NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Srinagar, Hazratbal)

A seminar report
on
Evaluation of Groundwater Quality using Water Quality Indices”
Submitted as partial fulfilment for the award of
MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY
In
WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
Under the guidance of
Prof. Dr A. Q. Dar
Dept. of civil Engineering
NIT Srinagar, Hazratbal.

Submitted by
Waseem Rashid Taley
2020MCIVWR011

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Prof. Dr A. Q. Dar, for giving me the opportunity and
permission to work on the seminar entitled as “Evaluation of Groundwater Quality
using Water Quality Indices”. Without his guidance and persistent help this report
would not have been possible.

I must acknowledge also Ms. Syeedah Raazia (PhD Scholar, Water Resource Engineering) of
Civil Engineering Dept. for her simulating suggestions and encouragement.

It’s my great pleasure to acknowledge my colleagues for lending a helping hand whenever
needed and would also like to extend my great appreciation to the moderators for managing the
seminar work.

Waseem Rashid Taley

2020MCIVWR011

ii
 ABSTRACT

Water quality is a significant criterion in matching water demand and supply. Securing adequate
freshwater quality for both human and ecological needs is thus an important aspect of integrated
environmental management and sustainable development. To represent water quality in a lucid
way, different water quality indices for water quality assessment are used. Water Quality Indices
(WQIs) refers to a set of water quality parameter data that aggregate to produce a single value to
the water quality, reducing the huge amount of data into a simple and easy expression. It also
enables comparisons of water quality status for different locations and at different times, which
eventually helps in presenting of water quality status to management and the public in a simple
manner. As different National and International Agencies involved in water quality assessment
and pollution control defines water quality criteria for different uses of water considering different
indicator parameters, so there are numerous WQI specific to any region or area. An attempt to
cover different water quality indices developed worldwide, their background and application area
has been discussed here.

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 Table of Contents

Chapter I: Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2: Procedure of WQI Development .......................................................................................... 4
2.1 Selection of water quality parameters ........................................................................................... 4
2.2 Common steps for development of any WQI ................................................................................ 4
Chapter 3: History of Water Quality Index Concept ............................................................................. 5
Chapter 4: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Drinking Purposes .............................................. 8
4.1 Water Quality Index ...................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 5: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation Purposes ........................................... 10
5.1 Permeability Index (PI): ............................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Magnesium hazard (MH) ............................................................................................................. 10
5.3 Kelly's Ratio (KR) ......................................................................................................................... 11
5.4 Salinity hazard .............................................................................................................................. 11
5.5 Percent Sodium (Na%) ................................................................................................................. 11
5.6 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).................................................................................................... 12
5.7 Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) ............................................................................................... 12
Chapter 6: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Industrial Purposes .......................................... 14
6.1 Total hardness ............................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 7: Uses of WQIs ........................................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 6: Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 16
References................................................................................................................................................ 18

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 List of Tables

Table 1:List of Selected Studies Carried Out Worldwide Using Water Quality Indices ....... 7
Table 2:Classification of groundwater for drinking purposes ................................................. 9
Table 3:Classification of water based on PI and MH values .................................................. 11
Table 4:Guidelines for Evaluation of Irrigation Water Quality ............................................ 13
Table 5:Showing water hardness class ...................................................................................... 14

