FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY CHM092

CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL BONDING
PART I

Contribution by:

Dr. Juan Matmin

Noorazlina Adnan
Hazlini Mohmad Ameran

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 Chapter Outline
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbol
3.2 Ionic Bond
3.3 Covalent Bond
3.4 VSEPR theory & Molecular Geometry
3.5 Valence bonds theory & hybridization
3.6 Intermolecular Forces
3.7 Metallic Bonding
 Lesson Outcome
By the end of this part of chapter, students should be able to:

• Apply Lewis dot symbols to show electron

configuration of the valence electrons of an atom or
ion.
• Draw the formation of ionic compounds using Lewis
structure. Explain the properties of ionic compound
• Draw the formation of molecules using Lewis
structure.
• Identify and draw covalent compounds with single,
double, and triple bonds between constituent atoms.
• Explain octet rule
• Explain exceptions to the octet rule
 Lesson Outcome
• Draw Lewis structures for molecules containing atoms with
incomplete octets and atoms with expended octet.
• Explain why the second-period elements cannot form
molecules with expanded octets.
• Explain the properties of covalent compounds.
• Define electronegativity and the trend of variation of
electronegativity across the period and down the group.
• Identify ionic, polar covalent and non polar covalent bonds
using the concept of electronegativity
• Draw Lewis structure of molecules and polyatomic ions.
• Define and draw resonance structures.
• Define formal charge and to apply concept of formal charge to
predict the most likely structure of a compound ds.
3.0 Introduction
 Why study chemical bonding?

The physical properties of a

substance depends on its structure
& type of bonding presence.
A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that
exists between certain atoms in a substance.

There are three types of chemical bonds:

a) Ionic bonds
b) Covalent bonds
c) Metallic bonds
3.1 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols

G.N. Lewis (1875-1946)

 3.1 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols
A Lewis electron-dot symbol is a symbol in
which the electrons in the valence shell of an
atom or ion are represented by dots placed
around the chemical symbol of the element.

Note – Dots are placed one to each side, until all

four sides are occupied.
 3.1 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols
Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols for Atoms Elements
in Periods 2 and 3

 Notes: The location of the dots (electron valence) supposed to be most

far between each other because electrons tends to repel with each other
as far as they can so that it can achieve maximum stability.
3.2 Ionic Bond
 3.2 Ionic Bond

• An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by

the electrostatic attraction between positive
and negative ions.
An ionic bond forms when one or more
electrons are transferred from the valence shell
of one atom to the valence shell of another
atom.
Na ( Ne3s1 ) + Cl ( Ne3s2 3p5 ) 

Na+ Ne + Cl ( Ne3s2 3p6 )
The atom that transferred the electron(s)
becomes a cation.
The atom that gained the electron(s) becomes
an anion.
Use Lewis electron-dot symbols to represent the
transfer of electrons from magnesium to
fluorine atoms to form ions with noble-gas
configurations.

F + Mg + F 
 [ F ]– + Mg2+ + [ F ]–
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Checkpoint 1

Use Lewis dot symbols to show the formation of aluminum oxide

(Al2O3).
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Checkpoint 1 (Answer)
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Lattice Energy

Lattice energy is the energy required to separate 1 mol of

an ionic solid into gaseous ions.

Lattice energy is a measure of the strength of the ionic

bond.
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Factors affecting Lattice Energy

i. ionic size
ii. ionic charge
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy

As ionic size increases, lattice energy decreases. Lattice

energy therefore decreases down the group.

As ionic charge increases, lattice energy increases.

 3.2 Ionic Bond
Lattice Energy vs. Ion Size
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Lattice Energy vs Ion Charge

Lattice Energy = Lattice Energy =

−910 kJ/mol −3414 kJ/mol
 Checkpoint 2
Order the following ionic compounds in order of increasing
magnitude of lattice energy:
CaO, KBr, KCl, SrO
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. High melting and boiling point

The stronger the attraction (larger the lattice energy), the

higher the melting point
 Checkpoint 3
Which ionic compound below has the highest melting
point?

• KBr

• CaCl2

• MgF2
 Checkpoint 3 (answer)

• KBr (734 ºC)

• CaCl2 (772 ºC)

• MgF2 (1261 ºC) has the highest melting point

the stronger the attraction (larger the lattice energy), the higher
the melting point
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Properties of Ionic Compounds
2. Hard and brittle crystalline solid
• Lewis theory implies that if the ions are displaced
from their position in the crystal lattice, that repulsive
forces should occur
• This predicts the crystal will become unstable and
break apart. Lewis theory predicts ionic solids will be
brittle.
• Ionic solids are brittle. When struck they shatter.

- - - - - - - -
+ + + + + + + + + +

- -
+ +
- -
+ +
- -
+ +
- -
+
- -
+

+
- + - + - + - +
- + - + - + - + -
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Properties of Ionic Compounds
3. Good electrical conductor in molten & in
aqueous state
• in the ionic solid, the ions are locked in position and
cannot move around
does not conduct electricity
• in the molten state or when dissolved in water
(aqueous), the ions will have the ability to move
around (free moving ions)
conduct electricity
4. Many ionic solids are soluble in water but not in
organic solvents
 3.2 Ionic Bond
Properties of Ionic Compounds
4. Solubility
• Many ionic solids are soluble in water (due to
polar water molecules) but not in organic solvents
 Topic
3.3 Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a chemical bond
formed by sharing a pair of electrons.
 3.3 Covalent Bond

• Lewis theory implies that another way atoms can

achieve an octet of valence electrons is to share
their valence electrons with other atoms
• The shared electrons would then count toward
each atom’s octet (Octet rule applied)
• The sharing of valence electrons is called
covalent bonding
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs
• Electrons that are shared by atoms are called
bonding pairs
• Electrons that are not shared by atoms but belong to
a particular atom are called lone pairs or
nonbonding pairs

