Pythagoreanism

The earliest known systematic cult based on the rule of numbers

was that of the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras was a Greek who thrived
in the 6th century BCE. Little is known of his life, and in fact he
may be a composite figure to whom the discoveries of many
different people have been attributed by his followers. It is not
even known whether the Pythagorean theorem in geometry was
actually discovered by him.

The Pythagoreans invested specific numbers with mystical

properties. The number 1 symbolized unity and the origin of all
things, since all other numbers can be created from 1 by adding
enough copies of it. For example, 7 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1. The
number 2 was symbolic of the female principle, 3 of the male; they
come together in 2 + 3 = 5 as marriage. All even numbers were
female, all odd numbers male. The number 4 represented justice.
The most perfect number was 10, because 10 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4. This
number symbolized unity arising from multiplicity. Moreover, it
was related to space. A single point corresponds to 1, a line to 2
(because a line has two extremities), a triangle to 3, and space to
4. Thus 10 also symbolized all possible spaces.

The Pythagoreans recognized the existence of nine heavenly

bodies: Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
and the so-called Central Fire. So important was the number 10 in
their view of cosmology that they believed there was a tenth body,
Counter-Earth, perpetually hidden from us by the Sun.

Some Pythagorean speculations were mathematical. They

represented numbers by arrangements of dots. The square
numbers (1, 4, 9, 16,…) were arranged in squares, and the
triangular numbers (1, 3, 6, 10,…) were arranged in triangles
(see figure). This terminology remains in use to the present day.
polygonal numbers
The ancient Greeks generally thought of numbers in concrete
terms, particularly as measurements and geometric dimensions.
Thus, they often arranged pebbles in various patterns to discern
arithmetical, as well as mystical, relationships between numbers.
A few such patterns are indicated in the figure.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The Pythagoreans were especially fascinated by the presence of
numbers in the natural world. Perhaps their most spectacular
discovery was that musical harmony is related to simple whole-
number ratios. A string (such as that on a violin) produces a note
with a particular pitch; a string one-half as long produces an
extremely harmonious note to the first, now called the octave. A
string two-thirds as long produces the next most harmonious
note, now called the fifth. And one three-fourths as long produces
the fourth, also very harmonious. The Pythagoreans discovered
these facts empirically by experimenting with strings of different
lengths. Today these harmonies are traced to the physics of
vibrating strings, which move in patterns of waves. The number of
waves that can fit into a given length of string is a whole number,
and these whole numbers determine the simple numerical ratios.
When the numbers do not form a simple ratio, the corresponding
notes interfere with each other and form discordant “beats” that
are unpleasant to the ear. The full story is more complex,
involving what the brain becomes accustomed to, but there is a
definite rationale behind the Pythagorean discovery. This later led
the German astronomer Johannes Kepler to the concept of the
“music of the spheres,” a kind of heavenly harmony in which the
planets effectively produced tunes as they moved across the
heavens. Some of Kepler’s theories about the planets, such as the
elliptical shape of their orbits, became solid science—but not this
one. Nonetheless, it was influential in establishing the view that
there is some kind of order in the cosmos, an idea that culminated
in Isaac Newton’s law of gravity.
Cultural associations of some numbers

The enormous range of symbolic roles that numbers have played

in various cultures, religions, and other systems of human thought
can be gauged from a brief sample.
1

Not surprisingly, the number 1 is generally treated as a symbol of

unity. Therefore, in monotheistic religions, it often symbolizes
God or the universe. The Pythagoreans did not consider 1 to be a
number at all because number means plurality and 1 is singular.
However, they considered it to be the source of all numbers
because adding many 1s together can create any other (positive
whole) number. In their system, where odd numbers were male
and even numbers female, the number 1 was neither; instead, it
changed each to the other. If 1 is added to an even number, it
becomes odd; similarly, if 1 is added to an odd number, it
becomes even.
2

The number 2 symbolizes many of the basic dualities: me/you,

male/female, yes/no, alive/dead, left/right, yin/yang, and so
on. Dualities are common in human approaches to the world,
probably because of our preference for two-valued logic—yet
another duality, true/false. Although 2 was female to the
Pythagoreans, other numerological schemes viewed it as male.
In Agrippa von Nettesheim’s De occulta philosophia (1533; “On
the Philosophy of the Occult”), 2 is the symbol for man, sex, and
evil. One reason that some have associated 2 with evil is that the
biblical book of Genesis does not use the formula “and it was
good” when referring to the second day of Creation.
yin and yang symbol
The yin and yang symbol suggests the two opposite principles or
forces that make up all the aspects of life.

