Introduction | xi

Introduction

G alileo believed that the world is a book written in mathematical language and
that the mysteries of nature could be solved by simply examining the math.
Throughout history icons such as Plato, da Vinci, Galileo, and Newton remarked that
mathematics was necessary for the evolution and prosperity of humankind. The world
of math, however, could only begin with the advent of numbers. Therefore, a number-
ing system would be necessary for the advancement of human civilization and prosperity.
Numbers are a language unto themselves, ready to impart wisdom to humankind that
may enhance human prospects. The language of numbers provides humankind with the
tools and formulas to manage time and space—time as in the numbers of the calendar;
space as in the numerical triplets of the Pythagorean Theorem.
The arrangement of numbers into sets of squares reveals this information. These squares
of numbers are called magic squares.
The following represents the simplest magic square:

4 9 2

3 5 7

8 1 6
Table 1: A magic square occurs when the sum of any row, column, or diagonal yields a
singular result, in this case fifteen. This is known as the magic constant.

The above illustration is commonly referred to as the Chinese 3x3 magic square and is also
known as the Luo Shu (or Lo Shu), or the Luo Shu River Document. This arrangement
of the first nine numbers became the Chinese model by which to impart a perfect cosmic
xii | Introduction

order to spaces of political or religious importance, such as temples, cities, and royal tombs.
Even agricultural ceremonies used the magic square in traditions that would last over a
period of 2,500 years.
According to Chinese legend, the Luo Shu magic square represents an image
descended from Heaven and the model on which the universe is based. Use of the
Luo Shu model as a functional ground plan for city design incorporates the cos-
mo-magical framework of correspondences that include the celestial archetype, ritual
ceremonies, the symbolism of the center (the axis mundi), and the use of gnomonics
for spatial orientation and designating a space as sacred. Excellent works by Paul
Wheatley (Pivot of the Four Quarters) and Alfred Schinz (The Magic Square: Cities in
Ancient China) have clearly demonstrated the role of the Luo Shu magic square in
city planning in early China.
The Chinese were the most advanced civilization from about 1,000 BC to 1,500 AD.
As math was the basis of such supremacy, insights into the Luo Shu became a portal
into the Chinese concept of numbers as well as the math that led to conquering time
and space.
These numerical concepts were so critical to the success of humankind that the early
Chinese incorporated the icons related to numbers, math, astronomy, and agriculture into
the pictograms and glyphs of their language. The combination of pictograms with subtle
messages of morality built into the glyphs forms a comprehensive model of writing that
allows the state a measure of psychological control over the population through the use
of language. The Chinese language tells the story of a society’s advancement that supports
and reflects humankind’s role in relation to Heaven and earth. Math would prove to be
the backbone of this advancement.
No example illustrates this quite as well as agriculture. From the emperor’s first plow
cuttings marking the start of spring on a field shaped as a magic square (Illustration 19)
to the strict adherence to an organized system that brought in the harvest to feed the
people, numbers were relevant.
The 3x3 grid of the Luo Shu magic square serves as a symbolic basis of several key words
demonstrating the philosophical reverence of the Chinese for math, astronomy, agriculture,
and the prosperity that results from the strict observance of the traditional application
of these concepts.
The Luo Shu pattern is ancestor to words such as ju (qu or chu), 曲 = carpenter’s square;
tien (dian), 典 = a rule, standard, statute, canon, dictionary, encyclopedia; xing (hsing),
興 = to rise, to prosper; jing (ching), 井 = well (water); wu, 五 = the number five;
 Introduction | xiii

wan, 卍 = the ten thousand things; and ya, 亞 = the cosmic center. The traditional
pictograms for some words have changed to a more simplified modern version. For
example, carpenter’s square ju can be expressed in the traditional form 曲 but is more
commonly recognized as 矩.
The incorporation of this pattern of nine into these Chinese glyphs can be traced to
oracle bones dating back to the Shang dynasty (1700 BCE – 1100 BCE). The Chinese
language uses the Luo Shu pattern of nine to establish order over chaos through the use
of math as a means of increasing the quality of life of the people. The Chinese words to
describe important concepts such as the carpenter’s square, a rule or canon, to rise and
prosper, the central well, the ten thousand things, and the cosmic center demonstrate that
the Luo Shu pattern of nine was a spiritual tool helping to connect humankind with
Heaven and earth.
The use of the Luo Shu and its derivative words was intended as a traditional sacred
observance of the importance of numbers to bring a cosmic order to everyday life.
In order to understand why a group of numbers would serve as an archetypal model
for society it is necessary to understand the Chinese approach to philosophy and
cosmology. In this approach, everything in the universe is composed of yin and
yang energy. One objective of the Chinese system is for humankind to be in perfect
(yin-yang) harmony with the earth and the heavens, with the earth representing pure
yin, or female energy, and the heavens consisting of pure yang, or male energy. The
two-dimensional square is symbolic of the earth, female, and yin energy and the
circle is symbolic of Heaven, male, and yang energy. The interaction of the square and
circle is an important concept expressing a harmonious yin-yang balance in all phases
of Chinese society: art, architecture, city planning, coinage, tomb decoration, temple
design, and so on.
The concept of numbers has significant stature in the Chinese system. Unlike the
western system of treating numbers strictly as numerical quantities to be manipulated
by formulae, the Chinese philosophy of numbers (or number) corresponds to various
numerical systems intended to impart cosmic order. All systems devised and used
by the early Chinese civilization (the Yi Jing, gnomonics, astronomy, the language of
pictograms) were intended to establish imperial authority and order over the peasantry
(and all phases of society).
Magic squares represented an ideal number system and were an important source of
“cosmic” or “sacred” numbers. For instance, the center in the Chinese system and the
center number in Luo Shu magic squares represent several significant concepts.
xiv | Introduction