.. .. ..
.. O .... S .. O ..
..
Bonding pairs Lone pairs
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Bonding Pairs and Lone Pairs
• Generally, elements follow certain common bonding
patterns
• The # of bonds = Group # or 8 ‒ Group #
– C = 4 bonds & 0 lone pairs, N = 3 bonds & 1 lone pair,
– O= 2 bonds & 2 lone pairs, H and halogen = 1 bond,
– Be = 2 bonds & 0 lone pairs,
– B = 3 bonds & 0 lone pairs

B C N O F
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Single Covalent Bonds
• When two atoms share one pair of electrons it is
called a single covalent bond
• One atom may use more than one single bond to
fulfill its octet
 H only duet

•• •• ••
••

F •
•F H• • O •H

•
••

•• •• ••
•• •• ••

••
••
••

H O H

••
F F
••

•• •• ••
F F
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Double Covalent Bond
• When two atoms share two pairs of electrons the
result is called a double covalent bond
– four electrons

•• ••
•O• •O

•
•• ••
O•
• O••
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Triple Covalent Bond
• When two atoms share three pairs of electrons the
result is called a triple covalent bond
– six electrons

•• ••
•N •N
•

•
• •
N ••
••N
••
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Lewis Structures
Lewis theory predicts that atoms will be most stable when
they have their octet of valence electrons.

It does not require that atoms have the same number of

lone pair electrons they had before bonding.

First use the octet rule

 3.3 Covalent Bond
The Steps in Converting a Molecular Formula into
a Lewis Structure
Molecular
Formula
Step 1 Place atom with lowest EN in center.
Atom
placement
Step 2 Add A-group numbers.
Sum of
valence e-
Step 3 Draw single bonds, and subtract 2e- for each bond.
Remaining
valence e-
Step 4 Give each atom 8e-(2e- for H).
Lewis
structure
 3.3 Covalent Bond
The Steps in Converting a Molecular Formula into
a Lewis Structure
Molecular N has a lower EN than F, so N is placed in the center.
Formula
Step 1
Atom
placement
Step 2 1 x N = 1 x 5 = 5e-
Sum of 3 x F = 3 x 7 = 21 e-
valence e- Total = 28 e-
Step 3
Remaining
valence e-
Step 4
Lewis
structure
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules with One
Central Atom
Example 1. Write a Lewis structure for CCl2F2
Step 1: Carbon has the lowest EN and is the central
atom. The other atoms are placed around it.

Step 2: [1 x C(4e-)] + [2 x F(7e-)] + [2 x Cl(7e-)]

= 32 valence e-

Step 3-4: Add single bonds, then give each

atom a full octet.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Multiple Bonds

If there are not enough electrons for the central atom to

attain an octet, a multiple bond is present.

Step 5: If the central atom does not have a full octet,

change a lone pair on a surrounding atom into another
bonding pair to the central atom, thus forming a multiple
bond.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structures for Molecules with
Multiple Bonds
Example 2. Write Lewis structures for the Ethylene(C2H4)
PLAN: After following steps 1 to 4 we see that the central atom
does not have a full octet. We must therefore add step 5,
which involves changing a lone pair to a bonding pair.

SOLUTION:
C2H4 has 2(4) + 4(1) = 12 valence e-.
H can have only one bond per atom.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 3: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Step 1- Place atom with lowest electronegative
(EN) in center.

Lowest electronegative
(inner)

O
Most electronegative
S O
Most electronegative
(outer) (outer)

Blackman et al. : 178

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 3: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Step 2- Count the valence electrons.
Sulfur (Group 16); 3s2 3p4
Oxygen (Group 16); 2s2 2p4
Total valence electron = (6 + [2 x 6])
= 18 electron (uncharged)

O S O
Note:
If the species is an ion, add or subtract number of electron for each
negative or positive charge respectively.
Blackman et al. : 178
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 3: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Step 3- Draw single bonds, and subtract 2e- for
each bond. Place three nonbonding pairs of
electrons on each outer atom except H.

O S O
Non-bonding pairs = lone pairs.
O ; 2 x 6 = 12 valence electrons = 6 lone pairs.
1 covalent bonds = sharing 2 electrons

Blackman et al. : 178

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 3: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Step 4- Give each atom 8e-. Assign the remaining
valence electrons to inner atoms.
1 lone pairs
(inner S atom)

O S O

Blackman et al. : 178

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Building Lewis Structure:
Example 3: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Step 5- If structure contains too many electrons, form
double on central atom as needed.
Minimise formal charges on all atoms.
Formal charges will be covered in future slides.
Most stable structure of SO2 is as follows:

O S O
Blackman et al. : 178
 Checkpoint 4

Write Lewis structure for HCN

3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 4 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Exceptions to Octet Rule
• Some elements violate the octet rule
1. Incomplete octet
– Be forms two bonds with no lone pairs in its compounds
– B. Al forms three bonds with no lone pairs in its
compounds
2. Expanded octet
– many elements may end up with more than eight valence
electrons in their structure if they can use their empty d
orbitals for bonding
3. Odd number electron species e.g., NO
- Will have one unpaired electron, free radical & very
reactive
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The Incomplete Octet
Be – 2e-
BeH2 2H – 2x1e- H Be H
4e-

B – 3e- 3 single bonds (3x2) = 6

3F – 3x7e- F B F
BF3 9 lone pairs (9x2) = 18
24e- Total = 24
F
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The Expanded Octet

(central atom with principal quantum number n > 2)

F
F F
SF6 S – 6e- 6 single bonds (6x2) = 12
6F – 42e- S
18 lone pairs (18x2) = 36
48e- F F
F Total = 48
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Odd-Electron Molecules
N – 5e-
NO O – 6e- N O
11e-
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 4. Chlorine trifluoride(ClF3) – expanded octet
Step 1- Place atom with lowest electronegative
(EN) in center.
Most electronegative
(outer)
F
Most electronegative Most electronegative
(outer) (outer)
F Cl F
Lowest electronegative
(inner)

Blackman et al. : 179

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 4. Chlorine trifluoride(ClF3) – expanded octet

Step 2- Count the valence electrons.

