Ob 4TH

Contents
1.1 Definition .................................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Need and Importance of OB ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Nature of OB............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Conceptual Framework of OB ................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Conceptual Framework of OB ................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Reference ................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Definition
− Organizational behavior (OB) is defined as the systematic study and application of knowledge
about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work.
− “A field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups and structures on behaviour
within organisations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an
Organisation’s effectiveness.” - Stephen P Robbins
− “Organizational behavior can be defined as the understanding; prediction and management of
the human behavior affect the performance of the organizations.” – Luthans
− “The study and application of knowledge how people act or behave within organization. It is a
human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of
organizations such as business, government, school and service organizations.” - Davis and
Newstrom
− Organizational behaviour is defined as the behaviour of human beings in their workplace or only
in a corporate setting. It studies the impact that an individual has on behaviour within the
organization and how groups work together so that the knowledge can help in explaining and
predicting behaviour to improve workplace performances and effectiveness.
1.2 Need and Importance of OB

There is a strong need to study organizational behaviour for the following reasons:
− To understand the reason why people behave in a certain way
− To understand why one team is more effective than the other
− To understand why one individual is competent whereas others are not
− To understand the process through which utilization of resources is possible
− To understand the basis of motivation and what a manager should do to motivate the
employees
− To understand the various ways for developing inter-personal relations in an organization
The importance of organizational behaviour is:

− Organizational behaviour helps to build a better relationship in an organization by achieving
social, corporate and people’s objectives
− Organizational behaviour fosters goodwill of the organization
− Organizational behaviour helps to create sustainable competitive advantages by covering
people into valuable resources through various practices
− Organizational behaviour helps in better coordination within the organization
− Organizational behaviour includes behaviour, change management, training and development,
teams and leadership etc
− Organizational behaviour is significant as it helps to achieve objectives at a fast pace
Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering
2 Organizatioanl Behavior (3141909)
Unit-1 Focus and Purpose – Organizational Behavior
− Organizational behaviour facilitates motivation
− Organizational behaviour improves relations in an organization
− Organizational behaviour helps in optimal utilization of resources.
− Organizational behaviour results in higher levels of efficiency
− Organizational behaviour is multidisciplinary as it applies different types of theories, methods
and techniques to evaluate the performances.
1.3 Nature of OB
Organizational behaviour has emerged as a separate field of study. The nature it has acquired is
identified as follows :
− A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only:
o By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical
foundation. But, O.B. has a multi-interdisciplinary orientation and is, thus, not based on
a specific theoretical background. Therefore, it is better reasonable to call O.B. a
separate field of study rather than a discipline only.
− An Interdisciplinary Approach:
o Organizational behaviour is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study human
behaviour at work. It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related
disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology to make them applicable for
studying and analysing organizational behaviour.
− An Applied Science:
o The very nature of O.B. is applied. What O.B. basically does is the application of various
researches to solve the organizational problems related to human behaviour. The basic
line of difference between pure science and O.B. is that while the former concentrates
of fundamental researches, the latter concentrates on applied researches. O.B. involves
both applied research and its application in organizational analysis. Hence, O.B. can be
called both science as well as art.
− A Normative Science:
o Organizational Behaviour is a normative science also. While the positive science
discusses only cause effect relationship, O.B. prescribes how the findings of applied
researches can be applied to socially accepted organizational goals. Thus, O.B. deals
with what is accepted by individuals and society engaged in an organization. Yes, it is
not that O.B. is not normative at all. In fact, O.B. is normative as well that is well
underscored by the proliferation of management theories.
− A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach:
o Organizational Behaviour applies humanistic approach towards people working in the
organization. It, deals with the thinking and feeling of human beings. O.B. is based on
the belief that people have an innate desire to be independent, creative and productive.
It also realizes that people working in the organization can and will actualize these
potentials if they are given proper conditions and environment. Environment affects
performance or workers working in an organization.
− A Total System Approach:
o The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting organizational
functioning. The systems approach has been developed by the behavioural scientists to
analyse human behaviour in view of his/her socio-psychological framework. Man's
socio-psychological framework makes man a complex one and the systems approach
tries to study his/her complexity and find solution to it.
The three internal organizational elements viz., people, technology and structure and the fourth
element, i.e., external social systems may be taken as the scope of O.B.:
− People:
o The people constitute the internal social system of the organization. They consist of
individuals and groups. Groups may be large or small, formal or informal, official or
Organizatioanl Behavior (3141909) 3
unofficial. They are dynamic. They form, change and disband. Human organization
changes everyday. Today, it is not the same as it was yesterday. It may change further
in the coming days. People are living, thinking and feeling being who created the
organization and try to achieve the objectives and goals. Thus, organizations exist to
serve the people and not the people exist to serve the organization.
− Structure:
o Structure defines the sole relationship of people in an organization. Different people in
an organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others.
It leads to division of labour so that people can perform their duties or work to
accomplish the organizational goal. Thus, everybody cannot be an accountant or a clerk.
Work is complex and different duties are to be performed by different people. Some may
be accountant, others may be managers, clerks, peons or workers. All are so related to
each other to accomplish the goal in a co-ordinated manner. Thus, structure relates to
power and duties. One has the authority and others have a duty to obey him.
− Technology:
o Technology imparts the physical and economic conditions within which people work.
With their bare hands people can do nothing so they are given assistance of buildings,
machines, tools, processes and resources. The nature of technology depends very much
on the nature of the organization and influences the work or working conditions. Thus,
technology brings effectiveness and at the same restricts people in various ways.
− Social System:
o Social system provides external environment which the organization operates. A single
organization cannot exist also. It is a part of the whole. One organization cannot give
everything and therefore, there are many other organizations. All these organizations
influence each other. It influences the attitudes of people, their working conditions and
above all provides competition for resources and power.
In a very broad sense, the scope of OB is the extent to which it can govern or influence the
operations of an organization. The scope of OB integrates 3 concepts respectively −
− Individual Behavior:
o It is the study of individual’s personality, learning, attitudes, motivation, and job
satisfaction. In this study, we interact with others in order to study about them and
make our perception about them.
Example − The personal interview round is conducted to interact with candidates to
check their skills, apart from those mentioned in the resume.
− Inter-individual Behavior:
o It is the study conducted through communication between the employees among
themselves as well as their subordinates, understanding people’s leadership qualities,
group dynamics, group conflicts, power and politics.
Example − A meeting to decide list of new board members.
− Group Behavior:
o Group behavior studies the formation of organization, structure of organization and
effectiveness of organization. The group efforts made towards the achievement of
organization’s goal is group behavior. In short, it is the way how a group behaves.
Example − Strike, rally etc.

