ALPHA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ……

COURSE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Name:

Lecturer-:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)

MEPP, BSc (Econ),, PGR, Candidate of LLB
Practical research methods

CHAPTER ONE

Lecturer-:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)

BSc (Econ), MEPP, PGR, Candidate of LLB

1
 INTRODUCTION
This course is designed to lay the foundation
regarding researches. In particular, this course is
directed for acquainting the students with basics of
research methods by presenting the fundamental
and the major concepts of Research methods.
At the completion of the courses, students shall be
able to
Identify researchable problems for their thesis.
Select the appropriate methods of investigation.
Be able to identify the combination of skills
which are relevant to the chosen topics
Be able to produce a literature review based 1-3 on
students’ subject interest.

2
 What is research?
 Research has been defined in different ways by
different investigators and writers.
 Research is a scientific (Knowledge based),
logical, controlled (limited to a subject) and
empirical process (evidence based).

 Research is a process of finding solutions to a

problem after a systematic study and analysis of
situational factors (Sekaran 2003).

3
 What is research?
 Research is a systematic, scientific, controlled
and empirical process.
• Systematic:- Means step by step
• Scientific:- Means logical steps to follow
• Controlled:- Means covers a limited area
(Scope)
a) Time
b) b) Area or Geographical coverage
c) c) Respondents
d) Contents (Various)

 Empirical:- Means evidence based data

4
 What is research?
 Research is Systematic investigative process
employed to increase or revise current
knowledge by discovering new facts.
 It is an investigation of finding solutions to
scientific and social problems.
 Research is about search for the hidden truth.
 The use of the words how and what essentially
summarizes what research is.

5
 important characteristics of research
 Conciseness: means brief
 Clarity: Means it is written on simple words, simple
sentences, correct language and grammar
 Honesty: Means no fraud, factual, using accurate
questions and footnotes as well as admitting
failure.
 Completeness: Means contain all the important
and necessary details of the study.
 Accuracy: Means free from errors, careful,
precise etc.
 Orderly or Systematic: Means following the
sequence of the research proposal.
 Logical: Means its statements are supported by
evidences and inferences.

6
WHAT IS RESEARCH METHODS?
 A research method is the process used to collect
information and data for the purpose of making
right decisions.
 As a researcher, you will consider what method
might be most appropriate for answering the
questions you want to investigate.
 Particular methods, techniques must be
employed to come up with appropriate solutions
to problems.

7
 HOW IS RESEARCH DONE?
Research is done with the help of study,
experiment, observation, analysis,
comparison and reasoning.
For example, the data gathered from the
field (communities) or secondary sources
(such as textbooks, journals, newspapers)
needs to be interpreted to create meaning
out of it.

8
BASIC STEPS OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

Find a topic
Formulate questions
Define population
Select design & measurement
Interpret evidence
Tell about what you did and found out

9
 WHY RESEARCH?
 To overcome or solve the problems
occurring in our everyday life.
 To generate new knowledge.
 Here knowledge means
information about matters.
 The information might be
collected from different sources
like experience, human beings,
books, journals, nature, etc.
 To discover new facts
 Redefine knowledge: Meaning verify and
test important facts.

10
 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is actually an act of studying
something carefully and extensively in
order to attain deep knowledge.
To Gather Necessary Information.
Research provides you with all necessary
information in field of your work.
Knowing The Truth.

11
WHAT MAKES PEOPLE DO RESEARCH?

To get a research degree.

To solve the unsolved and challenging
problems
To find out the unknown facts of an event.
Curiosity to find new things.
To serve the society by solving social
problems.

12
 What is the difference between research
methods and research methodology?
 Research methods means tools in which data
can be collected and analyzed such as
questionnaires, interview, experiment, survey,
observation etc.
 A method refers to the techniques researcher
use to collect and analyze data.
 It is the specific techniques, tools or procedures
applied to achieve a given objective.
 Research Methods can be categorized into three
 Data Collection
 Data Analyzes
 Data Evaluation

13
What is the difference between research
methods and research methodology?..
 Research methodology is the science of
studying and understanding how research can
be done systematically.
 Research methodology explains the methods
by which you may proceed with your
research.
 It also understands the factors that effecting
validity and reliability of method.
 For example, how did the researcher go about
deciding:
 What data to collect and what data to ignore
 Who to collect it from (in research, this is
called “Sampling design”)
 How to collect it (this is called “data collection
methods”)
 How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis
methods” 14
APPROACHES OF RESEARCH

15
 Quantitative research
 Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
 Data collection therefore requires ‘closed’
responses.
 It is numerical, non-descriptive.
 The results are often presented in tables and
graphs. It is an iterative process whereby
evidence is evaluated.