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 Chapter I: Introduction
Water is a universal solvent, having the ability to dissolve most of the organic or inorganic
substances. Water is very vital for nature and can be a limiting resource to human and other living
beings. Water of adequate quantity and quality is required to meet growing household, industrial,
and agricultural needs (Azaza et al. 2011). The water found underground in the cracks and spaces
in soil, sand and rock is referred to as groundwater. Groundwater is the major source of water for
domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes in the world. It is estimated that approximately one
third of the world’s population use groundwater for drinking. In India, groundwater accounts for
about 50–80% of domestic water use and 45–50% of irrigation (Bhat & Khandi, 2010). The most
important reasons for the consumption of ground water in bulk are nonavailability of potable
surface water and a general belief that groundwater is purer and safer than surface water due to the
protective qualities of the soil cover (Mishra et al. 2005). However, in recent years, due to the
advent of industrial growth, large-scale application of synthetic fertilizers for agriculture
production and use of pesticides and insecticides for production has caused serious concern
regarding susceptibility of groundwater contamination.
Ground water is the only alternative option for even the urban centres having well planned,
designed and executed water supply systems, during the periods of water scarcity due to shortfall
of rain or its non-occurrence. Also, normally, the ground water is the water source for different
locations, where the municipal water supply facilities are not made available. Now a days, the
groundwater potential and its quality level in major cities and urban centres is getting deteriorated
due to the population explosion, urbanisation, industrialisation and also the failure of monsoon and
improper management of rain water. The ground water quality is normally characterised by
different physio-chemical characteristics. These parameters change widely due to the type of
pollution, seasonal fluctuation, ground water extraction, etc. Hence, a continuous monitoring of
ground water becomes mandatory to minimise the ground water pollution, to have control on the
pollution causing agents and to give corrective measures. Continuous monitoring of ground water
has become easier with the development of rapid water quality measurement techniques without
making much compromise on the accuracy of measurement. Since the ground water quality in
different parts of the city is widely deviating from the prescribed standards, it also becomes
necessary to identify locations and categorise them according to pollution levels.
Water quality refers to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics (parameters) of water.
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It expresses the suitability of water to sustain various uses and processes. It has been realized that
using individual parameters to describe water quality is cumbersome and therefore not easily
understood. Water quality Index (WQI) is a means by which quality data is summarized for
reporting to the public in a consistent manner. The Index is basically a means of calculating a
single value from multiple test results and uses a scale from 0 to 100 to rate the quality of water.

Water is the prime natural resource. Acknowledging the vital importance of this scarce resource
for human and animal life, as well as for maintaining ecological balance for economic and
developmental activities of all kinds is a matter of utmost concern. In recent times, there has been
a tremendous increase in demand for freshwater and water shortage in arid and semiarid regions
due to population increase, urbanization, industrialization, and intense agricultural activities in
many parts of world. Due to inadequate supply of surface waters, most of the people are depending
mainly on groundwater resources for drinking and domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses.
Innumerable large towns and many cities derive water supply from groundwater and surface water
for different uses through municipality network and also from large number of private boreholes.
Regular water quality monitoring of the water resources is absolutely necessary to assess the
quality of water for ecosystem health and hygiene, industrial use, agricultural use and domestic
use. Assessment of water quality can be a complex process undertaking multiple parameters
capable of causing various stresses on overall water quality. To evaluate water quality from a large
number of samples, each containing concentrations for many parameters is difficult. Traditional
approaches to assessing water quality are based on the comparison of experimentally determined
parameter values with the existing guidelines. So, water quality indices are such approaches which
minimizes, the data volume to a great extent and simplifies the expression of water quality status.
Water quality index can be evaluated on the basis of various physical, chemical and bacteriological
parameters. Numerous water quality indices have been formulated all over the world which can
easily judge out the overall water quality within a particular area promptly and efficiently. For
example, US National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI), Canadian Council
of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI), British Columbia Water
Quality Index (BCWQI), and Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI). These indices are based on
the comparison of the water quality parameters to regulatory standards and give a single value to
the water quality of a source. In this study a review of different water quality indices are presented.

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WQIs work by condensing selected variables into a single unitless score, allowing to notice the
changes in water over time or comparisons between different water bodies. different water bodies.
There are two ways to formulate WQI:

(i) indices having increasing scale, in which the index numbers (value) increase with the
degree of pollution (water pollution indices).
(ii) indices are having decreasing scale, in which the index numbers (value) decrease with
the degree of pollution (water quality indices)

Water quality (WQ) is a general term in which water pollution indicates undesirable or unfavorable
water quality conditions. Generally, WQIs systems are often designed to display a maximum
number of 100 (corresponding to unaffected water) and a minimum number of zero (highly
polluted or unsuitable water for any use). The index can compare sites and track changes at one
site over time.