1.4 Conceptual Framework of OB
− Cognitive Framework:
o Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior
and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply
defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions
precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem
solving, and information processing.
o The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical
approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular
event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy
implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result
of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the
behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals.
o In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of
analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision
making and goal setting.
− Behavioristic Framework:
o Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of
studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that
behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They
examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R
connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner,
advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental
consequences. Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on
observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable).
− Social Cognitive Framework:
o Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of
a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as
independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to
determine behavior. It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are
relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what
a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons
cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of
past behavior.
1.5 Conceptual Framework of OB

Organizational behavior reflects the behavior of the people and management all together, it is
considered as field study not just a discipline. A discipline is an accepted science that is based
upon theoretical foundation, whereas OB is an inter-disciplinary approach where knowledge
from different disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. are included. It is used
to solve organizational problems, especially those related to human beings.
There are four different types of models in OB. We will throw some light on each of these four
models.
− Autocratic Model:
o The root level of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The
employees in this model are oriented towards obedience and discipline. They are
dependent on their boss. The employee requirement that is met is subsistence. The
performance result is less.
o The major drawbacks of this model are people are easily frustrated, insecurity,
dependency on the superiors, minimum performance because of minimum wage.
− Custodial Model:
o The root level of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of
money. The employees in this model are oriented towards security and benefits
provided to them. They are dependent on the organization. The employee requirement
that is met is security.
o This model is adapted by firms having high resources as the name suggest. It is
dependent on economic resources. This approach directs to depend on firm rather than
on manager or boss. They give passive cooperation as they are satisfied but not strongly
encouraged.
− Supportive Model:
o The root level of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The
employees in this model are oriented towards their job performance and participation.
The employee requirement that is met is status and recognition. The performance result
is awakened drives.
o This model is dependent on leadership strive. It gives a climate to help employees grow
and accomplish the job in the interest of the organization. Management job is to assist
the employee’s job performance. Employees feel a sense of participation.
− Collegial Model:
o The root level of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork.
The employees in this model are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-
discipline. The employee requirement that is met is self-actualization. The performance
result is moderate zeal.

o This is an extension of supportive model. The team work approach is adapted for this
model. Self-discipline is maintained. Workers feel an obligation to uphold quality
standard for the better image of the company. A sense of “accept” and “respect” is seen.
1.6 Reference
1) Stephen P. Robins, Organizational Behavior, / Pearson Education
2) Udai Pareek, Understanding Organizational Behaviour, Oxford Higher Education
3) Margi Parikh and Rajan Gupta, Organizational Behaviour, McGraw Hill Education
4) Fred Luthans, Organizational Behavior, McGraw Hill