16
 Main Features of Quantitative Research

 In the quantitative research, respondents are

asked same questions.
 Quantitative research requires large samples of
individuals.
 Quantitative research tends to analyze data
accurately.
 The data obtained are based on statistical
analysis.

17
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Qualitative research gathers information that is not
in numerical form. For example, open- ended
questionnaires, unstructured interviews.
 Qualitative data is analytical data and as such is
harder to analyze than quantitative data.
 Data collection therefore permits ‘open’ responses.
Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe
the situation.
 The purpose of qualitative is to promote greater
understanding of the way things are and why they
are the way they are.

18
 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
 The research involves holistic inquiry carried
out in a natural setting.
 This means that the researcher is a
participant who is highly involved in
investigation
 Humans are the primary data instruments
 The qualitative researcher prefers to rely on
human power of observation rather than
measurement instruments like paper and
pencil tests.

19
 Emphasis on multiple realities
Qualitative data gathering procedures are
preferred because they are considered more
open of the diversity of multiple realities one
finds in a complex field situation.
 Purposive rather than random sampling
The qualitative research is more likely
uncover the full array of “multiple realities”
relevant to an inquiry when the sampling of
respondents is done purposely rather than
probabilistic sampling methodology.
Purposive means: this is where one select
participants who have the required
information according to the objectives of
his/her study.
Example religion sect, educational level, adult
people,
males only, ages 20 -25, smokers and etc.

20
 WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Problem of reliability caused by extreme
subjectivity
Risk of collecting meaningless and useless
information
 It is very time consuming
Problem of representative and generality of
the findings.

21
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The two categories of research methods

are different. But they are also similar in
the followings:
 Both do researches.
 Both methods use instruments of data
collection like questionnaires/observations as
their tools.
 Both use sampling procedures.

22
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Descriptive research vs Analytical Research
describes and measures data.
 Meanwhile, analytical research focuses on cause
and effect.
For example, the changing trade deficits between
the Somaliland and the rest of the world in 2015-
2018. This is descriptive research. For example,
you may talk about the mean or average trade
deficit.
Meanwhile, analytical research measures
something different. Instead, you’d look at why
and how the trade deficit has changed
Analytical Research can explore why the value
of the Japanese Yen has fallen. This is because
analytical research can look at questions of “how”
and “why.”

23
 Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either
be applied (or action) research or fundamental
(to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing
a society.
fundamental research is mainly concerned
with generalizations and with the formulation
of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.”
Fundamental research is trying to answer a
question of theoretical.

24
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

 Quantitative research is based on the

measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed
in terms of quantity.

 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is

concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind.

For instance, when we are interested in

investigating the reasons for human behavior
(i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. 25
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

 On the other hand, empirical research relies

on experience or observation alone, often
without regarding theory.

It is data-based research, coming up with

conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.

26
 RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Formulating the research problem: There
are two types of research problems, viz.,
those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between
variables.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the
problem is formulated, a brief summary of
it should be written down.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After
extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
4. Preparing the research design: The research
problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design.

27
5. Determining sample design: All the items
under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real

life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes
necessary to collect data that are appropriate.

7. Processing and Analyzing Data: Data

processing generally begins with the editing
and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions (Errors), if any.

28
Practical research methods

CHAPTER TWO
DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM/ RESEARCH DESIGN

Lecturer-:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)

BSc (Econ), MEPP, PGR, Candidate of LLB

1-1
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

 In research process, the first and foremost step

happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem.

 Like a medical doctor, a researcher must

examine all the symptoms (presented to him or
observed by him) concerning a problem before
he can diagnose correctly.

 You must have a clear idea with regard to what it

is that you want to find.

1-2
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?..

 A research problem, in general, refers to

some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the situation of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same.

 Research problem exist if the

following conditions are met with:

There must be an individual or a group

which has some difficulty or the problem.

There must be some objective(s) to be

attained at.
If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem. 1-3
 CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
CONSIDERATION
DESCRIPTION
FACTOR

 The most important criterion in selecting a research problem.

 The whole research process is normally time consuming and a lot of hard
work is needed. If you choose a topic which does not greatly interest you, it
1 Interest
would become difficult to keep up the motivation to Write.