9x9
7x7
5x5 37 78 29 70 21 62 13 54 5
3x3 22 47 16 41 10 35 4 6 38 79 30 71 22 63 14 46
11 24 7 20 3 5 23 48 17 42 11 29 47 7 39 80 31 72 23 55 15
4 9 2 4 12 25 8 16 30 6 24 49 18 36 12 16 48 8 40 81 32 73 24 56
3 5 7 17 5 13 21 9 13 31 7 25 43 19 37 57 17 49 9 41 73 33 65 25
8 1 6 10 18 1 14 22 38 14 32 1 26 44 20 26 58 18 50 1 42 74 34 66
23 6 19 2 15 21 39 8 33 2 27 45 67 27 59 10 51 2 43 75 35
46 15 40 9 34 3 28 36 68 19 60 11 52 3 44 76
77 28 69 20 61 12 53 4 45

Table 2: The first four magic squares in the Luo Shu format demonstrate
the Pythagorean triplet of numbers at the heart of each square.

The center represents the axis mundi—the point where the four cardinal directions meet.
It is considered the meeting place of Heaven and earth.
These magic squares are related to one another and have common characteristics, the most
relevant being the Pythagorean triplet of numbers appearing at the heart of each square.
Another important feature is the cross of odd numbers that runs through the vertical and
horizontal axis creating a cross-in-square pattern. These ouranic (that is, heavenly, male
and yang) features of the magic square were of particular interest to the early Chinese
and became the model for temple building and city layouts.
The center of a Luo Shu magic square also represents the axis mundi and can be calculated
by the following method:

Let x equal any odd number greater than 1, then

The center = (x2 + 1) ÷ 2

This number will always be part of a Pythagorean triplet as well as a “centered” number,
making these numbers doubly significant.
 Introduction | xv

PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLETS

X (X2 + 1) ÷ 2 – 1 (X2 + 1) ÷ 2
3 4 5

5 12 13

7 24 25

9 40 41

11 60 61

13 84 85

15 112 113

17 144 145

19 180 181

21 220 221

23 264 265

25 312 313

27 364 365

Table 3: The Pythagorean triplets for the first thirteen odd

numbers greater than one.
These numbers satisfy the mathematical formula for the right angle triangle theorem,
also known as the Pythagorean theorem.
xvi | Introduction

The theorem of Pythagoras served as the mathematical guide for understanding and ordering
the cosmos, as well as for land surveying and water management on the terrestrial earth.
The importance of the Pythagorean theorem cannot be overstated, which was recognized
by the early Chinese, as its symbol—the carpenter’s square—shoulders its legacy as one
of the most important icons in Chinese philosophy.
In language, when the Chinese character for carpenter’s square ju, 矩, is combined with
the Chinese character for compass gui, 規 , a new word, gui ju, 規矩, is created, which
means to establish order, a moral code, or the way things should be. (Note: there exist
several pictograms for the concept of the “carpenter’s square”).
The early Chinese obviously placed extreme importance on the concept that to establish
order a moral standard must be followed and astronomical tools and math would be
essential. In art, the carpenter’s square symbolism can be found in the royal tombs of
kings to help facilitate an auspicious journey through the underworld. In astronomy,
the carpenter’s square also symbolized the gnomon—the most important astronomical
instrument known to humankind for thousands of years.
The gnomon is simply a stick in the ground whose shadow length determines the
approximate time of year between winter and summer solstice. The painstaking mea-
suring, recording, saving, and studying the shadow-length data for thousands of years,
i.e., calendar making, was part of the moral standard necessary to evolve and prosper
and was an essential role of the king. The shadow of the gnomon was in a right angle
relationship to the gnomon, generating a right angle whose measurements would satisfy
the theorem of Pythagoras. Therefore, the gnomon, right angle, and carpenter’s square
were interchangeable symbols of time and space.
The Chinese were not the only culture to recognize the importance of the gnomon
and its right angle triangle; however, they may have been the first to develop an intricate
system correlating numbers and the gnomon with divination. The gnomon was revered
as a god in the Egyptian culture in the form of an obelisk just as it was in the Indian
culture in the form of the stupa.
Magic squares in the Luo Shu format have a strong correlation to these symbols of time
and space due to the Pythagorean triplet of numbers that occurs at the heart of every magic
square. In addition, the numbers of the calendar appear in the most sacred of squares, the
27x27 magic square. The correlation of the Pythagorean theorem and the calendar with
the Luo Shu makes the Luo Shu an ideal symbol of time and space.
The Chinese revered all astronomical instruments—the carpenter’s square and compass,
the gnomon, the sighting tube, and the circumpolar constellation template (used to locate
the Pole Star). These were considered sacred instruments that help humankind connect
to Heaven and earth.
 Introduction | xvii