Sulfur (Group 17); ns2 np 5

Oxygen (Group 17); ns2 np 5
Total valence electron = (7+ [3 x 7])
= 28 electron (uncharged)

Blackman et al. : 179

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 4. Chlorine trifluoride(ClF3) – expanded octet

Step 3- Draw single bonds, and subtract 2e- for

each bond. Place three nonbonding pairs of
electrons on each outer atom except H.

F Cl F
Blackman et al. : 179
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 4. Chlorine trifluoride(ClF3) – expanded octet

Step 4- Give each atom 8e-. Assign the remaining

valence electrons to inner atoms.

F Cl F
2 lone pairs
(inner Cl atom)

Blackman et al. : 180

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Lewis Structure:
Example 4. Chlorine trifluoride(ClF3) – expanded octet

Step 5- If structure contains too many electrons, form

double on central atom as needed.
Minimise formal charges on all atoms.

F Cl F
10 lone pairs for Cl atom. Since Cl is 3rd row elements it is able to
accommodate more than 8 atoms. FC remains = 0.

Blackman et al. : 180

 Checkpoint 5
Writing Lewis Structures for Octet-Rule Exceptions
PROBLEM: Write a Lewis structure and identify the
octet-rule exception for (a) SClF5
(b) NO2 (c) BFCl2 (d) ClO2

PLAN: Draw each Lewis structure and examine it for exceptions to the octet
rule. Period 3 elements can have an expanded octet, while B
commonly forms electron-deficient species.
Checkpoint 5 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Coordinate or dative bond
A coordinate covalent bond is formed when both electrons of
the bond are donated by one atom.

D: electron pair donor

A: electron pair acceptor

• A dative bond is represented by an arrow pointing from the

donor of the electron pair to the acceptor of the electron
pair
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Coordinate or dative bond

electron Must have at least one

donor lone pair electrons to
donate the electron pair

Must have at least one

electron vacant orbital in its
acceptor outer shell to receive
the electron pair
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Coordinate or dative bond
• For example, when ammonia gas is mixed with
hydrogen chloride gas, white powder of NH4Cl is
formed.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Coordinate or dative bond
Adducts or addition compounds
• When ammonia gas and boron trifluoride are mixed, a rapid
reaction occurs that forms the adduct, NH3∙BF3.
• The dative bond formed is shown below

Dative
bond
+
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Coordinate or dative bond
Chemical bonding in AI2Cl6 dimer structure
• In the AI2Cl6 dimer, the AICl3 monomers are linked together through
two dative bonds.
a) Two of the chlorine atoms act as donors of electron pairs
b) The two aluminum atoms acts as acceptors
Cl Cl Cl
Al Al
Cl Cl Cl
 Checkpoint 6
Coordinate or dative bond
Draw the dative bond between two beryllium chloride, BeCl2
Checkpoint 6 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Formal Charge
• During bonding, atoms may end with more or fewer
electrons than the valence electrons they have, in
order to fulfill octets

• This results in atoms having a formal charge (FC)

FC = valence e− − [nonbonding e− − ½ bonding e−]

 Two possible skeletal structures of CH2O

H
H C O H C O
H

An atom’s formal charge is the difference between the number of

valence electrons in an isolated atom and the number of electrons
assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure.

formal charge total number

total number 1 total number
on an atom in a
Lewis structure
=
of valence
-
electrons in the
free atom
of nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( of bonding
electrons
)
The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule or ion
must equal the charge on the molecule or ion.
 Example 5 (Assign formal charges)

0 0 C – 4 e- 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

H O – 6 e- 1 double bond = 4
C O 2H – 2x1 e-
H 2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
12 e- Total = 12

formal charge
on C
=4- 0-½x8=0

formal charge
on O
=6- 4-½x4=0
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Compute Formal Charge of SO2
(Continued) example 7: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Left O : FC = 6 − 4 − ½ (4) = 0
Center S : FC = 6 − 2 − ½ (6) = +1
Right O : FC = 6 − 6 − ½ (2) = −1
• Sum of all the formal charges in the molecule = 0

• Minimise formal charges on all atoms.

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Building Lewis Structure:
(Continued) example 7: Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
If structure contains too many electrons, form
double on central atom as needed.
Minimise formal charges on all atoms.
1 lone pairs
(inner S atom)

O S O O S O

Blackman et al. : 178

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 7
Draw the Lewis structures of the following species and assign their formal
charges
CO2 H3PO4

NO2− SO32−
3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 7(Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Resonance Structures

• When there are more than one Lewis

structures for a molecule that differ only in
the position of the electrons, they are called
resonance structures
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Resonance Structures

• To draw resonance structures, look for multiple bonds or lone

pairs.
• e.g. SO2 has 2 resonance structures:

.. .. ..
.. O .... S .. O .. .. .. ..
.. O .. S .... O ..
.. ..
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Rules of Resonance Structures
• Resonance structures must have the
a) same connectivity - only electron positions can
change
b) same number of electrons
• Period 2 elements have a maximum of eight
electrons
– bonding and nonbonding
– third row can have expanded octet
• Formal charges must total zero or same as ionic
charge for polyatomic ions
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Resonance Structures

These are two different reasonable Lewis structures for the same
molecule.

Neither structure depicts O3 accurately, because in reality the O-O

bonds are identical in length and energy.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Resonance Structures
The structure of O3 is shown more correctly using both Lewis
structures, called resonance structures.
A two-headed resonance arrow is placed between them.