 Before selecting a research problem, you need to ensure that you met
certain level of expertise in the area you are proposing.
2  Expertise
 Make use of the facts you learned during the study and Of course your
research supervisors will lend a hand as well.

 If your research title needs collection of information (journal, reports

3  Data availability ,proceedings) before finalizing the title, you need to make sure you have
these materials
 Available and in the relevant format.
 Always choose a topic that suits your profession.
 Relevance
4  Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge.
 In formulating the research problem, you should consider some ethical
issues as well.
5  Ethics
 lecturer:
Sometimes, during Abdirahim Ahmed
the research 1-4
period, the study Population mightbe
adversely affected by some questions.

1-4
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROBLEM FORMULATION

Step 1: Identification of Subject Area

Ask yourself what you like to do after your
graduation or what field you would like to
specialize in.
This will help you to find an interesting topic.
Step2: Problem Definition and Identification
a problem should be identified in the field that
is close to your interest or related to your
specialization.
Step 3: Literature Review:
It can reveal similar investigations and
suggest approaches in dealing with
similar problems.

1-5
Step 4: Selection of Research Design
Research design is crucial as it provides overall
structure for the research procedure, the data
that a researcher collects and the data analysis
that the researcher conducts.

Step 5: Data Gathering

We understood that research design provides the

design of the particular research and method of
data collection to answer the research question
we formulated earlier.

Step 6: Data Processing and Analysis

 The data collected need to be analyzed and

computed to provide us inferential and
interpretation on the problem.
1-6
Step 7: Implications, Conclusions and
Recommendations
 Implications and conclusion are important
justifications that every researcher should
take note as part of the research process.

 The novelty of the work and contribution of

new knowledge are seen in the implications
and conclusion part of the entire research.

 Recommendations are used to call for action

or solutions to the problems you have
investigated in your research paper.

1-7
 SELECTING THE PROBLEM

 The research problem undertaken for

study must be carefully selected.

 The task is a difficult one, although it may not

appear to be so.

 Help may be taken from a research guide in

this connection.

1-8
However, the following points may
be observed by a researcher in
selecting a research problem or a
subject for research:
Subject which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a
case.

Controversial subject should not

become the choice of an average
researcher.
1-9
Too narrow or too vague problems should
be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be
familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are
within one’s reach.

 Even then it is quite difficult to supply

definitive ideas concerning how a researcher
should obtain ideas for his research.

1-10
 In other words, before the final selection of
a problem is done, a researcher must ask
himself the following questions:

 Whether he is well equipped?

 Whether the study falls within the budget he

can afford?

 Whether the necessary cooperation can

be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects?

 The selection of a problem must be preceded

by a preliminary study.

1-11
 NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

 Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly

stated is a problem half solved.

 A proper definition of research problem will

enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create
hurdles.

 It is only on careful detailing the research

problem that we can work out the research
design and can smoothly carry on all the
consequential steps involved while doing
research.

1-12
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

 Statement of the problem in a general way;

 Understanding the nature of the problem;

 Surveying the available literature

 Developing the ideas through discussions; and

 Rephrasing the research problem into a working

proposition. A brief description of all these
points will be helpful.

1-13
 RESEARCH DESIGN

 Research design can be considered as the

structure of research it is the “Glue” that holds all
of the elements in a research project together, in
short it is a plan of the proposed research work.

 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how

much, by what means concerning research
study constitute a research design.

 Research design is a plan for conducting a

research.

1-14
More explicitly, the design decisions
happen to be in respect of.
 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?

 Where will the study be carried out?

 What type of data is required?

 Where can the required data be found?

 What periods of time will the study include?

 What will be the sample design?

 What techniques of data collection will be used?

 How will the data be analyzed?

 In what style will the report be prepared?

1-15
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the

various research operations.

 Reliability of the results.

 The design helps the researcher to organize

his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible
for him to look for errors and inadequacies.

1-16
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

 Flexible

 Appropriate

 Efficient

 and Economical

 Generally, the design which minimizes bias

and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed is considered a good
design.

1-17
Practical research methods

CHAPTER THREE:
DATA COLLECTION METHODS/ VARIABLES, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND ETHICAL ISSUES

Lecturer-:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)

BSc (Econ), MEPP, PGR, Candidate of LLB

1-1
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

 Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be

processed.