Rudimentary forms of these cosmological tools meticulously carved in jade were an

important part of agricultural ceremonies. These sacred symbols of Heaven and earth were
also commonly found in the tombs of the royal kings from over 3,000 years ago. Often
these symbols incorporated the square and circle to emphasize the yin–yang harmony.

Illustration 1 The jade bi disc found in the royal tombs demonstrates the use of the circle, square, and
magic square symbolism to reflect a perfect yin-yang harmony. The practice of overlaying the 3x3 grid over
architectural plans and fabrications of art will be used throughout this book to demonstrate the hidden use of the
magic square. (Courtesy Nelson-Adkins Museum of Art)

The bi disc incorporates the use of the 3x3 magic square that imparts an invisible yin–yang
harmony involving the (magic) square and a circle. In society, someone in possession of
the symbolic form of a real astronomical instrument such as the jade or emerald tablet
or gui (kuei) 圭, would be identified as a person of authority representing the royal court.
The symbolic uses of the magic square, gnomon, and carpenter’s square have been adopted
by other cultures. For instance, the magic square is the basis for the Indian mandala.
The carpenter’s square or gammadia was a popular Christian symbol from as early as the
sixth century and the magic square was undoubtedly used by monks during the Carolingian
era (800 AD – 1000 AD). These symbols are used to identify highly significant people
or objects of the Church. Apostles would be identified by the gammadia in the classic
mosaics and architecture of Ravenna, Italy, a medieval town that temporarily replaced
Rome as the western capital of the Byzantine Empire.
xviii | Introduction

Illustration 2 The jade tablet held by the Great Yu symbolized imperial authority; it evolved from the
gnomon shadow template. (Courtesy Wiki)

The churches’ most sacred possession, the book, could have covers incorporating gold,
silver, and precious stones. These books are referred to as illuminated manuscripts and
were symbolic of the most valuable possessions of the church.
It is necessary to use magic square numerology in order to interpret the cover of one
of the most famous books, the Lindau Gospels (ca. 9th century, formerly known as the
Ashburnham manuscript of the Four Gospels). Almost all early Christian art that displays
Jesus as the Pantocrator and holding “the book” have in common a similar geometric
design, the quincunx, which can be correlated to the magic square (see illustration 3). This
same geometry, the quincunx, also known as the cross-in-square, was the most common
ground plan for church design throughout the Middle Ages (500 AD – 1500 AD).
The quincunx and the Luo Shu magic square are synonymous symbols represented in
the Indian mandala, and Chinese art and architecture. The quincunx or Luo Shu was the
Chinese template for the metaphysical foundation of the ground plan of the Emperor’s
palace, also known as the Ming Tang. Authorities on early Christian art and architecture
such as Joseph Strzygowski believe that the Christian quincunx church design had oriental
influences. Needless to say, the quincunx or Luo Shu geometric pattern was used prolifically
by the early church in the same manner as in early Chinese and Indian cultures.
 Introduction | xix

This book will attempt to prove with mathematical certainty that the mag-
ic square was the basis of the Lindau Gospels and that this is the only way to in-
terpret that book’s (upper) cover. If this is true, then the magic square was a part
of Christian iconography as early as the ninth century, thus pushing back by four
hundred years the date at which the magic square made its western appearance.