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 Chapter 2: Procedure of WQI Development
2.1 Selection of water quality parameters

Water quality parameters are the most significant component of any WQI. The generation of the
index depends on water quality parameters. There are three systems applicable to the parameter
selection process. These systems are defined as follows:

(i) Fixed system: In this system, the WQI designer's parameters are the most suitable
group necessary for calculating the final index score, where WQI is limited to these
fixed parameters only. Because of this limitation, the system is rigid, so that it will be
a common problem for most users. The fixed system's rigidity cannot allow new
parameters, even if it becomes important and necessary to add a new parameter.
(ii) Open system: the system allows the user to combine their choice and need parameters.
This system is more flexible and eliminates rigidity that's occurring in the first system.
An open system has a problem in comparing the results of WQI from different
monitoring sites. When using a similar parameter that the user imposes, it is then
inappropriate to use an open system as comparison tools, especially when generating
matrices based on water quality classification and pollution conditions.
(iii) Mixed system is a combination of both fixed and open systems. This system
contains the basic fixed parameters required for calculating the final index and new
parameters that can be introduced based on user decisions.

2.2 Common steps for development of any WQI

For the development of WQI, the following four steps are applied:

1. Parameter selection.
2. Transformation of the parameters that have different units and dimensions are to a
common scale.
3. Weights Assignment for all parameters.
4. The assemblage of sub-indices is to produce an index score.

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 Chapter 3: History of Water Quality Index Concept
• In 1965, a panel of the president's science consultative committee of Environmental
Pollution recommends stimulating the development of a scientific method for appointed a
numerical index for detecting chemical water pollution. A panel declares that the method
must be sensitive to a wide variety of chemical pollutants. Its result is almost proportional
to the undesirable effects of water pollution on a human being or aquatic life. The index
will allow the many following changes in water quality. This statement led Horton to
publish the first water quality index (WQI) in the same year. Since that's the day, WQIs
has become a popular and effective tool in assessing the water quality of different water
bodies worldwide. After Horton, Brown et al. [20] developed a WQI similar in structure to
Horton's index. Still, with much rigidity in selecting parameters, the work of Brown et al.
[20] was supported by the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). For this reason, Brown's
index is also referred to as NSFWQI.
• In 1971 PATRI et al. [21] proposed an index based on a water quality classification system.
The index has a numerical expression of the degree of pollution. It takes in to account the
various pollutants present at the same time. However, the measure of each pollutant in a
separate way, PATRI index, unlike the Horton index and NSFI, has an increasing scale
with pollution. The index scale ranged from 0 for good quality (or no pollution) to 15 or
more for poor quality.
• Stoner 1978 [23] uses two broad water-use categories, public supply and irrigation, to
develop the index. The index can accommodate the two water uses by applying the sub-
index functions and weightings into the final index aggregation. Stoner index can be
appropriate to other water uses as well.
• In 1982 Steinhart et al. applied a novel environmental quality index to sum up technical
information on the status and trends in Great Lakes ecosystem.
• Water Quality Guidelines Task Group of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment introduced WQI in Canada, in the mid-1990s.
• In India, the pioneer work on WQI was done by Bhargava, wherein the water quality is
expressed as a number (ranging from 0 for highly/extremely polluted to 100 for absolutely

5
 unpolluted water) representing the integrated effect of the parameters amplifying the
pollution load.
• In the developing countries, the biggest challenge has been to develop cost effective
pollution control strategies with analytical cost as a limiting factor due to restricted funds.
Therefore, Ongley in 1998 suggested, for such situations only few critical parameters must
be used to evaluate WQI.
• Many researchers have applied water quality index for representing the quality status post
monitoring and analysis. Some of them are listed in Table 1.