Some religions are dualistic, with two gods in place of the one God
of monotheism. Examples include Zoroastrianism, where Ahura
Mazdā (the god of light and goodness) battles with Ahriman (the
god of darkness and evil). The number 2 is often associated with
negatives, as in the words duplicity and two-faced. Northwest
Coast Indians required the parents of twins to observe
various taboos because they believed that supernatural powers
would bring the wishes of twins to fruition.
3

The number 3 is a very mystical and spiritual number featured in

many folktales (three wishes, three guesses, three little pigs, three
bears, three billy goats gruff). In ancient Babylon the three
primary gods were Anu, Bel (Baal), and Ea, representing Heaven,
Earth, and the Abyss. Similarly, there were three aspects to the
Egyptian sun god: Khepri (rising), Re (midday),
and Atum (setting). In Christianity there is the Trinity of God the
Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Plato saw 3 as being
symbolic of the triangle, the simplest spatial shape, and
considered the world to have been built from triangles. In
German folklore a paper triangle with a cross in each corner and a
prayer in the middle was thought to act as protection against gout,
as well as protecting a cradle from witches. Three black animals
were often sacrificed when attempting to conjure up demons. On
the other hand, a three-coloured cat was a protective spirit.
In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth (1606–07) there are three
witches, and their spell begins, “Thrice the brindled cat hath
mewed,” reflecting such superstitions. Also, 3 is the dimension of
the smallest magic square in which every row, column, and
diagonal sums to 15.
4

The number of order in the universe is 4—the four elements of

earth, air, fire, and water; the four seasons; the four points of the
compass; the four phases of the Moon (new, half-moon waxing,
full, half-moon waning). The Four Noble Truths epitomize
Buddhism. To the Pythagoreans 4 was the source of the tetractys 1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 = 10, the most perfect number. In medieval times
there were thought to be four humours (phlegm, blood, choler,
and black bile—hence the
adjectives phlegmatic, sanguine, choleric, and melancholic), and
the body was bled at various places to bring these humours into
balance.

The number 4 is central in the world view of the Sioux, with four

groups of gods (superior, ally, subordinate, and spirit), four types
of animal (creeping, flying, four-legged, and two-legged), and four
ages of humans (infant, child, mature, and elderly). Their
medicine men instructed them to carry out all activities in groups
of four.

Because 4 is generally a practical, material number, few

superstitions are associated with it. An exception is in China,
where 4 is unlucky because she (“four”) and shi (“death”) sound
similar. In the biblical Revelation to John the Four Horsemen of
the Apocalypse wreak destruction upon humanity.
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, artwork by Peter von
Cornelius, 1845.
The Print Collector/Heritage-Images
5

The sum of the first even and odd numbers (2 + 3) is 5. (To the
Pythagoreans 1 was not a number and was not odd.) It therefore
symbolizes human life and—in the Platonic and Pythagorean
traditions—marriage, as the sum of the female 2 and the male 3.
The Pythagoreans discovered the five regular solids (tetrahedron,
cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron; now known as
the Platonic solids). Early Pythagoreanism acknowledged only
four of these, so the discovery of the fifth (the dodecahedron, with
12 pentagonal faces) was something of an embarrassment.
Perhaps for this reason 5 was often considered exotic and
rebellious.
The number 5 was associated with the Babylonian
goddess Ishtar and her Roman parallel, Venus, and the symbol for
both was the five-pointed star, or pentagram. In England a knot
tied in the form of the pentagram is called a lover’s knot because
of this association with the goddess of love. In Manichaeism 5 has
a central position: the first man had five sons; there are five
elements of light (ether, wind, water, light, and fire) and a further
five of darkness. The body has five parts; there are five virtues and
five vices.

The number 5 was also important to the Maya, who placed a fifth

point at the centre of the four points of the compass. The five
fingers of the human hand lent a certain mystery to 5, as did the
five extremities of the body (two arms, two legs, head). A human
placed in a circle with outspread arms and legs approximates the
five points of a pentagon, and if each point is joined to its second
nearest neighbour, a pentagram results. This geometric figure is
central to occultism, and it plays a prominent role in summoning
spells whereby it is supposed to trap a demon, or devil, who can
then be compelled to do the sorcerer’s bidding. The belief that 5
was sacred led to an extra element, augmenting the traditional
four that made a human being. This fifth essence, or quintessence,
is the origin of the word quintessential.