Resonance structures have the same relative placement of atoms

but different locations of bonding and lone electron pairs.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Electron Delocalization

Lewis structures depict electrons as localized either on an

individual atom (lone pairs) or in a bond between two atoms
(shared pair).
In a resonance hybrid, electrons are delocalized: their density is
“spread” over a few adjacent atoms.
The delocalization of electrons lowers their energy: it stabilizes
them and called resonance stabilization – contributed the
stability of many molecules
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Resonance Structures
Checkpoint 8
Write resonance structures for the nitrate ion, NO3− and find the bond order.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Resonance Structures
Checkpoint 8 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Writing Resonance Structures

Blackman et al. : 180

 Checkpoint 9
Draw resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32− and find the bond order.

Calculate the formal charges (FC) of each atoms.

Checkpoint 8 (Answer) : Refer to text book pg 292
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Determine Best Lewis Structures

Best Lewis structure have:

• All atoms obey the octet rule
• Zero or fewer formal charges
• smaller formal charges
• negative formal charge on the more
electronegative atom
• Like charges on adjacent atoms are not
desirable
• Sum of formal charges equal zero, or equal the
ionic charge for polyatomic ions
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Determine Best Lewis Structures
Example 6
Draw three possible resonance structures for the molecule
nitrous oxide, N2O (the atomic arrangement is NNO).

Calculate formal charges of each atom in each resonance

structure.

Choose the most stable structure.

 Example 6 (Answer)
Strategy The skeletal structure for N2O is

We follow the procedure used for drawing Lewis structures and

calculating formal charges in Examples 11.

Solution The three resonance structures are

 Example 6 (Answer)
We see that all three structures show formal charges.

Structure (b) is the most stable structure because the negative

charge is on the more electronegative oxygen atom.

Check Make sure there is no change in the positions of the

atoms in the structures. Because N has five valence electrons
and O has six valence electrons, the total number of valence
electrons is 5 × 2 + 6 = 16. The sum of formal charges is zero
in each structure.
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 9
Show the resonance structure for SO42-
and assign formal charge for each atom.
Choose the best Lewis structure.
 Checkpoint 9 (Answer)
Draw a Lewis structure for the sulfate ion in which all
four O atoms are bonded to the central S atom.

↔ ↔
BEST LEWIS
STRUCTURE

S(−2) and O(0) that are inconsistent with the

electronegativities of these elements
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 10

Draw the possible resonance structures for SCN- ion.

Indicate the formal charges and label the best
resonance structure. The electronegative value of
each S,C and N are 2.5, 2.5 and 3.0 respectively.
3.3 Covalent Bond
Checkpoint 10 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Properties of Covalent Compounds
1) Low melting points and boiling points
 the covalent bonds are strong, but the attractions
between the molecules are generally weak
intermolecular forces

2) Do not conduct electricity

 there are no charged particles (no free moving ions)
around to allow the material to conduct
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Bond Polarity
• Covalent bonding between unlike atoms results in unequal
sharing of the electrons
– The more electronegative atom pulls the shared electrons
closer to its side
– one end of the bond has larger electron density than the
other

• The result is a polar covalent bond

– bond polarity
– the end with the larger electron density gets a partial
negative charge (δ‒)
– The other end that is electron deficient gets a partial
positive charge (δ+)
3.3 Covalent Bond
Bond Polarity
Electronegativity Scale

**Refer chapter 2
Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference Bond Type

0 Nonpolar Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

share e- partial transfer of e- transfer e-

 3.3 Covalent Bond
Bond Polarity
EXAMPLE:
Determine whether the following species as Nonpolar
covalent, polar covalent or ionic compound

ENCl = 3.0 ENCl = 3.0

ENCl = 3.0 ENH = 2.1 ENNa = 0.9
3.0 − 3.0 = 0 E = 3.0 – 2.1 E = 3.0 – 0.9
Nonpolar Covalent = 0.9 = 2.1
Polar Covalent Ionic
 CHECKPOINT 11
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or
covalent:

(a) the bond in HI

(b) The bond in KF

(c) the CC bond in H3CCH3

Checkpoint 11 (Answer)
 Checkpoint 12

Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent

and give your reasons:

(a) the CC bond in CH3CH3,

(b) the LiCI bond in LiCl,

(c) the CF bond in CF4.

Checkpoint 12 (Answer)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond Strength
• In general, the more electrons two atoms
share, the stronger the covalent bond
• Bond strength is measured by how much energy
needed to break the bond
– must be comparing bonds between like
atoms
– C≡C (837 kJ) > C=C (611 kJ) > C−C (347 kJ)
– C≡N (891 kJ) > C=N (615 kJ) > C−N (305 kJ)
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Bond Length
• In general, the shorter the covalent bond,
the stronger the bond
• Bond length is determined by measuring the distance
between the nuclei of bonded atoms
– must be comparing similar types of bonds
– Br−F (237 kJ) > Br−Cl (218 kJ) > Br−Br (193
kJ)
– bonds get weaker down the column
– bonds get stronger across the period
 3.3 Covalent Bond
Trends in Bond Lengths
• bond length decreases from left to right across
period
– C−C (154 pm) > C−N (147 pm) > C−O (143 pm)
• bond length increases down the group
– F−F (144 pm) > Cl−Cl (198 pm) > Br−Br (228 pm)
• In general, as bonds get longer, they also get
weaker
 Checkpoint 13

Compare the properties between ionic bond and covalent

bond in term of

1) State
2) Solubility
3) Conductivity
Checkpoint 13 (Answer)
 CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL BONDING
PART II

Contribution by:

Dr. Juan Matmin

Noorazlina Adnan
Hazlini Mohmad Ameran

109
 Chapter Outlines
3.4 VSEPR theory & Molecular Geometry
3.5 Valence bond theory & hybridization
3.6 Intermolecular Forces
3.7 Metallic Bonding

110
 Lesson Outcome
By the end of this part of chapter, students should be able to:

• Define the VSEPR theory based on electron groups that repel

each other.
• Identify the five basic geometrical shapes of molecules based
on VSEPR model.
• State the bond angles for each basic shape.
• Explain the deviation of the geometrical shape of molecules
due to the presence of lone pair electrons.
• Predict and draw the electron and molecular geometries for
molecules, including molecules with more than one central
atom.
• Identify polar bonds in molecules based on ΔEN.
 Lesson Outcome
• Explain sigma and pi bond.
• Explain hybridization and relate the role of atomic orbital to the
type of hybridization.
• Draw the common type of hybridization: sp3, sp2, and sp.
• Identify the hybridizations for expanded octets: sp3d and sp3d2.
• Classify the polarity of molecule based on ∆EN and molecular
geometry.
• Show the vector arrow for the net dipole moment of molecule.
• Predict the type of hybridization in molecules and polyatomic
ions.
In this chapter, we discuss how to explain the
geometries of molecules in terms of their
electronic structures.