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Table 1:List of Selected Studies Carried Out Worldwide Using Water Quality Indices
Workers Year of Type of work Index used
publication

Tiwari and Mishra 1985 Water quality index of major Indian WQI
rivers
Singh 1992 Water quality index of some major rivers WQI
of Pune, Maharashtra
Wills and Irvine 1996 Water quality assessment in Cazenovia NSFWQI
creek New York in watershed
management project
Subba Rao 1997 Water quality index in hard rock terrain of WQI
Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India
Zanderbergen et al 1998 Water quality of two small water shed in BCWQI
Greater Vancouver area
Pesce and 2000 Water quality of the Suquia River WQI
Wunderlin (Argentina)
Mishra and Patel 2001 Pollution load in the drinking water of WQI
Rairangpur, A small tribal dominated
town of North Orissa
Naik and Purohit 2001 Water quality of river Brahmani in WQI
Sndergarh district, Orissa
Rudolf et al. 2002 Effect of industrial and municipal WQI
effluents on the waters of San Vicente
Bay (Chile) by using DO content as an
index of water quality

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 Chapter 4: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Drinking
Purposes

4.1 Water Quality Index

According to Couillard and Lefebre, a WQI is analgorithm that expresses a measure of the
qualitative state of the water. This may be obtained by either deductive or inductive method The
final result can be a symbol or a simple combination of numeric and alphanumeric variables.

Water Quality Index (WQI):

Assigning weight to parameters - 𝑤𝑖

𝑤𝑖
𝑊𝑖 = ∑𝑛 4.1
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖

Where, where Wi is the relative weight, wi is the weight of each parameter, and n is the
number of parameters. In the third step, a quality rating scale (Q i) for each parameter is
derived by dividing its concentration in each water sample by its respective standard
according to the guidelines of WHO (WHO 2011) and then multiplied by 100.

𝐶𝑖
𝑄𝑖 = × 100 4.2
𝑆𝑖

where Qi is the quality rating, Ci is the concentration of each chemical parameter in mg/l,
and Si is the WHO drinking water standard for each chemical parameter in mg/l (Table 2).
For the computation of GQI, a subindex (SIi) is first determined for each chemical
parameter, which is then used to determine the GQI as per the following equation:

𝑆𝐼𝑖 = 𝑊𝑖 × 𝑄𝑖 4.3
SIi is the subindex of ith parameter, and Qi is the rating based on concentration of ith
parameter. The overall Groundwater Quality Index (GQI) is calculated by adding together
all the subindex values of each groundwater sample.

𝑊𝑄𝐼 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑆𝐼𝑖 4.4

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Computed GQI values are classified into five categories (Table 2), such as ‘excellent’,
‘good’, ‘poor’, ‘very poor’ and ‘unfit for drinking’ (Sahu and Sikdar 2008; Ramakrishnaiah
et al. 2009).

Table 2:Classification of groundwater for drinking purposes

Type of Water GQI range
Excellent <50
Good 50-100
Poor 100-200
Very poor 200-300
Unfit for drinking >300

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 Chapter 5: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation
Purposes
An assessment of the suitability of groundwater for irrigation is based on an assessment of the
content of sodium compared to the total cations in the system. High sodium waters are not suited
for irrigation activities because the sodium ion engages in cation exchange processes which tend
to affect the ability of soils to sustain crop productivity. The Na+ ion adsorbs onto cation exchange
sites, causing soil aggregates to disperse, thus reducing soil permeability (Tijani 1994; Yidana et
al. 2010).
Irrigational suitability of groundwater is evaluated by PI, MH, KR, Na %, SAR, RSC Salinity
hazard.
5.1 Permeability Index (PI):

Permeability index is a crucial parameter for assessing the suitability of irrigation water. The
permeability of the soil is affected by the long-term use of water influenced by Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
and HCO3-. Doneen (1964) and Ragunath (1987) evolved a criterion for assessing the suitability
of water for irrigation based on permeability index (P.I.). The permeability index can be calculated
as given below Equation (4.5).
𝑁𝑎+ + √𝐻𝐶𝑂 −
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ +3𝑁𝑎+ × 100 4.5

Where, all the ions are expressed in meq/l.

Classification of groundwater based on PI is presented in Table (3).