In Islam 5 is a sacred number. Foremost are the five Pillars of

Islam: declaration of faith (shahādah), prayer (ṣalāt), fasting
during Ramadan, giving alms (zakāt), and making the pilgrimage
to Mecca (the hajj). Prayers are said five times every day. There
are five categories of Islamic law and five law-giving prophets
(Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad).
6

By a wonderful conjunction of mathematical coincidences, 6 is

both the sum (1 + 2 + 3) and the product (1 × 2 × 3) of the first
three numbers. It is therefore considered “perfect.” In
mathematics, a perfect number is one that equals the sum of its
divisors (excluding itself), and 6 is the first perfect number in this
sense because its divisors are 1, 2, and 3. The next perfect number
is 28. No odd perfect numbers are known, but it has not been
proved that none exists. The perfection of 6 shows up in the six
days of Creation in Genesis, with God resting on the seventh day.
The structure of the Creation parallels the sum 1 + 2 + 3: on day 1
light is created; on days 2 and 3 heaven and earth appear; finally,
on days 4, 5, and 6 all living creatures are created.

creation of Adam
Detail of a miniature of the creation of Adam in the Book of
Genesis from the Bible historiale by Guyart des Moulins, French,
between 1403 and 1404; in the British Library.
The British Library (Public Domain)
7

The sum of the spiritual 3 and the material 4 is 7.

In medieval education, students pursued the trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium (music,
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy), a total of seven subjects,
collectively known as the liberal arts. Pythagorean interest in the
mathematical patterns in music gives 7 a privileged role, for there
are seven distinct notes in the musical scale—corresponding
roughly to the white notes on a piano. Counting from 1, the eighth
note up the scale is the exceedingly harmonious octave, which is
how the name arose.

The number 7 is often considered lucky, and it has a definite

mystique, perhaps because it is a prime number—that is, it cannot
be obtained by multiplying two smaller numbers together. There
are seven days of the week, named after various ancient gods and
planets (Sun-day, Moon-day, Tiw’s-day, Woden’s-day, Thor’s-day,
Frigg’s-day, Saturn-day). Tiw was a Norse god of war, parallel
to Mars in role but to Zeus in etymology, and Frigg was the Old
English version of Frea (or Freya), wife of Woden (= Odin).

Shakespeare wrote of the seven ages of man, an idea that goes

back much earlier. In China 7 determines the stages of female life:
a girl gets her “milk teeth” at seven months, loses them at seven
years, reaches puberty at 2 × 7 = 14 years, and reaches menopause
at 7 × 7 = 49. The phases of the Moon last approximately seven
days, with 4 × 7 = 28 days in a month and also in a female
menstrual period. Many cultures recognized seven planets (Sun,
Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) in the sense of
“wandering bodies,” unlike the “fixed stars,” which retain the
same relative position in the night sky. The seven candles of the
Jewish menorah that burned in the Tabernacle symbolized the
Creation and, according to the English scholar Robert Graves,
may be connected to the seven planets of antiquity.
geocentric system
Ptolemaic diagram of a geocentric system, from the star
atlas Harmonia Macrocosmica by the cartographer Andreas
Cellarius, 1660.
Photos.com/Thinkstock
In ancient Egypt there were seven paths to heaven and seven
heavenly cows; Osiris led his father through seven halls of the
underworld. The seven deadly sins are well-known in Christian
tradition. The number 7 was the fundamental number of
the Rosicrucians, who used it as an organizational basis for their
text Chymische Hochzeit Christiani
Rosenkreutz (1459; Alchemical Wedding of Christian Rosycross).
The number was also central to the cult of Mithra, which believed
the soul rose to paradise through seven planetary spheres. The
Christian idea of seven layers of purgatory may be related.

The number 7 features prominently in folk sayings. Breaking a

mirror leads to seven years of bad luck. In Iran a cat has seven
lives, not the nine of Western myth.
The most common numbers in the Indian Vedas are 3 and 7. Agni,
the god of fire, has seven wives, mothers, or sisters and can
produce seven flames. The sun god has seven horses to pull his
heavenly chariot. In the Rigveda there are seven parts of the
world, seven seasons, and seven heavenly fortresses. The cow has
21 = 3 × 7 names.