 There are two data sources

 Primary data

 And secondary data.

 Primary data are those which are collected

afresh and for the first time.

 Secondary data, Data collected by someone

else for some other purpose (but being utilized
by the investigator for another purpose).

1-2
DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS

 Data collection is the systematic approach

to gather and measure of information
from a variety of sources to get a complete
and accurate picture of an area of interest.

 Data collection enables a person or

organization to answer relevant questions,
evaluate outcomes.

 Once the research problem is identified and

clearly defined, the research effort logically
turns to data collection.

1-3
DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS

1-4
 Interviews

Interview is formal meetings between two

people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) where questions are asked by
the interviewer to obtain information.
 Structured,

 Semi- structured

 Unstructured. structured Interviews

1-5
 Interviews….
 Structured Interviews: Fixed format interview in
which all questions are prepared beforehand and
are put in the same order to each interviewee.

 A semi- structured interview is a meeting in

which the interviewer does not strictly follow a
formalized list of questions.

 unstructured interview is an interview in which

there is no specific set of predetermined
questions, Unstructured interviews flow like an
everyday conversation and tend to be open-
ended.

1-6
 QUESTIONNAIRES

 Questionnaires contains a list of questions,

usually printed, submitted for replies that can be
analyzed for usable information. Before
examining the steps in designing a
questionnaire, we need to review the types of
questions used in questionnaires.

Open – Ended Questions

Closed – Ended Questions

Matrix Questions

Contingency Questions

1-7
 Open – Ended Questions
Open – Ended Questions:

 Open-ended questions permit free responses that

should be recorded in the respondent’s own words.
The respondent is not given any possible answers
to choose from.

 Such questions are useful to obtain information on:

Facts with which the researcher is not very

familiar,

Opinions and suggestions.

Sensitive issues.

 Example:-
Why you choose to be Doctor?
What is the responsibility of Vet Doctor ?
1-8
 Closed – Ended Questions:

 Closed questions offer a list of possible options

or answers from which the respondents must
choose. Closed questions are useful if the range
of possible responses is known. When designing
closed questions one should try to:

 Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and

mutually exclusive

 Keep the number of options as few as possible.

1-9
EXAMPLES:

What is your marital status?

 Married

 Single

The foundations are placed below

ground level, to increase
 Strength

 Workability

 Stability of structure

 All the above.

1-10
Close ended Questions divided in to two:
 Matrix Questions

 Contingency Questions

EXAMPLE:
 How useful would you say the activities of
Veterinary doctors have been in development?

 Extremely useful
 Very useful

 Useful

 Not very useful

 Not useful at all

1-11
 CONTINGENCY QUESTIONS
 Questions that need to be answered only when the
respondent provides a particular response to a
question prior to them are called contingency
questions. Asking these questions effectively
avoids asking people questions that are not
applicable to them.
 FOR EXAMPLE:
 Have you ever smoked a cigarette?
 Yes or No
 If YES, how many times have you smoked
cigarette?
A. 2 – 5 times B 6 – 10 times C. More than 10 times
1-12
REQUIREMENTS OF QUESTIONS:
 Must have face validity:

The question that we design should be one

that give an obviously valid and relevant
measurement for the variable.

 Must be clear and unambiguous:

They must be phrased in language that it is

believed the respondent will understand,
and that all respondents will understand in
the same way.

To ensure clarity, each question should

contain only one idea.

1-13
 Must not be offensive:

Whenever possible it is wise to avoid

questions that may offend the respondent.

 The questions should be fair:

They should not be phrased in a way that

suggests a specific answer, and should not
be loaded.

Short questions are generally regarded as

preferable to long ones.

 Sensitive questions:

It may not be possible to avoid asking

‘sensitive’ questions that may offend
respondents 1-14
STEPS IN DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE:

 Designing a good questionnaire always

takes several drafts.

 In the first draft we would concentrate on the

content.

 In the second, we would look critically at the

formulation and sequencing of the questions

 Finally, we would do a test-run to check

whether the questionnaire gives us the
information we require..

1-15
Step1: CONTENT
 TAKE YOUR OBJECTIVES AS YOUR STARTING
POINT.

Decide what questions will be needed to

measure or to define your variables and reach
your objectives.

Step 2: FORMULATING QUESTIONS

 Formulate one or more questions that will
provide the information needed for each
variable.