5.2 Magnesium hazard (MH)

Szaboles and Darab (1964) have proposed an MH for assessing the suitability of water quality
for irrigation. Generally, Ca and Mg maintain a state of equilibrium in water, and they do not
behave equally in the soil system. Magnesium damages soil structure, when water contains more
Na and high saline. Normally, a high level of Mg is caused by exchangeable Na in irrigated soils.
In equilibrium, more Mg can affect soil quality by rendering it alkaline. Thus, it affects crop
yields. The MH is expressed in terms of magnesium ratio (MR). This is a ratio of Mg ion
concentration to combination of Ca and Mg ions concentration, which is multiplied by 100
(Subba Rao et al. 2012).

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 𝑀𝑔2+
𝑀𝐻 = × 100 4.6
𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+

where all ionic concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents per litre.

Table 3:Classification of water based on PI and MH values

Class Type of Water PI MH

Class I Very good >75% > 50%
Class II good 25 – 75% > 50%
Class III unsuitable <25% < 50%

5.3 Kelly's Ratio (KR)

Waters with a KR value <1 is regarded suitable for irrigation, while those with higher values are
considered unsuitable. KR value is calculated by below equation (4.7):

𝑁𝑎+
𝐾𝑅 = 4.7
𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+

5.4 Salinity hazard

The total concentration of soluble salts (salinity hazard) in irrigation water can be expressed in
terms of specific conductance. Classification of groundwater based on salinity hazard is presented
in Table (4).

5.5 Percent Sodium (Na%)

If the concentration of Na+ is high in irrigation water, Na+ gets absorbed by clay particles,
displacing Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions. This exchange process of Na+ in water for Ca2+ and Mg2+ in
soil reduces the permeability of the soil and eventually results in poor internal drainage of the
soil. Hence, air and water circulation is restricted during wet conditions and such soils are
usually hard when dry (Collins and Jenkins 1996; Saleh et al. 1999). Methods of Wilcox (1955)
and Richards (1954) have been used to classify and understand the basic character of the
chemical composition of groundwater, since the suitability of the groundwater for irrigation

11
depends on the mineralization of water and its effect on plants and soil. Percent sodium can be
determined using below equation (4.8):

𝑁𝑎+
𝑁𝑎% = × 100 4.8
𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ +𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐾+

Classification of groundwater based on Sodium percent is presented in Table (4).

5.6 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

Excess sodium in water produces undesirable effects of changing soil properties and reducing soil
permeability (Kelly 1951). High sodium depositing waters are generally not suitable for irrigating
crops, as higher deposition of sodium may deteriorate the soil characteristics. SAR of water is
directly related to the adsorption of sodium by soil and is a valuable criterion for determining the
suitability of the water for irrigation. Excessive sodium content relative to calcium and magnesium
reduces soil permeability (Kelly 1951). and thus inhibits the supply of water needed for the crops.
The SAR measures the relative proportion of sodium ions to those of calcium and magnesium in
water. SAR is used to predict the sodium hazard of high carbonate waters especially if they contain
no residual alkali. The excess sodium or limited calcium and magnesium content are evaluated by
SAR (Kalra and Maynard 1991), which is computed using equation (4.9).
𝑁𝑎+
𝑆𝐴𝑅 = 4.9
𝐶𝑎2++ 𝑀𝑔2+
√
2

Classification of groundwater based on SAR is presented in Table (4).

5.7 Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)

When concentration of carbonates and bicarbonates exceeds that of calcium and magnesium, there
may be possibility of complete precipitation of calcium and magnesium. Bicarbonate and
carbonate is considered to be detrimental to the physical properties of soils, as it causes dissolution
of organic matter in the soil, which in turn leaves a black stain on the soil surface on drying. As a
result, the relative proportion of sodium in the water is increased in the form of sodium carbonate,
and this excess, denoted by RSC, is calculated as given below equation (4.10):
𝑅𝑆𝐶 = ( 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − + 𝐶𝑂3 2− ) − ( 𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑀𝑔2+ ) 4.10
Classification of groundwater based on RSC is presented in Table (4).