Contents
2.1 Attitude ..................................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 Characteristics of Attitude ...................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Component of Attitude ............................................................................................................ 4
2.4 Formation of Sources of Attitude ........................................................................................... 5
2.5 Measurement of Attitude ........................................................................................................ 6
2.6 Barriers to change Attitude ................................................................................................... 10
2.7 Meaning and Concept of Perception .................................................................................... 11
2.8 Factors Affecting Perception ................................................................................................ 12
2.9 Motivation .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.10 Importance of Motivation...................................................................................................... 14
2.11 Types of Motivation ............................................................................................................... 15
2.12 Theories of Motivation .......................................................................................................... 16
2.13 Personality.............................................................................................................................. 24
2.14 Types of Personality .............................................................................................................. 24
2.15 Factors Influencing Personality ............................................................................................ 26
2.16 Theories of Personality ......................................................................................................... 27
2.17 Value and Type of Values...................................................................................................... 28
2.18 Learning .................................................................................................................................. 29
2.19 Type of Learners .................................................................................................................... 29
2.20 Learning Process .................................................................................................................. 30
2.21 Learning Theories .................................................................................................................. 32
2.22 Organisational Behaviour Modification Technique ............................................................. 33
2.23 Emotion and Emotional Labour ............................................................................................ 34
2.24 Emotional Intelligence (EI) .................................................................................................... 36
2.25 Impression Management ...................................................................................................... 36
2.26 Individual Decision Making Techniques .............................................................................. 37
2.27 References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38

Unit-2 Individual Behavior – Organizational Behavior
2.1 Attitude
− An attitude is generally defined as the way a person responds to his or her environment, either
positively or negatively.
− An attitude is a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object expressed at some level of
intensity. It is an expression of a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, place, thing,
or event.
− Work environment can affect a person’s attitude.
− Some attitudes are a dangerous element in the workplace, one that can spread to those closest
to the employee and affect everyone’s performance.
− According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to
all objects and situations with which it is related.”
− Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain institutions,
persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has become one’s
typical mode of response.”
− “Attitude can be described as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable manner for a given object.” — Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen.
− According to N.L. Munn, “Attitudes are learned predispositions towards aspects of our
environment. They may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, service, or
institution.”
2.2 Characteristics of Attitude
− Attitude can be described as a tendency to react positively or negatively to a person or

circumstances.

− These can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously
aware of and that clearly influences our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are
unconscious but still affect our beliefs and behaviors.
1. Attitudes are the complex combination of things we call personality, beliefs, values, behaviors,
and motivations.
2. It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.
3. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.
4. An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our actions, and
influence how we judge people.
5. Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can view a
person’s attitude from their resulting behavior.
6. Attitude helps us define how we see situations and define how we behave toward the situation
or object.
7. An attitude is a summary of a person’s experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct
experience predicts future behavior more accurately.
8. It indicates the total of a man’s inclinations and feelings.
9. It refers to one’s readiness for doing Work.
10. It may be positive or negative and may be affected by age, position, and education.
2.3 Components of Attitude

− There are three components of Attitude:
1. Cognitive component
2. Affective component
3. Behavioral component
− Let’s discuss about them in details.

1. Cognitive Component:
• Cognitive component of attitude is associated with the value statement. It
consists of values, belief, ideas and other information that a person may have
faith in.
• For example, a person may have an attitude towards Jawaharlal Nehru as a
statesman, towards statesmen in general or towards celebrities. Similarly a
politician’s attitude towards Nehru is more differentiated than that of a person
who has little experience in politics. In the former case specificity, and in the
latter the degree of differentiation can be noticed.
2. Affective Component:
• Affective component of attitude is associated with individual feelings about
another person, which may be positive, neutral or negative.
• Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is
sincere. It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.
3. Behavioral Component:
• Behavioral component of attitude is associated with the impact of various
condition or situations that lead to person behavior based on cognitive and
affective components.
• Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest is an affective component, I,
therefore, would like to disassociate myself with him, is a behavioural
component and therefore I would avoid Sam.
2.4 Formation/Sources of Attitude

− Attitudes refer to the feelings and beliefs of “individuals or groups of individuals. But the
question is how these feelings and beliefs developed? The point which has been stressed by
many people are that attitudes are acquired, but not inherited. A person acquires these attitudes
from several sources.
1. Direct Personal Experience:

• A person’s direct experience with the attitude object determines his attitude towards it.
The personal experience of an individual, whether it is favourable or unfavourable, will
affect his attitude deeply. These attitudes which are based on personal experience are
difficult to change.
• For example, an individual joins a new job, which is recommended to him by his friend.
But when he joins the job, he find his work repetitive, supervisors too tough and co-
workers not so co-operative, he would develop a negative attitude towards his job,
because the quality of his direct experience with the job is negative.
2. Association:
• Sometimes an individual comes across a new attitude object which may be associated
with an old attitude object. In such a case, the attitude towards the old attitude object
may be transferred towards the new attitude object.
• For example, if a new worker remains most of the time in the company of a worker, who
is in the good books of the supervisor, and towards whom the supervisor has a positive
attitude, the supervisor is likely to develop a favourable attitude towards the new worker
also. Hence the positive attitude for the old worker has been transferred towards the
new worker because of the association between the old and the new worker.
3. Family and Peer Groups:
• Attitudes like values are acquired from parents, teachers and peer group members. In
our early years, we begin modeling our attitudes after those we admire, respect or may