We also explore two subtopics of chemical

bonding: valence bond theory and hybridization.

113
 3.4 VSEPR Theory& Molecular
Geometry

• The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

(VSEPR) theory considers that molecular
geometry/shape is determined by repulsions
between pairs of electrons.

114
 3.4 VSEPR Theory& Molecular
Geometry
The principle of VSEPR theory;
• Electron pairs repel each other and move as
far as possible to minimise repulsion.
lone pair-lone pair (LP-LP) > bonding pair-lone
pair (BP-LP) > bonding pair-bonding pair (BP-
BP)

115
 3.4 VSEPR Theory& Molecular
Geometry
Steps to predict the molecular geometry:
1. Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule.
2. Count the total number of bonding pairs
(BP) and lone pairs (LP) of electrons
around the central atom.

116
• Multiple bonds (double & triple bonds) are
considered as 1 bonding pair.
• Eg: 2 bonding pairs (BP)

117
3. Use the following table:

4. Modify the geometry if necessary, considering

repulsions are in the order;
LP-LP > BP-LP > BP-BP
118
Balloon models of electron-pair arrangements

119
120
 BOND ANGLE
The angle between two covalent
bonds in a molecule.

121
A lone pair tends to require more space than a
corresponding pair.

122
Two electron pairs
linear geometry
2BP
Linear
180°

bond angle: 180°

123
 Three electron pairs
trigonal planar geometry
3BP 2BP + 1LP
trigonal planar bent

120°

< 120°

Bond angle: 120° Bond angle: < 120°

124
 Four electron pairs
tetrahedral geometry
4 BP 3BP+1LP 2BP+2LP

Bond angle: 109.5° Bond angle: < 109.5°

125
 Five electron pairs
trigonal bipyramidal geometry
5 BP 4BP+1LP 3BP+2LP 2BP+3LP

Bond angle: 90°,120° Bond angle: < 90°,< 120°

126
 Six electron pairs
octahedral geometry
6 BP 5BP+1LP 4BP+2LP

Bond angle: < 90°

Bond angle: 90° 127
128
129
 Example 1:
Use the VSEPR theory to predict the
molecular geometry and bond angle of the
molecules and ions below;
(a) OF2
(b) AlCl4-
(c) I -
3
(d) C H
2 4

130
 Example 1 (Solution):
Strategy The sequence of steps in determining
molecular geometry is as follows:

131
 Example 1 (Solution):
Solution:
(a) The Lewis structure of OF2 is
• 4 electron pairs: tetrahedral
geometry
• 2BP + 2 LP
• Molecular geometry/shape: bent
• Bond angle: <109.5º O
F
F

132
 Example 1 (Solution):

(b) The Lewis structure of AlCl4- is

• 4 electron pairs: tetrahedral geometry

• 4BP
• Molecular geometry/shape: tetrahedral
• Bond angle: 109.5º

133
(c) The Lewis structure of C2H4 is
• 3 electron pairs: trigonal planar geometry
• 3BP
• Molecular geometry/shape: trigonal planar
• Bond angle: 120º

134
 Example 1 (Solution):
(d) The Lewis structure of I3- is
• 5 electron pairs: trigonal
bipyramidal geometry
• 2BP + 3 LP
• Molecular geometry/shape: linear
• Bond angle: 180º

135
 Checkpoint 1

Determine the shape of CH3Cl. Make a sketch of

the molecule that shows bond angle.

136
Checkpoint 1 (Answer)

137
 Checkpoint 2
1. Predict the geometries of the following species using
the VSEPR theory:
a) PCl3
b) H2O
c) CHCl3
d) ClF3

2. Which of the following species are tetrahedral?

SiCl4, XeF4, CCl4

138
Checkpoint 2 (answer)

139
Dipole moment and polar molecules
Chemical bonds are polar when it has one end δ+,
the other end δ-.

• Dipole moment is a measure of bond polarity.

• A dipole arrow is used to the polarity of a bond
• Dipole moment is affected by molecular geometry

140
 Polar molecules

µ≠0 µ≠0 µ≠0

Polar bonds → polar molecules

141
 Non polar molecules

Dipole moments
cancel each other.
Thus, µ = 0 µ=0

Polar bonds → non polar molecules

Generally, symmetrical molecules are non polar
142
 Example 2: Tetrachlorocarbon and chloroform are molecules
with the same shape may have different polarities and contained
polar covalent bond. Which molecule more polar?

CCl4 CHCl3

C-Cl is a polar bond. The 4 dipoles C-Cl and H-C are bolar bonds. Bond
cancel out each other, µ = 0. polarities do not cancel out(μ 0). The
The net result is a nonpolar net result is a polar molecule
molecule.

143
Example 3: Dichloroethene have 2 different arrangements cis
and trans, which arrangement to show more polar?

C-Cl is a polar bond. The 2 dipoles
do not cancel out each other (net
dipole moment towards bottom),
µ  0.
The net result is a polar molecule.
C-Cl is a polar bond. The 2 dipoles
cancel out each other, µ = 0.
The net result is a nonpolar
molecule.