In the Hippocratic tradition of medicine, 7 rules the illnesses of

the body, with painful illnesses lasting 7, 14, or 21 days. In
Germany it was believed that pigs would not contract hog
cholera if they were treated for seven days with water containing
asphodel. In Jewish magic a fever can be cured by taking seven
prickles from seven palm trees, seven chips from seven beams,
seven nails from seven bridges, seven ashes from seven ovens…
terminating in seven hairs from the beard of an old dog.
8

The number 8 is generally considered to be an auspicious number

by numerologists. The square of any odd number, less one, is
always a multiple of 8 (for example, 9 − 1 = 8, 25 − 1 = 8 × 3, 49 −
1 = 8 × 6), a fact that can be proved mathematically. In
Babylonian myth there were seven spheres plus an eighth realm,
the fixed stars, where the gods lived. As a result, 8 is often
associated with paradise. Muslims believe that there are seven
hells but eight paradises, signifying God’s mercy. In Buddhism 8
is a lucky number, possibly because of the eight petals of the lotus,
a plant associated with luck in India and a favourite
Buddhist symbol.

In China, just as the number 7 determines the life of a woman, 8

determines that of a man. A boy gets his milk teeth at eight
months, loses them at eight years, reaches puberty at 2 × 8 = 16,
and loses sexual virility at 8 × 8 = 64. The Yijing, which describes
a system of divination using yarrow stalks, involves 64 = 8 × 8
configurations.
9
In contrast to 8, the number 9 often represents pain or sadness.
The 16th-century Catholic theologian Peter Bungus pointed out
that the Ninth Psalm predicts the coming of the Antichrist. In
Islamic cosmology the universe is made from nine spheres—the
traditional eight of Ptolemy, plus a ninth added by the Arab
astronomer Thābit ibn Qurrah about 900 CE to explain
the precession of the equinoxes.

In Anglo-Saxon cultures 9 crops up frequently. The early

inhabitants of Wales used nine steps to measure distance in legal
contexts; for example, a dog that has bitten someone can be killed
if it is nine steps away from its owner’s house, and nine people
assaulting one constituted a genuine attack. In German law the
ownership of land terminated after the ninth generation. Many
folk sayings involve the number 9. A stitch in time saves nine.
Cloud nine is the ultimate in happiness. A cat has nine lives.
In Greek mythology the River Styx, across which souls were
ferried to the underworld, is described as having nine twists.
10

As already stated, 10 was the Pythagorean symbol of perfection or

completeness. Humans have ten fingers and ten toes. Counting on
fingers probably led to the decimal number system, with its
symbols 0–9 and its place values whereby the 7 in 703 counts as 7
hundreds, but in 173 it is 7 tens and in 507 it is 7 units. We
consider powers of 10, such as 100 or 1,000, to be “round
numbers.” However, there is nothing special about 10, and any
other number from 2 onward can be used as a number base.
Indeed, computers use base 2, or the binary number system,
written using only the symbols 0 and 1. Mathematicians
distinguish “genuine” properties of numbers, which are true
independent of any notational base, with “accidental” ones that
arise only because of the notational system—for example, that 153
(the number of fish in the Gospel According to John) is the sum of
the cubes of its digits, 13 + 53 + 33 = 1 + 125 + 27 = 153.
Ravana
Ravana, the 10-headed demon-king, detail from a Guler painting
of the Ramayana, c. 1720; in the Cleveland Museum of Art.
Courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, gift of George P.
Bickford
Occurrences of 10 and its powers are so common that there is no
point in listing them here. However, the Ten Commandments of
the Bible deserve mention, especially given that Buddhism too has
its own ten commandments—five for monks and five for the laity.
11

Sandwiched between the two auspicious and important numbers

10 and 12, the number 11 generally has negative connotations.
Bungus stated that 11 has no connection with the divine, and
medieval theology refers to the “11 heads of error.” Because at any
time one of the 12 zodiacal signs is hidden behind the Sun, the
number 11 is often associated with the zodiac. In the
Babylonian creation myth Enuma Elish Tiamat, the god of chaos,
is supported by 11 monsters. The ancient Roman equivalent of a
police force comprised 11 men whose job was to hunt down
criminals. Several sports involve teams with 11 members
(American football, football [soccer], cricket).
12