be even fear. We observe the way our family and friends behave and we shape our
attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs. We do so even without being told to do so
and even without having direct experience. Similarly, attitudes are acquired from peer
groups in colleges and organisations.
• For example, if the right thing is to visit the “Domino’s”, you are likely to hold that attitude.
If your parents support one political party, without being told to do so, you automatically
start favouring that party.
4. Neighbourhood:
• The neighbourhood in which we live has certain cultural facilities, religious groupings
and ethnic differences. Further, it has people, who are neighbours. These people may be
Northerners, Southerners etc. The people belonging to different cultures have different
attitudes and behaviours. Some of these we accept and some of these we deny and
possibly rebel. The conformity or rebellion in some respects is the evidence of the
attitudes we hold.
5. Economic Status and Occupations:
• The economic status and occupational position of the individual also affect his attitude
formation. Our socio-economic background influences our present and future attitudes.
Research findings have shown that unemployment disturbs former religious and
economic values. Children of professional class tend to be conservatives. Respect for
the laws of the country is associated with increased years of higher education.
6. Mass Communications:
• Attitudes are generally less stable as compared to values. Advertising messages for
example, attempt to alter the attitude of the people toward a certain product or service.
• For example, if the people at Hyundai Santro can get you to hold a favourable feeling
toward their cars, that attitude may lead to a desirable behaviour (for them)-your
purchase of a Santro car.
2.5 Measurement of Attitude

− The following points highlight the top five techniques used to measure the attitude of an
individual. The techniques are:
1. 1. Method of Equal Appearing Interval
2. 2. Method of Summated Rating
3. 3. Social Distance Scale
4. 4. Cumulative Scaling Method
5. 5. The Scale Discriminating Technique.
Technique # 1. Method of Equal Appearing Interval (Thurstone’s Scale):
− Developed by L.L. Thurstone and Chave (1929) it is the earliest technique of attitude
measurement.
− This technique of equal appearing interval used in the scaling of psychophysical dimensions
was used by Thurstone for the construction of attitude scales to measure attitude towards
various subjects or towards any object.
The scale is prepared in the following manner:

1. A large number of simple, easily understood statements or propositions showing a
favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the attitudinal object are collected.
2. Judges are asked to sort out in a desired number of steps on a scale on the basis of the
degree to which they express favourable or unfavourable attitudes towards the object.
All those statements having insufficient agreement are rejected. Only those statements
having considerable agreement among the judges relating to their position on the scale
are retained in the final scale.
3. Scale scoring is done on the basis of median value of judgements. Final selection is
made on the basis of equal appearing intervals.
− In Thurstone’s scale there are eleven categories where judges have to put their judgement in
equal distances so as to fit the eleven categories. The low values indicate a favourable attitude
towards the attitudinal object and the high values suggest an unfavourable attitude.
− The eleven lines or equally appearing intervals are infact the units of Thurstone’s scale. His
scale is said to be a rational scale since he attempted to achieve equality of units by requiring
the judges to place items in eleven lines at equal appearing intervals.
Limitation of Thurstone’s Scale:

− The probability of the attitude of judges influencing their placement of judgements in various
positions on the scale cannot be ruled out.
− Thurstone has attempted to account for zero point in a scale, but has not been able to meet the
requirements satisfactorily.
− Thurston’s scale lacked in unique dimensionality.
Technique # 2. Method of Summated Rating (Likert’s Scale):
− Developed by Likert the attitude scale prepared by the method of summated rating has an
entirely different approach.
− Likert is famous for constructing several attitude scales to measure attitude towards various
complex issues, like Black and White Problem, imperialism and various other international
problems.
− The procedure of preparation of Likerts’ scale is given below briefly:
o A large number of statements and propositions are collected relating to the issue. These
statements are then presented to a group of subjects to rate them into five categories.
a. Strongly approve-1
b. Approve-2
c. Undecided-3
d. Disapprove-4
e. Strongly disapprove-5.
o The ‘S’ is asked to give his score with regard to each statement on this basis of five point
scale. Then, the total score for each individual subject for all the statement is calculated
by summing up each individual responses.
o Thereafter, inter correlating the scores of each item, with the total scores on all the items
by the item analysis techniques, the most discriminating items are selected and
eliminated. Only those items having highest correlations arc retained for the final scale.
Advantages of Likevts’ Scale:

− The use of ‘Item Analysis’ in the construction of attitude scale is the most important feature
of Likert’s scale. In this scale, the individual scores are interpreted in terms of the scores

obtained by a group of individual which is commonly done in a psychological test
construction.
− Likert’s scale is more pragmatic than Thurstone’s scale. It is based on the selection of items
in terms of how well they work. Likert did not depend only on the subjective judgements of
the individuals, like Thurstone.
− Likert’s scale has got good amount of workability than Thurstone’s. In this scale unique
dimensionality is also not disturbed.
Limitation of Likevts’ Scale:

