × R is the rate of variation of the body’s position due to the rotation
of the Earth.
  
i′ j′ k′
     
Ω× R = 0 Ω cos ϕ Ω sin ϕ = ΩR cos ϕ i ′ = Ωri ′ = Ω × r
Fig . A1.2 a
0 0 R

and finally:
  
i′ j′ k′
  
−Ω × (Ω × R) = − 0 Ω cos ϕ Ω sin ϕ =
Ωr 0 0
 
−(Ω 2 r sin ϕ j ′ − Ω 2 r cos ϕ k ′) = [A1.14]
   
Ω 2 (r cos ϕ k ′ − r sin ϕ j ′) = Ω 2 rr0 = Ω 2 r
Fig . A1.2 c

 
Coriolis force: Ω and V can be written in component form in spherical–
altitude coordinates (Figure A1.2a) as:
      
Ω = Ω cos ϕ j ′ + Ω sin ϕ k ′ and V = ui ′ + υ j ′ + wk ′

  
i′ j′ k′
   
aCo = FCo = −2Ω × V = −2 0 Ω cos ϕ Ω sin ϕ 
m =1kg
u υ w [A1.15]
    
aCo = FCo = 2Ω(υ sin ϕ − w cos ϕ )i ′ − 2Ωu sin ϕ j ′ + 2Ωu cos ϕ k ′
m =1kg


In the above equation, the term 2Ωw cos ϕ i ′ can be removed due to the fact that
vertical scalar velocities are smaller than horizontal ones. The vertical component of
the Coriolis force is also smaller than other vertical components in the momentum

equation. For this reason, the term 2Ωu cos ϕ k ′ can be removed. After these
simplifications, the equation for the Coriolis force per unit mass in spherical–altitude
coordinates becomes:
       
aCo = FCo = −2Ω × V = 2Ωυ sin ϕ i ′ − 2Ωu sin ϕ j ′ = f υ i ′ − fuj ′ [A1.16]
m =1kg

where f = 2Ω sin ϕ is the Coriolis parameter.

 Appendix 1 177

Equation [A1.16] gives another form of the Coriolis force (since w=0, only the
horizontal wind speed will be considered):
  
i′ j′ k ′
       
aCo = FCo = −2Ω × V = f υ i ′ − fuj ′ = − f 0 0 1 = − fk ′ × V [A1.17]
m =1kg
u υ 0

Equation of conservation of water:

∂q   ∂q  
+ V ⋅ ∇q = E − C  ρ = − ρV ⋅∇q + ρ ( E − C ) [A1.18]
∂t ∂t

∂ρ   ∂ρ    
∂t
( )
= −∇ ⋅ ρV 
∂t
= − ρ∇ ⋅ V − V ⋅∇ρ 

[A1.19]
∂ρ    
q = − ρ q∇ ⋅ V − qV ⋅∇ρ
∂t

By adding the above equations ([A1.18] and [A1.19]):

∂q ∂ρ      
ρ +q = − ρV ⋅∇q − ρ q∇ ⋅ V − qV ⋅∇ρ + ρ ( E − C ) 
∂t ∂t
[A1.20]
∂( ρ q)  
= −∇ ⋅ ( ρ qV ) + ρ ( E − C )
∂t

1  
Proof of equation ( ∇p = c p ⋅ Θ ⋅ ∇π ):
ρ
    
Θ ⋅ π = T  ∇(Θ ⋅ π ) = ∇T  Θ∇π + π ∇Θ = ∇T 
     
Θ∇π = −π ∇Θ + ∇T  c p Θ∇π = −c pπ ∇Θ + c p ∇T 
R R R  R 
−1  
  p  c p  ps  c p   p  c p R  ps  c p   ps   
c p Θ∇π = −c p     ∇T − c p   T    − 2  ∇p + c p ∇T
 ps   p   ps  cp  p   p 
 R   R 
 −1  −1
 p R  p  c p 
  ps  c p 
  ps   
= − c p ∇T − c p T      − 2  ∇p + c p ∇T 
ps c p  ps   p  p 
 RT  1 
c p Θ∇π = ∇p = ∇p [A1.21]
p ρ
178 Numerical Weather Prediction and Data Assimilation

Thermodynamic energy equation in terms of potential temperature:

dT q a dp
From [1.75]  = +
dt c p c p dt

 p
( ) 
R
cp
d T s 
dΘ  p 
= 
dt dt

( p) ( )
R ps ( R c p −1)  ps  dp
R
ps cp dT
= −T − 2   [A1.22]
dt cp p  p  dt

d Θ 1 dT RΘ dp
= +
dt π dt c p p dt

According to Jacobson (2005), the last term in equations [1.75] and equation
[A1.22] can be eliminated (dp/dt=0). Therefore:

d Θ 1 dT dΘ 1 q ∂Θ ∂Θ ∂Θ ∂Θ q
=  =  +u +υ +w = 
dt π dt dt π c p ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z π c p
[A1.23]
∂Θ ∂Θ ∂Θ ∂Θ q
= −u −υ −w +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z π c p