144
 Checkpoint 3
Decide whether the following molecules are polar or
nonpolar.
∆EN
O = 3.5
N = 3.0
Cl = 3.0
S = 2.5

145
Checkpoint 3 (Answer)

146
 Checkpoint 4

Determine whether ethane, C2H6 and ethanol,

C2H5OH have dipole moments.

147
Checkpoint 4 (Answer)

148
 Checkpoint 5

1. Explain why CO2 is nonpolar, but

OCS is polar.
2. List the following molecules in
order of decreasing dipole
moment: H2O, HF, CO2

149
Checkpoint 5 (Answer)

150
10 | 151
3.5 Valence bond theory &
hybridization

152
 3.5 Valence bond theory
Valence bond theory is a theory to explain the
electron pair or covalent bond by quantum
mechanics.

A bond forms when:

• An orbital on one atom comes to occupy a
portion of the same region of space as an orbital
on the other atom. The two orbitals are said to
overlap.
• The total number of electrons in both orbitals is
no more than two.
153
 Orbital Overlap in Diatomic Molecules.

Hydrogen, H2

Formation of H2:
The H-H bond forms when the 1s atomic orbital of H from each
atom overlap.

154
 Orbital Overlap in Diatomic Molecules.

Hydrogen fluoride, HF Fluorine, F2

155
 Types of Bonds
• A sigma () bond results when the interacting atomic orbitals point
along the axis connecting the two bonding nuclei (end-to-end
overlapping)
– either standard atomic orbitals or hybrids
• s–to–s, p–to–p, s–to–hybrid, etc.

• A pi () bond results when the bonding atomic orbitals are parallel to
each other and perpendicular to the axis connecting the two bonding
nuclei (side-way overlapping)
– between unhybridised parallel p orbitals

• The interaction between parallel orbitals is not as strong as between

orbitals that point at each other; therefore s bonds are stronger than p
bonds

156
Types of Bonds

157
 Sigma () and Pi Bonds ()
*refer to C atom
Single bond 1 sigma bond

Double bond 1 sigma bond and 1 pi bond

Triple bond 1 sigma bond and 2 pi bonds

H H


  ··  
C

N
 
H C N H
    

H H
H H

158
 Hybridization
Hybrid orbitals are combinations of atomic
orbitals. The process by which we combine them
is called hybridization.

The number of hybrid orbitals formed always

equals the number of atomic orbitals used.

10 | 159
 Hybridization of the central atom

1. Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule.

2. Count the number of lone pairs and the number of
atoms bonded to the central atom
3. Determine the hybridization based on the table
(next slide)

160
 Hybridization of the central atom
# of Lone Pairs
+ Electron
# of Bonded Atoms hybridization Geometry Examples

2 sp Linear BeCl2
sp2 Trigonal BF3
3
planar
4 sp3 CH4, NH3,
Tetrahedral
H2O
5 sp3d Trigonal PCl5
bypyramidal
6 sp3d2 Octahedral SF6

161
162
163
 Example 4
State the type of hybridization of the central atom
in the following molecules:
(a) BeH2
(b) AlI3

164
 Example 4 (solution)
Strategy
The steps for determining the hybridization
of the central atom in a molecule are:

165
 Example 4 (solution)
Solution
1. (a) Ground state electron configuration of Be:
1s22s2 (2 valence electrons)
• Lewis structure of BeH2 H—Be—H
• 2 bonding pairs around Be; linear geometry.
• sp hybrid orbital (linear arrangement).

(b) Ground state electron configuration of Al: [Ne]3s23p1. (3 valence

electrons)
• Lewis structure of AlI3 is

• 3 pairs of electrons around Al; trigonal planar.

• sp2 hybrid orbitals (trigonal planar arrangement). 166
Unhybridized C Orbitals Predict the
Inaccurate Bonding & Geometry

167
Orbital Diagram of Carbon Hybridization

Unhybridized   
2s 2p
sp3 hybridized    
sp3
sp2 hybridized    
sp2 p
sp hybridized    
sp p
168
sp 3 hybridization

169
• sp3 hybrid orbital (example of methane):
– Electron configuration of carbon 1s22s22p2
– Valence orbitals are 2s and 2p orbitals.

170
171
• sp3 hybrid orbital (example of methane):
– Methane forms from orbital overlap between the
hydrogen 1s orbitals and the sp3 hybrid orbital of
carbon atom.

– sp3 hybridization is not limited to carbon.

172
Orbital Diagram: sp3 hybridization of Carbon

sp3 hybridised
atom    
sp3

173
Orbital overlap of methane (CH4):
sp3 hybridization on atom C

174
Orbital overlap of ammonia: sp3
hybridization on atom N

175
sp 2 hybridization

176
sp2 hybrid orbital (example of BF3):
– Electron configuration of boron 1s22s22p1

177
178
179
Orbital diagram: sp2 hybridization of Carbon

Unhybridised electron orbital for  bond

180
Orbital overlap of ethene (C2H4): sp2
hybridization on atom C

181
The sp2 hybrid orbitals in BF3.

Orbital Diagram

Orbital Overlap
182
sp hybridization

183
184
sp hybridization of Carbon

Unhybridised electron orbital for  bond

185
Orbital overlap of ethyne (C2H2): sp
hybridization on atom C

186
 The sp hybrid orbitals in gaseous BeCl2

atomic orbitals

hybrid
orbitals

orbital box diagrams

187
The sp hybrid orbitals in gaseous BeCl2(continued).

orbital box diagrams with orbital

contours

188
 sp hybridization

• Atom with two electron groups

– linear shape
– 180° bond angle
• Atom uses hybrid orbitals for  bonds or lone pairs,
uses unhybridised p orbitals for bonds


 


189
Orbital diagram of the sp hybridization
of Carbon & Nitrogen
Unhybridised atom sp hybridised atom
C
   2    
2
2s 2p 2sp 2p