− No attempt has been made to ensure equality of unity in the Likert’s scale. The scores
obtained at the upper and lower end of the scale are usually more meaningful than the
intermediate range of scores as the score making the neutral point is unknown.
− The minimum scores in the Likert’s scale indicate a favourable attitude, while the maximum
scores indicate an unfavourable attitude which is sometimes confusing.
− There is no determination of zero point in this scale.
Technique # 3. Social Distance Scale (Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale):
− The concept of social distance was given prominence by Katz and Allport under the
guidance of Gallet and Bogardus. Bogardus was interested in studying racial attitudes,
attitudes of people towards different races, towards different nationalities and comparing
them through his social distance scale.
− The procedure of the construction of the scale is as follows.
o The investigator first formulates various statements indicating different degrees of
acceptance or rejection of the group. The ‘S’ has to indicate how close or how far
away he is from the members of the other group. The distance measured by these
statements are basically psychological.
o A favourable attitude is indicated by the closeness and an unfavourable attitude is
indicated by distance. The greater is the distance, the greater is anti attitude and the
less is the distance the greater is the pro attitude.
o The psychological distance is progressively increased in the scale as one proceeds
from the first to the last statement starting from close kinship by marriage to
exclusion from the country.
− In this manner, by the Bogardus scale attitude is measured towards different nationalities.
Limitations of Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale:

− It means merely temporary attitudes,
− Bogardus did not make any attempt to ensure equality of units.
− The psychological distance between relation in marriage and a club is much greater than
that existing between club relations and neighbouring relations.
− The distance between two points in the scale, hence, is not equal or adequate and hence,
lacks in dimension of units and exhaustiveness of the measuring index.
− Bogardus’s scale simply measures the range and distribution of attitude and not its
intensity.
Advantages of Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale:

− This scale has been very widely and quite successfully applied in various studies of attitude
measurement.
− The technique of construction of the scale is quite simple.
− The scale is used to compare different people’s attitudes towards the same nationality or a
single individual’s attitude towards different nationalities.
− By this scale any kind of interpersonal likes and dislikes can be measured. Actually, many
new scale have been developed being based on the Bogardus Social Distance Scale.
Technique # 4. Cumulative Scaling Method (Guttman’s Scale):
− Guttman’s cumulative scaling method (1944) is devised to find out if the sets of statements
and propositions used to measure attitudes can actually satisfy the necessary conditions
of a particular type of scale.
− The main aim of this scaling technique is to determine whether the attitude in question is
“scalable” or not.
− An attitude is said to be scalable when a major proportion of the population being measured
responds to the scale in a consistent way. When an item it endorsed by the endorsement of
all other items that are less extreme and rejection of all those items that are more extreme,
it indicates the criterion of consistency.
− In Guttmans scale, plotting of scale scores were made on the horizontal lines. Guttman’s
technique involves a ‘Scalogram’ device for ascertaining the degree of consistency that is
present. According to Guttman, when significant consistency is shown by a set of items or
propositions, the scale is unidimensional and hence, is expected to measure attitude
reliably.
− But in the reverse case one has to infer that there is more than one dimension underlying
the scale. At this point, by using this method of Guttman the offending items can be
eliminate and the scale can be revised and corrected to meet this criterion of consistency.
− Guttman’s scale helps in determining the zero point. It is also based on the criteria of unique
dimensionality.
Technique # 5. The Scale Discriminating Technique:
− This scale has been developed by Edwards and Kilpartic. It is the synthesis of the various
earlier techniques.
− Like the other scales, a large number of dichotomous items are collected. Judges then
group the items in categories as per their degree of favourableness. Others are discarded
because of ambiguity.
− The retained items are then presented in a multiple choice form with six response
categories starting from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Then, these statements are
served to new groups of subjects. Their responses are scored individually to derive a total
score for each person.
− Like the Likert Scale ‘Item analysis’ technique is applied on each item. The final scale
consists of those items having good discriminating capacity. Then, the selected items are
dichotomised and subjected to scaling as followed by Guttman
− It is a very laborious procedure and perhaps because of that the scale discrimination
technique has not been used in a large scale in psychological researches for the
measurement of attitude. So, the advantages and defects of scale are yet to be traced.

2.6 Barrier To Change Attitude
− Employees’ attitudes can be changed, and sometimes it is in the best interests of management
to try to do so.
− For example, if employees believe that their employer does not look after their welfare, the
management should try to change employees’ attitudes and develop a more positive attitude
towards them.
− However, the process of changing the attitude is not always easy.
− Barriers to Change Attitudes are;
1. Prior Commitment
2. Insufficient Information
3. Balance and Consistency
4. Lack of Resources
5. Improper Reward System
6. Resistance to Change
Prior Commitment:
− When people feel a commitment towards a particular course of action that has already been
agreed upon, it becomes difficult for them to change or accept the new ways of functioning.
Insufficient Information:
− It also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people do not see why they
should change their attitude due to the unavailability of adequate information.
− Sometimes people do not see why they should change their attitude due to the unavailability of
adequate information.
Balance and Consistency:
− Another obstacle to a change of attitude is the attitude theory of balance and consistency.
− Human beings prefer their attitudes about people and things to be in line with their behaviors
towards each other and objects.
Lack of Resources:
− If plans become excessively ambitious, they can sometimes be obstructed by the lack of
resources on a company or organization.
− So, in this case, if the organization wants to change the employees’ attitude towards the new
plan, sometimes it becomes impossible for the lack of resources to achieve this.