The number 12 is strongly associated with the heavens—the 12

months, the 12 signs of the zodiac, and the 12 stations of the Moon
and of the Sun. The ancients recognized 12 main northern stars
and 12 main southern stars. There are 24 = 2 × 12 hours in the
day, of which 12 are daytime and the other 12 nighttime. The
number 12 is the product of the sacred and the secular (3 × 4); it
is the sum of the numbers of life and good fortune (5 + 7). It thus
incorporates many distinct virtues. In Christianity it is the
number of Christ’s disciples, and it occurs many other times in the
Bible—for example, the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Several cultures
have used numbers based on 12 (duodecimal); the 12 inches in a
foot are one familiar relic of such a system.
13

Triskaidekaphobes believe 13 to be unlucky, especially when the

13th day of the month is a Friday, a fear that was reinforced by the
explosion that almost wrecked the Apollo 13 lunar spacecraft in
1970. Skeptics note that it returned to Earth safely, unlike any
other manned spacecraft that has exploded, making its crew some
of the luckiest people on the planet. The fear of 13 may relate
to Judas Iscariot’s having been the 13th person to arrive at
the Last Supper, but its negative undertones go back much earlier,
probably because an extra 13th item spoils the auspicious 12.
There are 13 lunar months in the year (with a small error), which
led the Maya and the Hebrews to consider 13 as auspicious.
In medieval theology 13 = 10 + 3 (Commandments plus Trinity),
and therefore the number had some positive aspects.
Apollo 13
The severely damaged Apollo 13 service module (SM) as
photographed from the lunar module/command module. An
entire panel on the SM was blown away by the explosion of an
oxygen tank.
NASA
14

The number 14 is an even number with attributes similar to those

of 7. A period of 14 days is half of the Moon’s 28-day cycle, so it
takes 14 days (one fortnight, short for fourteen-night) for the
Moon to wax from new to full or to wane from full to new.
In ancient Egypt Osiris was cut into 14 parts. The number is
important in Islam; the Arabic alphabet contains 14 Sun letters
and 14 Moon letters. In medieval Germany 14 innocent beings
gave legal protection to whomever they accompanied.
15
As the product of two sacred numbers (3 × 5), 15 naturally has
religious significance. In ancient Nineveh the goddess Ishtar was
served by 15 priests, and the city had 15 gates. The 3 × 3 magic
square has 15 as its magic constant, and in Babylon this square
was associated with Ishtar.
16

Because 16 is the square of 4, it inherits favourable attributes. It

was popular in ancient India; the Vedas talk of 16-fold
incantations, and the Chinese-Indian goddess Pussa has 16 arms.
The Rosicrucians believed that nature consisted of 16 elements.
17

In ancient times, in the region of Urartu, near Mount Ararat, the

local deity was offered 17-fold sacrifices. The biblical Flood began
on the 17th day of the second month and ended on the 17th day of
the seventh month. Greek superstition holds the 17th day of the
month to be the best day to cut wood to build a boat. Some
followers of Sufism believe that the most sacred name of God has
17 letters. Mathematicians find 17 unusual because a regular 17-
sided polygon can be constructed using the Euclidean tools of
ruler and compass, a fact discovered by the German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss at the age of 19.
18

Because 18 is twice 9, it has some significance by association with

9. In Norse mythology Haldan has 18 sons and Odin knows 18
things. The number is sacred to the Sufi mystics who were known
in the West as the whirling dervishes, and their custom was for a
guest to bring gifts in multiples of 18. The
Hindu Mahabharata has 18 books, and the Jewish
prayer shemone ʿesre (Hebrew: “eighteen”) originally consisted of
18 blessings.
dervishes
Dervishes performing a ritual dance, Konya, Turkey.
© Ihsan Gercelman/Dreamstime.com
19

Eclipses of the Sun tend to recur in periods of 19 years. The

Babylonians considered the 19th day of the month to be unlucky
because it was 49 days from the beginning of the previous month
(add 30), and, since 49 = 7 × 7, it was a day of great portent for
good or evil. In Islamic numerology 19 is the value of the
word Wāḥid (Arabic: “One”), an important name for God.
total solar eclipse
Total solar eclipse as seen from Hopkinsville, Kentucky, August
21, 2017.
Joseph Matus—MSFC/NASA
20

The number 20 has little mystical significance, but it is

historically interesting because the Mayan number system
used base 20. When counting time the Maya replaced 20 × 20 =
400 by 20 × 18 = 360 to approximate the number of days in the
year. Many old units of measurement involve 20 (a score)—for
example, 20 shillings to the pound in predecimal British money.
100