N
       

1
2s 2p 2 2sp 2p

190
 HCN Orbital Diagram

unhybridised p- unhybridised p-
orbital C  orbital N
   

2p 2p 2p 2p
hybridised sp-   hybridised sp-
  
orbital C orbital N
Overlap of p-orbital C
2s 2p 2p 2s
with p-orbital N
 
 
  Lone pair electrons
of s-orbital N
1s H
Overlap of
s-orbital C
with s-
orbital H
191
 3
sp d hybridization

192
 sp3d hybridization

• Atom with five electron groups around it

– trigonal bipyramid electron geometry
– Seesaw, T–Shape, Linear
– 120° & 90° bond angles
• Use empty d orbitals from valence shell
• d orbitals can be used to make  bonds

193
Orbital diagram of the sp3d hybridization of
Phosphorus & Sulphur
Unhybridised atom sp3d hybridised atom

    P     
3s 3p 3d sp3d

    S     
3s 3p 3d sp3d
(non-hybridizing d orbitals not shown)

194
sp3d hybridization

195
sp3d hybridization

196
197
 3
sp d 2 hybridization

198
 sp3d2 hybridization

• Atom with six electron groups around

it
– octahedral electron geometry
– Square Pyramid, Square Planar
– 90° bond angles
• Use empty d orbitals from valence
shell to form hybrid
• d orbitals can be used to make p
bonds
199
 Orbital diagram of the sp3d2
hybridization of Sulphur & Iodine
Unhybridised atom sp3d2 hybridised atom

↑↓ ↑↓↑ ↑ S ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
3s 3p 3d sp3d2

↑↓ ↑↓↑↓↑ I ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
5s 5p 5d sp3d2
(non-hybridizing d orbitals not shown)

200
 Example 5
Describe the hybridization process for the
molecules below by using orbital diagram.
Determine its molecular geometry and bond
angle(s).
a)PF3
b)PBr5

201
 Example 5 (solution)
a) Ground state electron configuration of P: [Ne]3s23p3.
(5 valence electrons).
• Lewis structure of PF3 is

• 4 pairs of electrons around P; tetrahedral.

• sp3 orbitals (tetrahedral arrangement).

202
 Example 5 (solution)
a) Ground state:

Excited state:

sp3 hybrid:

203
 Example 5 (solution)
• As in the case of NH3, one of the sp3 hybrid
orbitals is used to accommodate the lone pair on
P.
• The other three sp3 hybrid orbitals form covalent
P−F bonds with the 2p orbitals of F.
• PF3 molecule is trigonal pyramidal with bond
angle <109.5°.

204
 Example 5 (solution)

b) Ground state electron configuration of P: [Ne]3s23p3

(5 valence electrons).
• The Lewis structure of PBr5 is

• 5 pairs of electrons around P; therefore, the electron

pair arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal.
• P has sp3d hybrid orbitals with the molecular
geometry of trigonal bipyramidal (90°, 120°).

205
 Example 5 (solution)

Ground
state:

Excited state:

sp3d hybrid:

206
 Checkpoint 6

1. Describe the bonding in water molecules

using orbital overlap.
2. Describe the bonding in 2-butyne,
CH3C≡CCH3 using orbital overlap.

207
Checkpoint 6 (Answer)

208
Checkpoint 6 (Answer)

209
 Checkpoint 7

What are the hybrid orbitals of each

carbon atoms in the following
molecules? Label the sigma and pi
bonds.

H H
(a)
C CH C H
H H
(b) H3C-CH3
210
Checkpoint 7 (Answer)

211
3.5 Intermolecular Forces

212
 Intermolecular Forces

• Type of forces that occur between covalent

molecules:
3.6.1 London dispersion forces
3.6.2 Dipole-dipole forces
3.6.3 Hydrogen bonding

*The term van der Waals forces is a general term

that includes both dipole-dipole forces and
London forces.
213
 Lesson Outcome
By the end of this part of chapter, students should be able to:

• Define the different types of intermolecular forces

• Predict the ability of molecules to exhibit hydrogen
bonding.
• Relate the strength of intermolecular forces with the
physical properties of the compounds such as boiling
point.
• Compare the inverse relationship between bond length
and bond strength.
• Describe metallic bonding and relate with the electron sea
model.
 2 Type of Forces
Intramolecular forces
(bonding forces)
attractive forces that hold
atoms together in a
molecule.
These forces exist within
each molecule.
They influence the
chemical properties of the
substance.
Intermolecular forces
(nonbonding forces)
attractive forces between
molecules.
These forces exist between
molecules.
They influence the
physical properties of the
substance.
 Intermolecular Attractions
vs. Intramolecular (Bonding)

To overcome
this forces
you just
To break this need to boil
bond you may the water at
need thousand 100oC
degrees Celsius

•Bonding forces are result of large charges (the charge

protons and electrons) interacting at very close
distances.
•Intermolecular forces are the result of smaller charge
interacting at greater distances
3.6.1 London dispersion
forces
 • In nonpolar molecules, there is no dipole-dipole
force, yet there is still a force of attraction.
• In 1930, Fritz London explained this relationship
with what we now call the London forces.
• London dispersion forces is the weakest
intermolecular forces.
• All substances has London dispersion forces.

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| 218
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 In a neon atom, though the
electrons are spherically
distributed over time, at any
instant, one side of the
nucleus may posses a higher
amount of electrons. The
atom becomes a small,
instantaneous dipole.

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in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
 The instantaneous dipole of the neon atom
induces an instantaneous dipole in adjacent
atoms, resulting in an attractive force between
them.

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in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
 The motion of electrons in one atom affects the
motion of electrons in another atom. This
causes the instantaneous dipoles of the atoms
change together, maintaining a net attractive
force.

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London dispersion forces increases
down the group 7A & 8A:
• Increase number of electrons
• Increase of molar mass

Stronger dispersion forces leads to

higher melting point and boiling
point of the molecules
222
Molecular shape, Intermolecular Contact, and
Boiling Point.
These molecules have same molar mass, but n-
pentane has a higher boiling point than neo-pentane
(2,2-dimethylpropane). Why?
Explanation:
There are larger
surface area at
which dispersion
forces act.