Improper Reward System:
− Sometimes, an improper reward system acts as a barrier to change attitude.

− If an organization places too much emphasis on short-term performance and results, managers
may ignore longer-term issues as they set goals and formulate plans to achieve higher profits
in the short term.
− If this reward system is introduced in the organization, employees are not motivated to change
their attitude.
Resistance to Change:
− Another barrier is resistance to change.

− Basically, change is a continuous process within and outside the organization to achieve the
set goal.
− When the authority changes a plan of the organization, the employees have to change
themselves.
− But some of them do not like this. If their attitude regarding the change of plan cannot be
changed, the organization will not be successful.
2.7 Meaning and Concept of Perception
− In common terminology, perception is defined as “a) the way you think about something and
your idea of what it is like; b) the way that you notice things with your senses of sight, hearing
etc.; c) the natural ability to understand or notice things quickly.”
− In philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science, perception is the process of attaining
awareness or understanding of sensory information.
− The word “perception” comes from the Latin words perceptio, percipio, and means “receiving,
collecting, action of taking possession, and apprehension with the mind or senses.”
− Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order
to represent and understand the environment.
− According to Joseph Reitz; “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual
receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.”
− According to B. V. H. Gilmer, “Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations, of
adding meaningful associations to sensations.”
− Uday Pareek said perception can be defined as “the process of receiving, selecting, organizing,
interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.”
− According to S. P. Robbins, perception can be defined as “the process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environments.”

− Perception includes the 5 senses; touch, sight, taste smell and sound. It also includes what is
known as perception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions
and movements.
2.8 Factors Affecting Perception

− A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors residei.
1. In the perceiver
2. In the object or target being perceived or
3. In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.
Characteristics of Perception in Organisational Behaviour:
Characteristics of the Perceiver:
− Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a
target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by
personal characteristics of individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver
influencing perception are:
1. Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is
interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization –a position that
requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel
that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will
doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.
2. Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think
differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we
remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information
that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more
positive impression of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others
unfavourably.
3. Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong
influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is
insecure perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or
her own position. Personal insecurity can be transferred into the perception that others
are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.
4. Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-
concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in
another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out
negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more
accurate perceptions of others.
5. Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because
our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can
differ from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been
reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming
late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem,
you may find it hard to be attentive in class.
6. Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height,
weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or
personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple
characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.
7. Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height,
weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or
personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple
characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.
Characteristics of the Target:

− Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical
appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive
individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.
− Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the
target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.
− Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that
are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colourour entire
impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and
attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.
− Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics
they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input.
− Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver
deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all inan attempt to
form an impression of the target.
− The perceiver, who observes the target's behaviour, infers the intentions of the target.
− For example, if our manager comes to our office door way, we think "oh no! he is going to give
me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us on a recent
success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way the
perceiver views the target.
− Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences
perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together.
− Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than separately.
As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects orevents that are
unrelated. For examples, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two
employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related
when in fact, they might be totally unrelated.
− People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.
Characteristics of the Situation:
− The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. For example, a professor may not notice
his 20-year-old female student in a bikini at the swimming pool. Yet the professor will notice the
same girl if she comes to his organizational behaviour class in abikini. In the same way, meeting
a manager in his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with
the impression you would form had you met the manager in a restaurant.
− The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide
strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that the individual's
behaviour can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's
disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you mayen
counter an automobile sales person who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about
your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume
that this behaviour reflects the sales person's personality? You probably cannot, because of the
influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation
he probably treats all customers in this manner.
2.9 Motivation
− Motivation is defined as inner burning passion caused by need, wants and desire which propels
an individual to exert his physical and mental energy to achieve desired objectives.
− “Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organisational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs.” - Stephen P Robbins
− “It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action.” - George R. Terry
− “It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or
explains the behaviour of human beings.” - D.E. McFarland
2.10 Importance of Motivation

− We need to motivate employees because of the following reasons −
1. Motivated employee are more quality oriented.
2. Highly motivated employees are more productive as compared to other employees.
3. It helps in achieving three behavior dimension of human resource namely
▪ Candidates must be attracted not only to join but also remain in the firm.
▪ Employees must perform task in a dependable manner.
▪ Employees should be creative, spontaneous and innovative at work.
2.11 Types of Motivation