Because our notational system for numbers is decimal (base 10),

the number 100 takes on a significance that it would probably not
possess if we employed other systems of notation. It is a round
number and holds hints of perfection. The Western calendar is
divided into the decade (10 years), century (100 years), and
millennium (1,000 years), with the century as the most important
unit. Thus, one refers to the 20th or 21st century as a way to
establish a broad historical period. In the game of cricket, scoring
100 runs (a century) is a major feat for a batsman, but to be out at
99 is a significant failure. A half-century (50) is also a sign of good
play, whereas falling short at 49 is undesirable. (If we had seven
fingers and counted in base 7, we would write 49 as 100, so
presumably 49 would be considered an excellent score in such a
culture.) The dollar is divided into 100 cents, and many
other currencies (pound sterling, euro) involve a similar
subdivision of the main unit of currency. The Celsius temperature
scale has 100 degrees as the boiling point of water. “A hundred”
often just means “a lot”; for example, the Roman centurion did
not always command exactly 100 men.

By the same token, 101 often means “a lot” too, but it is manifestly
bigger than 100, and its lack of roundness makes it sound more
precise, such as in the Disney-Company-produced 101
Dalmatians (1961).
Number and reality

Nature’s numbers

Many aspects of the natural world display strong numerical

patterns, and these may have been the source of some number
mysticism. For example, crystals can have rotational symmetries
that are twofold, threefold, fourfold, and sixfold but not fivefold—
a curious exception that was recognized empirically by the ancient
Greeks and proved mathematically in the 19th century.

An especially significant number is the golden ratio, usually

symbolized by the Greek letter ϕ. It goes back to early Greek
mathematics under the name “extreme and mean ratio” and refers
to a division of a line segment in such a manner that the ratio of
the whole to the larger part is the same as that of the larger part to
the smaller. This ratio is precisely (1 + Square root of√5)/2, or
approximately 1.618034. The popular name golden ratio,
or golden number, appears to have been introduced by the
German mathematician Martin Ohm in Die reine
Elementarmathematik (1835; “Pure Elementary Mathematics”).
If not, the term is not much older and certainly does not go back
to ancient Greece as is often claimed.

In art and architecture the golden number is often said to be

associated with elegance of proportion; some claim that it was
used by the Greeks in the design of the Parthenon. There is little
evidence for these claims. Any building has so many different
lengths that some ratios are bound to be close to the golden
number or for that matter to any other ratio that is not too large
or small. The golden number is also often cited in connection with
the shell of the nautilus, but this too is a misunderstanding. The
nautilus shell has a beautiful mathematical form, a so-called
logarithmic (or equiangular) spiral. In such a spiral each
successive turn is magnified in size by a fixed amount. There is a
logarithmic spiral associated with the golden number, and in this
case the fixed amount is precisely ϕ. However, the spiral of the
nautilus does not have the ratio ϕ. Logarithmic spirals exist with
any given number as their ratio, and the nautilus ratio has no
special significance in mathematics.

The golden number is, however, legitimately associated with

plants. This connection involves the Fibonacci numbers (1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,…), in which each number, starting
with 2, is the sum of the previous two numbers. These numbers
were first discussed in 1202 by the Italian
mathematician Leonardo Pisano, who seems to have been given
the nickname Fibonacci (son of Bonaccio) in the 19th century. The
ratio of successive Fibonacci numbers, such as 34/21 or 55/34,
gets closer and closer to ϕ as the size of the numbers increases. As
a result, Fibonacci numbers and ϕ enjoy
an intimate mathematical connection.
Fibonacci numbers are very common in the plant kingdom. Many
flowers have 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, or 34 petals. Other numbers occur less
commonly; typically they are twice a Fibonacci number, or they
belong to the “anomalous series” 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29,…, with the
same rule of formation as the Fibonacci numbers but different
initial values. Moreover, Fibonacci numbers occur in the seed
heads of sunflowers and daisies. These are arranged as two
families of interpenetrating spirals, and they typically contain,
say, 55 clockwise spirals and 89 counterclockwise ones or some
other pair of Fibonacci numbers.

This numerology is genuine, and it is related to the growth pattern

of the plants. As the growing tip sprouts, new primordia—clumps
of cells that will become special features such as seeds—arise
along a generative spiral at successive multiples of a fixed angle.
This angle is the one that produces the closest packing of
primordia, and for sound mathematical reasons it is the golden
angle: a fraction (1 − 1/ϕ) of a full circle, or roughly 137.5 degrees.
Number’s nature

What exactly is a number? It is easy to see what two sheep or two

apples are; you can find them in the real world. But what is 2? You
never meet 2 in a field or a fruit bowl. The symbol 2 is not a
number but a symbol for a number. Until the 19th century,
numbers were considered to be given by God—they simply were.
No one had to define the concept. Even in the 19th century the
German mathematician Leopold Kronecker said, “God made the
integers, all else is the work of man.”