Illustration 3 Examples of the use of the quincunx pattern dating from the 6th to the
11th centuries, demonstrating the consistent use of the quincunx and variations thereof. Reading from the upper left
to right: (a) Mosaic of garment from San Vitale, c. 550 AD; (b) Book cover of Lindau Gospels, lower cover, c. 800
AD; (c) Book cover of Lindau Gospels, upper cover, c. 875 AD; (d) Book cover of Christ and the Virgin Orans
(Treasury of San Marcos), c. tenth century; (e) Detail from the ivory throne of Archbishop Maximianus demon-
strating book cover, Ravenna, Italy, c. 550 AD; (f) Mosaic of book cover from Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, c. sixth cen-
tury; (g) Coptic Gospels book cover from Fayum, Egypt, c. seventh century; (h) Detail of metal work from a glass
amphora from the Treasury of San Marcos, c. eleventh century; (i) Detail of turquoise glass bowl and metal work
from the Treasury of San Marcos, c. tenth century. The quincuncial sacred geometry also appeared in the ground
plans for church design. This geometry can also be referred to as a mandala. (Artist: Sam Stiegemeier)
xx | Introduction

Magic Squares in the Luo Shu Format

Regarding magic squares in the Luo Shu format, the following cells of the square will
always generate a Pythagorean triplet at the heart of the square:
1. x will be the size of the square
2. (x2 + 1) ÷ 2 will be the center of the square
3. (x2 + 1) ÷ 2 – 1 will be the even component of the triplet
For simplicity’s sake, the remainder of this book will express the fraction (x2 + 1) ÷ 2 as
Y, known as the center number of any magic square in the Luo Shu format. A formula
for the Luo Shu represents this as follows:

Y-1 X2 Y-X

X Y 2Y - X

X+Y 1 Y+1

Table 4: The formula for magic squares in the Luo Shu format.

The secret to the Luo Shu is the fact that this formula allows expansion of the 3x3 magic
square into larger magic squares, all of which exhibit features in common, the most sig-
nificant being that a Pythagorean triplet of numbers appears at the heart of each square.
Part Two of this book looks at all the higher order magic squares, revealing the philosophy
underlying why the early Chinese considered the Luo Shu the perfect model to express
cosmic order.
Numbers also had an inherent yin-yang quality. Even numbers were considered of
yin, female, and earthly energy, while odd numbers were considered of yang, male, and
heavenly energy.
A fundamental number pattern such as the Luo Shu had great significance to the ancient
Chinese, who correlated magic squares with music and with the heavens. Numbers,
especially odd numbers, represented a system that could connect humankind with Heaven.
Astronomical and musical instruments, calendrical cycles, and numbers that allowed the
early Chinese a direct connection to Heaven were highly revered.
 Introduction | xxi

Another sophisticated jade object from 3,000 years ago containing the symbolism of this
cosmology was the sighting tube.

Illustration 4 An example of a jade cong (tsung) tube found in the royal tomb
using the square and circle symbolism. A functional tsung tube was used as an
astronomical sighting instrument. (Courtesy Wiki)

The king, or Son of Heaven, would have adjoining him in his tomb all the necessary
objects to insure an auspicious journey to Heaven via the underworld. These objects
would be made of wood, metal (bronze), or jade, the latter considered the most heavenly
substance on earth. Items made of jade were quite revered and heavenly powers were
attributed to the object or a holder of the object.
In early Chinese tradition, the emperor practiced astronomy, the secret science of priest-
kings. The emperor would adjust the calendar through his astronomical expertise, which
of course depended upon his use of math and instruments of astronomy. As this knowl-
edge was critical for an agricultural economy, one who could master calendar regulation
would become the leader of his community. Understanding the Pythagorean Theorem
enabled the king to survey land, survey the stars, calculate distances, and control water for
irrigation. The astronomer would need this math as a tool to conquer time and space.
One who could do this was considered a sage, according to the Zhou Bi Suan Jing, 周髀
算经, the oldest math book in the world.
xxii | Introduction

Illustration 5 The Zhou Bi Suan Jing demonstrating the right angle triangle theorem.
(Courtesy Wiki)

A king was considered a sage because of his astronomical wisdom and mathematical
skills, a philosophical tradition reflected in the pictograms and glyphs of the Chinese
language as well as in the iconography of the art objects found in the royal tombs. The
Luo Shu is a part of this iconography because the Chinese magic square incorporates
the qualities of yang and yin, Heaven and earth, odd and even, and male and female, as
well as Pythagorean math, the concept of the four cardinal directions with the axis mundi,
and the numbers of the calendar to reflect the perfect, harmonious balance of the cosmic
ordering of the universe.
The most important astronomical instrument to the early Chinese or any civilization
that yearned for an accurate calendar was the gnomon, which is no more than a stick
(i.e., a vertical pole) anchored in the ground. This stick would become the astronomical
instrument most responsible for connecting humankind with Heaven, as observation and
measurement of the stick’s shadow would allow one to follow the path of the sun and
measure the solar cycle.
The examination of the usage of the magic square in early Chinese and Christian art and
architecture will reveal the significance of the Luo Shu and its inner secrets as the key to
understanding the language of numbers.
An examination of the complete set of magic squares in the Luo Shu format will demon-
strate their revelations about time and space, facilitating rediscovery of a numerical code
that has influenced cultures repeatedly in the last several thousand years.