− There are two types of motivation.
1. Intrinsic Motivation
2. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
− It is a type of motivation in which the motives originates from inside of the human body.
− It refer to internal driving state stimulating an individual to behave in a specific way.
− It includes all biological drive such as hunger, thirst, sleep, relief from pain, temperature
regulation, need for oxygen and so on.
− For example, the hunger is driving force coming from inside to compel (ફરજ પાડવી) an
individual to eat food.
− The individual feels tired and required a good amount of sleep to relax for the next day.
− Our curiosity, internal fear, psychological needs and desires also serve as intrinsic motives.
− It includes following motives:
1. Biological drives: e.g. hunger, thirst, relief from pain
2. Curiosity
3. Internal fear e.g. Fear of rejection

4. Psychological needs e.g. need for being accepted and appreciated by others
5. Internal desires e.g. desire to gain power or dominance (વર્ચસ્વ)
Extrinsic Motivation
− In this type of motivation, the motives originate from outside of the human body.
− The driving force exists outside of the human body that stimulates the individual for certain the
action.
− Though these motives are external to human body but they have a rewarding or punishing
impact for the individual.
− It includes following motives:
1. Incentives
2. Bonuses
3. Allowances
4. Promotion or demotion
5. Rewards and punishments
6. Merit and distinction certificate
7. Appreciation certificates and prizes
2.12 Theories of Motivation

− We can distinguish between Content and Process motivation theories.
− Content theories are the earliest theories of motivation.

− Content theories are also called needs theories: they try to identify what our needs are and relate
motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.
− The content theories cannot entirely explain what motivate or demotivate us.
− Process theories are concerned with “how” motivation occurs, and what kind of process can
influence our motivation.
− The main content theories are:
1. Maslow’s needs hierarchy
2. Alderfer’s ERG theory
3. McClelland’s achievement motivation
4. Herzberg’s two-factor theory
− The main process theories are:
1. Skinner’s reinforcement theory
2. Victor Vroom's expectancy theory
3. Adam’s equity theory
4. Locke’s goal setting theory
1. Maslow – hierarchy of needs:
− This is the earliest and most widely known theory of motivation, developed by Abraham Maslow
(1943) in the 1940s and 1950s.
− Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often shown in the shape of a pyramid: basic needs at the
bottom and the most complex need (need for self-actualization) at the top. Maslow himself has
never drawn a pyramid to describe these levels of our needs; but the pyramid has become the
most known way to represent his hierarchy.
A. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

− It includes the most basic needs for humans to survive, such as air, water and food. Maslow
emphasized, our body and mind cannot function well if these requirements are not fulfilled.
− These physiological needs are the most dominant of all needs. So if someone is missing
everything in his/her life, probably the major motivation would be to fulfil his/her physiological
needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love (also sex) and esteem,
would most probably hunger for food (and also for money, salary to buy food) than for anything
else.

− If all the needs are unsatisfied, and the organism is then overruled by the physiological needs,
all other needs may turn into the background. All capacities are put into the attendance of
satisfying hunger. Any other things are forgotten or got secondary importance.
B. Safety and security (secure source of income, a place to live, health and well-being)
− If the physiological needs are relatively well contented, new needs will appear, the so called
safety needs. Safety needs refer to a person’s desire for security or protection. Basically
everything looks less important than safety and protection (the physiological needs even
sometimes). The healthy and fortunate adults in our culture are largely satisfied in their safety
needs. The peaceful, sure, safety and unwavering society makes us feel in safety enough from
criminal assaults, murder, unbelievable natural catastrophes, and so on. In that case people no
longer have any safety needs as first-line motivators.
− Meeting with safety needs demonstrated as a preference for insurance policies, saving
accounts or job security, etc., we think about the lack of economic safety. Children have a
greater need to feel safe. That is the reason why this level is more important for children.
− Safety and security needs include: Personal security; Financial security; Health and well-being;
Safety mesh against accidents, illnesses and their adverse impacts.
− To tell the truth, in real dangers and traumas – like war, murder, natural catastrophes, criminal
assault, etc. -, the needs for safety become an active, first-line and dominant mobilizer of human
beings.
C. Belongingness and love (integration into social groups, feel part of a community or a group;
affectionate relationships)
− If both the physiological and the safety needs are fulfilled, the affection, love and belongingness
needs come into prominence. Maslow claimed people need to belong and accepted among
their social groups. Group size does not mean anything: social groups can be large or small.
People need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others. Depending on
the power and pressure of the peer group, this need for belonging may overbear the
physiological and security needs.
− Love needs involve giving and receiving affections (love is not synonymous with sex – sex is a
physiological need). When they are unsatisfied, a person will immediately eliminate the lack of
friends, peers and partner. Many people suffer from social nervousness, loneliness, social
isolation and also clinical depression because of the lack of this love or belongingness factor.
D. Esteem (respect for a person as a useful, honourable human being)
− In our society most people long for a stable and high valuation of themselves, for the esteem of
others and for self-respect or self-esteem.
− Esteem means being valued, respected and appreciated by others. Humans need to feel to be
valued, such as being useful and necessary in the world. People with low self-esteem often need
respect from others. Maslow divided two types of esteem needs: a ‘lower’ version and a ‘higher’
version. The ‘lower’ version of esteem is the need for respect from others: for example attention,
prestige, status and loving their opinion. The ‘higher’ version is the need for self-respect: for
example, the person may need independence, and freedom or self-confidence.
− The most stable and therefore the healthiest self-esteem is based on respect from others.
External fame or celebrity and unwarranted adulation won’t cause self-esteem, although you
feel better for a while.
E. Self-actualization (individual’s desire to grow and develop to his or her fullest potential)
− ‘What humans can be, they must be.’ (Maslow, 1954)
− Self-actualization reflects an individual’s desire to grow and develop to his/her fullest potential.
People like opportunities, choosing his/her own versions, challenging positions or creative