The 19th-century German logician Gottlob Frege attempted to

define a number as “the class of all classes that can be put into
one-to-one correspondence with a given class.” Basically, what he
had in mind was that the abstract number 2 can be considered as
the class of all pairs of objects: two sheep, two apples, two
whatever. Lump all the pairs together, and the result is a single
well-defined object that captures the essence of 2. Mathematicians
would have been entirely happy with this definition, save for one
problem. The English philosopher Bertrand Russell pointed out
that the phrase “class of all classes that…” may not always have a
sensible meaning. He stated his famous paradox about “the class
of all classes that do not contain themselves.” Equivalently, it is
the paradox of the barber who shaves everyone who does not
shave himself. So who shaves the barber? Or imagine a catalog of
all catalogs that do not list themselves. Does this supercatalog list
itself or not?

Today, numbers are viewed as logical constructs, and their

existence holds good only in a rather abstract mathematical sense
in which something exists if it is not logically self-contradictory.
Numbers are defined in terms of conceptually simpler objects,
sets, through a kind of counting procedure. The Russell paradox is
no longer a problem, but it has been replaced by the far deeper
paradox of the Austrian-born American logician Kurt Gödel.
Gödel’s theorem states that if arithmetic is not self-contradictory
—that is, if numbers exist in the mathematical sense—then that
fact can never be proved mathematically. So perhaps numbers
really are as mystical as many people believe.
Ian Stewart
 Pythagoras and the Mystery of Numbers
by
Kate Hobgood
 
Pythagoras
         Pythagoras was the first of the great teachers of ancient Greece. Born in
580 B.C., Pythagoras became one of the most well known philosopher and
mathematician in history. Creating the Pythagorean Brotherhood, his
teachings greatly influenced Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Pythagoras is
considered as the first pure mathematician; he also founded a
community/society based on religion and science. He is most widely known as
the author of the Pythagorean Theorem. Some even venture to believe that the
word “philosophy” was invented by Pythagoras. He claimed to be a lover of
wisdom, for which the Greek word philo means love and Sophia means
wisdom.
         The Teachings of Pythagoras revolved around the idea that when
considering the deepest level, reality is essentially mathematical in nature.
Pytahgoreans believed there was a system of principles existed behind
numbers. The principles form a foundation for many concepts of traditional
Western thought. One of his most basic notions revolves around the
symbolism and beauty associated with the Divine Proportion.
         Pythagoras expressed his thoughts and ideas by using words and
symbols rather than numbers as we know them today. Instead, his ideas were
based on many thoughts that we associate with numbers today. For instance,
a point is the essence of a circle. A series of symbolic forms were constructed
to mirror the concepts of the universe. Using a compass, straightedge, and
writing utensil, mathematical philosophers created these symbolic
representations.
The Mystery of Numbers
         Of all shapes, the circle is the parent of all following shapes. When a circle
is mirrored, two mirrors are created. These two circles side by side build a
foundation for all numbers. The overlap of the circles allows each one to share
the center of the other. This shaped created is called the vesica piscis (Latin for
“fish’s bladder”). From this shape, a triangle, square, and pentagon can be
produced. And the relationship between these figures justifies the existences
of further number principles.

Vesica Piscis
         Believing that nothing exists without a center, mathematical philosophers
started with a point and drew a circle around it. This symbol is called
the monad and represents the number one. This figure is the most stable, and
the mathematical philosophers also called it The First, The Essence, The
Foundation, and Unity. Pythagoras believed the monad to be god and the
good. The monad is origin of the One. The monad is the seed of a tree for
which the numbers are to the monad as what the branches of a tree are to the
see of a tree. The monad in relation to other numbers preserves the identity of
every other number or anything it encounters. Any number multiplied by one
is itself, and any number divided by one is itself.
         “The Pytahgoreans believed that nothing exists without a venter around
which it revolves. The center is the source and it is beyond understanding, it is
unknowable, but like a seed, the center will expand and will fulfill itself as a
circle” (Hemenway 51).
 Monad
         In order for ‘one to become many’, the circle (or one) must be
transformed by a reflection. By contemplating itself, the circle is able to
become many. It is replicated with each circle sharing the center of the other.
The geometry of creating a line that connects the two center of the circles
furthers the principles of all following numbers.