Take questions are specific and precise

enough that different respondents do not
interpret them differently care that.
1-16
Step 3: SEQUENCING OF QUESTIONS:
 Design your interview schedule or
questionnaire to be “consumer friendly.”
At the beginning of the interview, keep questions
concerning “background variables” (e.g., age,
religion, education, marital status, or
occupation) to a minimum. If possible, pose
most or all of these questions later in the
interview.

Start with an interesting but non-

controversial question that is directly related
to the subject of the study.
Pose more sensitive questions as late as
possible in the interview
Use simple everyday language
Make the questionnaire as short as possible.

1-17
Step 4: FORMATTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

When you finalize your questionnaire, be

sure that:
Each questionnaire has a heading and
space to insert the number, data and
location of the interview, and, if required the
name of the informant. You may add the
name of the interviewer to facilitate quality
control.

Sufficient space is provided for answers to

open-ended questions.

1-18
 OBSERVATION

 There are two main ways in which researchers

observe –

 Direct observation; and

 Participant observation.

1. Direct observation: tends to be used in areas

such as health and psychology.

 It involves the observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain

situation and often uses technology such as video
camera or one-way mirrors.

1-19
 For example, the interaction of mother, father and
child in a specially prepared play room may be
watched by psychologists through a one way
mirror in an attempt to understand more about
family relationships.

2. Participant observation: is one type of

data collection method by practitioner-
scholars typically used in qualitative research
and ethnography.
 However, the researcher becomes much more
involved in the lives of the people being
observed. It is popular amongst anthropologists
who wish to study and understand another
community, culture or context. 1-20
 They do this by immersing themselves
within that culture.

 This may take months or years, as they

need to build up a lasting and trusting
relationship with those people being
studied.

 Through participation researcher hope to

gain a deeper understanding into the
behavior,

 Motivation

 And attitudes of the people under study.

1-21
Practical research methods

CHAPTER FOUR
SAMPLING DESIGN
Lecturer:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)
BSc (Econ), MEPP, PGR, Candidate of LLB

1-1
 POPULATION
 Population refers to the entire group of
people, events, or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.

 A population study, is a study of a group of

individuals taken from the general Population
who share a common characteristic.

 All items in any field of inquiry constitute a

‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’

1-2
CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

 All items in any field of investigation there is a

‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’

 A complete investigation and details of all items

in the ‘population’ is known as a census.

 If you have specified that you will survey

everyone in your work place then you are
undertaking a census!

1-3
 Suitability of Census Method

The census method is suitable only in

the following
 Where there is enough time to collect data

 Where higher degree of accuracy is required

 Where there is enough availability of finance

1-4
 SAMPLE
 A sample is a subset of the population.
 It comprises some members selected from it
total population or universe.

 In other words, some, but not all, elements of

the population would form the sample.

1-5
 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1. Defining the population to be covered:

Researcher should define the population

under study as per the objective of the study.
For example, if the researcher wants to study
about the students who are studying at Alpha
university then whole students who are
studying at A U is considered as the
population for this study.

2. Defining the sampling units:

The population units selected in the sample is

called sample units. The sample units could
be geographical (region, districts, cities,
wards etc.) 1-6
3. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling
frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
It contains the names of all items of a
population (in
case of finite).

If source list is not available,

researcher has to prepare it.

Such a list should be

comprehensive, correct, and reliable.

It is extremely important for the source list

to be as representative of the population
as possible.

4. Size of sample: This refers to the number of

items to be selected from the population to
1-7
found a sample.
 5. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations,
from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the
size of the sample but also to the type of
sample.

6. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher

must decide technique to be used in selecting
the items for the sample.

 Probability sampling

 or non probability sampling.

1-8
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
SAMPLE DESIGN

Sample design must truly represent sample.

 Sample design must be such which results in a

small sampling error.

 Sample design must be workable in the context

of funds available for the research study.

 Sample should be such that the results of the

sample study can be applied, in general, for the
whole population with a reasonable level of
confidence.

1-9
 SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting a
sufficient number of elements from the
population.

Sampling is a process of selecting small

more manageable number of elements
from the total papulation.
 An element is a single member of the
population.

1-10
 SAMPLING SIZE RULES

1. Thumb’s Rule
 If your target population is or in between 0—
1000 your sample size will be 30% of your
population.
 N=target population
 n=sample size
 n= N*0.3
 n=600*0.3=180
 n=180

1-11
 SAMPLING SIZE RULES…
 Slovin’s Formula
 n=sample size
 N=population
 e=Marginal error

1-12
MAJOR TYPES OF SAMPLING
DESIGNS

1-13
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Probability sampling refers to the selection of a
sample from a population, when this selection is
based on the principle of randomization, that is,
random selection or chance.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

 A random sample is sample that is chosen
randomly.