There are smaller

surface area at
which dispersion
forces act.
Molecules n-pentane neo-pentane
Boiling Points higher smaller
Strength of forces Stronger london Weaker
dispersion london
forces dispersion
forces
Surface area larger surface Smaller
area surface area
Amount of energy larger smaller
needed to breaks
the forces
3.6.2 Dipole-Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces
between the positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of another
polar molecule.
Only occurs between polar molecules
Dipole-dipole forces between HCl molecules

When polar
molecules come
closer to one
another, their
partial charges act
as tiny electric
fields that orient
and give rise to
dipole-dipole
attraction. The
positive end will
attracts the
negative end of
another.
In polar molecules, the molecules tend to
align with opposite polarities for maximum
attraction interaction
 Boiling Point of Polar & Non Polar Molecules

Propane Dimethyl Acetaldehyde Acenonitrile

ether

CH3CH2CH3 CH3OCH3 CH3CHO CH3CN

MW= 44 amu MW = 46 amu MW = 44 amu MW = 41 amu
bp = 231 K bp = 294 bp = 294 K bp = 355 K

The molecules with relatively similar molar masses

but different polarity.
The boiling points increase with increasing polarity.
Example 9: What type(s) of intermolecular
forces exist between the following pairs?

(a) HBr and H2S

(b) Cl2 and CBr4
(c)I2 and CO2
 Example 9 (Solution)

(a)Both HBr and H2S are polar molecules.

Therefore, the intermolecular forces present
are dipole-dipole forces, as well as london
dispersion forces.
(b)Both Cl2 and CBr4 are nonpolar, so there are
only london dispersion forces between these
molecules.
 Example 9 (Solution)

c) I2 is a homonuclear diatomic molecule

and therefore nonpolar, so the forces
between nonpolar CO2 molecules are only
london dispersion forces.
 Checkpoint 8

Identify all type of intermolecular forces

between each molecules in the list below.
a) N2 (g)
b) Propane, CH3CH2CH3
c) HI
3.6.3 Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole
interaction between the hydrogen atom and an
electronegative O, N, or F atom. (N-H, O-H, or
F-H) bond

Hydrogen bond is the strongest

intermolecular forces
236
Hydrogen bonds:
Can form between:
a) different molecules

a) within a molecule.

Molecules can form more than one H-bond.

 Strength of Hydrogen Bond

The strength of the hydrogen bond decrease with

decrease in the electronegativity value of the atom
bonded to the H atom.
Since the electronegativity value of the 3 atoms
decrease in the order F>O>N, therefore, the strength of
the hydrogen bond also decreases in the order:

H-F and H-F > H-O and H-O >H-N and H-N

238
Figure shows the effect of H bonding on the boiling
points of binary hydrides of groups 14 to 17.

239
• As the molar mass of the compounds
decreases, the boiling point also decrease
except for H2O, HF and NH3 due to a stronger
attraction of hydrogen bonding.
Group 14 hydrides shows a gradual increase in
boiling points from CH4 to SnH4, due to an increase
in dipole-dipole force as the molar mass of the
molecules increases.
The first member in groups 15, 16 and 17 form
hydrides which show a marked deviation from the
trend.
HF, H2O and NH3 boils at an abnormally high
temperature.
This is because these three hydrides can form
hydrogen bonds which are much stronger than the
normal dipole-dipole forces.
241
 MOLECULAR POLARITY AFFECTS
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
(LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE)

• Because water is a polar molecule,

compounds consist of ions or polar
molecules dissolve well in water (polar
molecule).
• Compounds consist of non-polar
molecules dissolves well in non-polar
solvents.
• Miscibility/ Miscible – ability to mix
without separating into two phases
 Example 10

Which of the following can form hydrogen

bonds with water?

CH3OCH3(aq),CH4(aq), HF(aq),HCOOH(aq)
 Example 10 (solution)

• There are no electronegative elements (F, O,

or N) in CH4.
• Therefore, only CH3OCH3, HF, and HCOOH
can form hydrogen bonds with water.
Example 10 (solution)
 Checkpoint 9

Identify all type of intermolecular forces between each

molecules in the list below.

a) NH3 (aq)
b) N2 (g)
c) Propanol, CH3CH2OH
d) NH3 and H2O
 Checkpoint 10
For each pair of substances, identify the key bonding
and/or intermolecular force(s), and predict which one
of the pair has the higher boiling point:
(a) MgCl2 or PCl3
(b) CH3NH2 or CH3F
(c) CH3OH or CH3CH2OH
(d) Hexane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3) or 2,2-
dimethylbutane
Checkpoint 10 (Answer)
3.7 Metallic Bonds
 Metallic bond is the force that holds atoms together in a metallic

substance.

 Metallic bonding results from attraction of the metal cations

for the mobile, highly delocalized valence electrons.

 In metal, bonding electron are delocalized over the entire crystal.

Metal atoms in the crystal can be imagined as an array of

positive ions immersed in the sea of delocalized valence electron

250
 Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
nucleus &
inner shell e-

mobile “sea”
of e-
 3.7 Metallic Bonds
Properties of Metallic Bond

1. Conduct heat & electricity

2. Malleable (can be flattened) and ductile
(pulled into wires)
3. High melting and boiling point
 3.7 Metallic Bonds
Bond Strength
The strength of the metallic bond

• Example:
Group 2 elements (alkaline earth metals) have
higher melting points than group 1 elements
(alkali metals) because of smaller size and the
electron sea has twice as many valence
electron (2 valence electron)  resulting in
stronger attractions among the metal ions.
 Trends on strength of metallic bond vs
the metallic character
Increasing strength of metallic bond

Increasing strength of metallic bond (Group 1 & 2)

 Checkpoint 11

Arrange the following elements according to

increasing metallic bond strengths.

Mg, S, Cs
End of Chapter 3
Thank you