         The dyad involves the principles of “twoness” or “otherness”. Greek

philosophers referred to the dyad as “audacity” because of the boldness of
separation from the one, and “anguish” because there is still a sense of tension
of a desire to return to oneness. They believed that the dyad divides and
unites, repels and attracts, separates and returns. “Pythagoras held that one of
the first principles, the monad, is god and the good, which is the origin of the
One, and is itself intelligence; but the undefined dyad is a deity and the evil,
surrounding which is the mass of matter” (Aet. 1. 7; Dox. 302). The dyad is the
door between the One and the Many. Recall the symbolic figure of
the vesica  piscis. The vesica piscis is a passageway to the journey of spiritual
self discovery. The notion of fertility is associated with its vulva shape, and is
thus related to the passage of birth.

Dyad
         The triad represents the number three. It is the first born and the eldest
number. The equilateral triangle serves as its geometric representation and is
the first shape to emerge from the vesica piscis. The triangle contains the
smallest area within the greater perimeter. The number three is the only
number equal to the sum of the previous numbers. For instance, one plus two
equals three. And three is also the only number whose sum also equals their
product. Or, one plus two plus three equals one times two times three. The
triad signifies prudence, wisdom, piety, friendship, peace, and harmony. The
triangle represents balance and is a polygon of stability and strength.

Tetrad

         The triangle can be extended beyond the vesica piscis by extending the
lines through the corners to the opposite sides of the circle. Connecting these
new lines with horizontal lines creates a larger triangle. Extending lines to
further fill the vesica piscis results in a ‘profound harmony’.
 The next shape emerging from the vesica piscis is the tetrad. Using logic
to construct the tetrad, philosophers drew a horizontal and vertical line
connecting the centers and the intersecting points of the two circles. Then,
when a circle is drawn along a line that connects the two centers, a perfect
shape of a square exists within the circle. Four is associated with justice,
wholeness and completion. There are four seasons, four ages of man, four
directionsFour is the first number formed by addition and multiplication of
equals. It is the first “female” number because it is the first even number.

Tetrad
The shape of the pentad follows as the symbol of life itself. The pentad
consists of all previous numerical symbols: monad’s point, the dyad’s line, the
triad’s surface, and the tetrad’s three dimensional volume. The pentad also
refers to the well known five point star. The pentad arises in the existence of
our five fingers, five toes, the symbol that wards off evil, and a symbol for
power and immunity. Because of the importance of the pentad, the
construction of the symbol was first kept secret from society. The pentad was
used as a secret sign among the Pythagoreans for them to distinguish
themselves and recognize other members.

Pentad
The pentad’s symbolism can be directly related to the Divine
Proportion. And the regeneration of the pentad is related to the value of phi
(Ф). The image of the pentad is found in nature in leaves and flowers. The
Greeks believed each point of the pentad to represent an element: water,
earth, air, fire, and idea. Early Christians used the pentad to represent the five
wounds of Christ. The symbol, when the point is directed downwards, was
later used as a sign for Satan and the Devil.
 Regenerations of the Pentad
The decad represents the number ten. Instead of simple numeric and
geometric interpretations, the decad further extends to the idea of a new
beginning of limitlessness. Symbolizing both world and heaven, the decad
helps us to understand the creation of the universe. The monad times the dyad
times the pentad (one times two time five) results in the decad. Since any
number times ten is similar to any number times one, it is similar to the
monad; however, the number is brought to a higher level.

Decad
“Ten is the very nature of number. All Greeks
and all barbarians alike count up to ten, and
having reached ten revert again to the unity.
And again, Pythagoras maintains, the power of
the number 10 lies in the number 4, the tetrad.
This is the reason: If one starts at the unit (1)
and adds the successive number up to 4, one
will make up the number 10 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10).
And if one exceeds the tetrad, one will exceed
 10 too…. So that the number by the unit resides
in the number 10, but potentially in the number
4.” (Aetius 1.3.8)
Conclusion
Early philosophers found harmony in numbers. The
symbolism and beauty behind each number can be further
extended to the essence of all following numbers. The
mysteriousness behind the theories founded by Pythagoras
and his followers is certainly deeply inspiring and symbolic.
 
For further reading:
Hemenway, P. (2005). “Divine Proportion: Ф (Phi) In
Art, Nature, and Science.” New York:  Sterling
Publishing Co.