 Random samples are used to avoid bias and

other unwanted effects. Each unit in the sampling
frame has an equal chance of being selected.
Applicable when population is homogeneous.
1-14
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

 Individuals are chosen at regular intervals from

the sampling frame.

 The first unit to be selected is taken at random

from among the first units.

 For example, a systematic sample is to be

selected from 1200 students of a school.

 The sample size is decided to be 100.

 The sampling fraction is: 100 /1200 = 1/12.

 Hence, the sample interval is 12.

1-15
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 Stratified Sampling is a type of sampling method
in which the total population is divided into
smaller groups.

 The population is first divided into groups

(strata) according to a characteristic of interest
(e.g.., sex, geographic area, etc.).

 A separate sample is then taken independently

from each stratum, by simple random or
systematic sampling.

1-16
 CLUSTER SAMPLING

 Cluster sampling refers to a type of sampling

method.

 With cluster sampling, the researcher divides

the population into separate groups called
clusters.

 Clusters are often geographic units (e.g.

districts, villages, etc.)

 Then simple random sample co clusters is

selected from the population.

 The sampling unit is a cluster.

1-17
1-18
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Non-probability (Non-random) sampling is a
sampling method where personal knowledge and
opinion play major role in identifying which
elements of the population are to be included in
the sample.

 Non-probability sampling is sampling

technique where the samples are gathered in a
process that does not give all the individuals in
the population equal chances of being selected.

1-19
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity

sampling or accidental or sampling.

 Sample being drawn from that part of the

population which is close to hand.

 That is, readily available and convenient.

 The researcher using such a sample cannot

scientifically make generalizations about the
total population from this sample because it
would not be representative enough.

1-20
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

The sampling here is confined to specific

types of people who can provide the
desired information, either because they
are the only ones who have it, or fill the
criteria set by the researcher.

Two major types of purposive sampling

1. Judgment sampling; and
2. Quota Sampling

1-21
 Judgment sampling involves the choice of
subjects who are the best position to provide the
information required.

 For instance, if a researcher wants to find out what

it takes for women managers to make it to the top,
the only people who can give first hand information
are the women who have risen to the positions of
managers.

 Quota sampling is a sampling procedure which

ensures that certain characteristics of a
population sample will be represented to the
correct extent that the researcher desires.

 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample

200 females and 300 males between the age of
45 and 60. This is one of the most common forms
of non- probability sampling.
1-22
Practical research methods

CHAPTER FIVE
Research Proposal writing

Lecturer:- Ahmed M. Elmi (Atoshe)

BSc (Econ), MEPP, PGR, Candidate of LLB

1-1
 RESEARCH PROCESS

How to select/ formulate/develop a research

title /topic

This stage involves identifying and stating the

research title. The first step of identifying a
research title is to pick an area of interest.

This area is related to one’s professional or

interest.

1-2
 RESEARCH PROCESS
Next step is to identify a specific problem
with in the researcher’s area of interest.

This problem should be important and

serious in that it needs a solution
immediately.

Examples of research problems are

 Employee productivity in the public sector,

 Water scarcity in urban areas,

 Family breakdown.

1-3
 RESEARCH PROCESS

 The selection of a problem, even to

experienced researcher is always a difficult
step in the research process.

 Also, graduate students spend many anxiety

ridden days and sleepless nights worrying
about where they are going to find the problem
they need for their thesis.

1-4
When selecting a research tittle keep in
mind the following:
a) The time available to conduct the study

b) The money available / which can be raised for

the study

c) The availability of equipment and other tools

required for the study

d) Availability of the respondents.

1-5
 RESEARCH VARIABLES

 Variable: “any thin that can take on different

values.
 Sex
 Height
 Leadership styles
 Example:
 Political party:
 Kulmiye, Ucid, Wadani.
 Qualifications
 Secondary, first degree, masters PhD.

1-6
 Two types of variables

 A variable in research simply refers to a person,

place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying
to measure in some way.

1-7
 CHAPTER ONE
 This chapter involves the following sub-
sections:
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study
 Objectives
 Research questions
 Scope
 Significance of the study
 Definition of key words

1-8