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 Table 4:Guidelines for Evaluation of Irrigation Water Quality

Class Type of Water EC (µS/cm) Na% SAR RSC

C1 Excellent <250 <20 <10 <1.25
C2 Good 250-750 20-40 10-18 1.25 - 2.0
C3 Medium 750-2250 40-60 18-26 2.0 – 2.5
C4 Bad 2250-4000 60-80 >26 2.5 – 3.0
C5 Very bad >4000 >80 >26 >3.0

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 Chapter 6: Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Industrial
Purposes
The quality requirements for industrial water supplies range widely and almost every industrial
unit has its own standards. Industries frequently suffer from the common undesirable effects of
incrustation and corrosion, which are the chemical reactions caused by inferior water quality. The
incrustation involves a deposition of undesired material of CaCO3 on surface of metals, while the
corrosion is a chemical action on metals that results in the metal being eaten away. Therefore, the
following water quality criteria have been adopted (Johnson 1983; Subba Rao et al. 2012) for
deciding the incrusting and corrosive properties of the water:
• Water, with HCO3 more than 400 mg/l or SO4 more than 100 mg/l, may cause incrustation,
and
• Water, with pH<7 or TDS more than 1,000 mg/l or Cl more than 500 mg/l, may cause
corrosion.
6.1 Total hardness

To determine the suitability of groundwater for domestic and industrial purposes, hardness is an
important criterion, as it is involved in making the water hard. Water hardness has no known
adverse effects; however, it causes more consumption of detergents at the time of cleaning, and
some evidence indicates its role in heart disease (Schroeder 1960). The total hardness (TH) in ppm
(Hem 1985; Ragunath1987; Todd 2001) has been determined by equation (6.1):
𝑇𝐻 = 2.5 𝐶𝑎2+ + 4.1 𝑀𝑔2+ 6.1
Classification of groundwater based on total Hardness is presented in Table (5).
Table 5:Showing water hardness class

Water Type TH as CaCO3 (mg/l)

Soft <75
Moderately hard 75-150
Hard 150-300
Very hard >300

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 Chapter 7: Uses of WQIs
WQIs are attended to use in the first place to evaluate water quality monitoring data, allowing for
significant interpretation of water results, especially when the concentrations of the pollutant are
below the standards of water quality. Generally, WQI can completely exclude the sampling
frequency importance used in monitoring water quality. WQIs help experts' sites separate
monitoring data into a bigger context and allow the administrative decision-makers to assess the
regulatory programs' effectiveness and report the information on water quality understandably
and easily to the audience. Indices served almost all the purposes of monitoring programs like;
water quality, assessment, treatment, utilization, public information, Research and Development
programs and environmental planning.

15
 Chapter 6: Conclusion
Water quality index is a useful and easy technique used to report the data on water
quality. It has proven to be an effective method to evaluate temporal and spatial
water changes in any region worldwide. Water quality indices can convert huge
amounts and complex water quality data to a single value in a simple and
reproducible way. This process demonstrates the wide and successful application of
WQIs over the past 60 years. They help to conclude large amounts of complicated
scientific data and clearly describe water quality status to the public and political
decision-makers. Even non-technical stakeholders will understand the simple
dimensionless index score.

Water quality indices are necessary for resolving lengthy, multi-parameter, water
analysis reports into single digit scores. This, in turn, is essential for comparing the
water quality of different sources and in monitoring the changes in the water quality
of a given source as a function of time and other influencing factors. Time of the
sampling also significantly influences water quality parameters and hence the index
value. However, it is extremely difficult to develop a universally acceptable general
water quality index. But researchers may develop region and source specific water
quality index. Most of the developed water quality indices are surface water specific
and there is ample scope to develop groundwater quality index. NSF WQI, CCME
WQI and WQI are water quality indices which are frequently used for water quality
assessment. CCME and BCWQI are most efficient for low parameter values.
General WQI is an efficient one but parameters should be carefully selected
depending on the source and time In all the water quality indices cited in literatures
organic pollutants are not considered, because analysis of organics is too expensive.
Otherwise most of the important water quality parameters are taken into account.
There is need for regular monitoring of water quality in order to detect changes in

16
physiochemical parameters concentration and convey it to the public. So these
indices are very helpful tool to represent water quality in a simple and
understandable manner.

17
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