tasks. Maslow described this level as the ‘need to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be’. Maslow believed that people must overcome their other
needs – described above -, not only achieve them. At this level, individual differences are the
largest.
− As each level is adequately satisfied, we are then motivated to satisfy the next level in the
hierarchy, always new and higher needs are coming. This is what we mean, when the basic
human needs are drawn like a pyramid, a hierarchy. Life experiences, including divorce and loss
of job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. These five different
levels were further sub-categorised into two main groups: deficiency and growth needs.
2. Alderfer – ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs
− Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) distinguished three steps or classes of needs: existence, relatedness
and growth. Maslow’s physiological and safety needs belong together to existence needs.
Relatedness can be harmonised to belongingness and esteem of others. Growth is the same
as Maslow’s self-esteem plus self-actualization. Both Maslow and Alderfer tried to describe
how these needs, these stages of needs become more or less important to individuals.
o Existence needs: These include needs for basic material necessities. In short, it includes
an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
o Relatedness needs: Individuals need significant relationships (be with family, peers or
superiors), love and belongingness, they strive toward reaching public fame and
recognition. This class of needs contain Maslow’s social needs and external component
of esteem needs.
o Growth needs: Need for self-development, personal growth and advancement form
together this class of need. This class of needs contain Maslow’s self-actualization
needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs.
− For example there is a student, who has excellent grades, friends, and high standard of living,
maybe also work at the university. What happens if this individual finds that he or she is
frustrated in attempts to get more autonomy and responsibility at the university, maybe also
more scholarship that generally encourage individuals’ growth? Frustration in satisfying a
higher (growth) need has resulted in a regression to a lower level of (relatedness) needs (‘I need
just my friends, some good wine, I do not want to go to the university anymore.’).
3. McClelland – Need for achievement, affiliation and power

− In the early 1960s McClelland – built on Maslow’s work – described three human motivators.
McClelland (Arnold et al., 2005) claimed that humans acquire, learn their motivators over time
that is the reason why this theory is sometimes called the ‘Learned Needs Theory’. He affirms
that we all have three motivating drivers, and it does not depend on our gender or age. One of
these drives or needs will be dominant in our behaviour.
− McClelland’s theory differs from Maslow’s and Alderfer’s, which focus on satisfying existing
needs rather than creating or developing needs. This dominant motivator depends on our
culture and life experiences, of course (but the three motivators are permanent). The three
motivators are:
− achievement: a need to accomplish and demonstrate competence or mastery
− affiliation: a need for love, belonging and relatedness
− power: a need for control over one’s own work or the work of others
− McClelland argues that strong need for achievement people can become the best leaders – as
we wrote it above. But at the same time there can be a tendency to request too much of their
employees, because they think that these people are also highly achievement-focused and
results-driven, as they are. Think about your teachers and professors! I am sure they all want
the best for you, they would like to develop you, but I do not think you feel the same every time.
McClelland said that most people have and show a combination of these characteristics.
4. Herzberg – Two factor theory

− It is also called motivation-hygiene theory.
− Opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather, no satisfaction. According to
Herzberg (1987) the job satisfiers deal with the factors involved in doing the job, whereas the
job dissatisfiers deal with the factors which define the job context.
− If the hygiene factors, for example salary, working conditions, work environment, safety and
security are unsuitable (low level) at the workplace, this can make individuals unhappy,
dissatisfied with their job. Motivating factors, on the other hand, can increase job satisfaction,
and motivation is based on an individual's need for personal growth. If these elements are
effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and
effort. For example, having responsibility or achievement can cause satisfaction (human
characteristics) (Dartey-Baah, 2011).
− Hygiene factors are needed to ensure that an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors
are needed to ensure employee's satisfaction and to motivate an employee to higher
performance.
− Herzberg’s five factors of job satisfaction (motivating factors):
o achievement
o recognition
o work itself
o responsibility
o advancement
− Only these factors can motivate us. But at the same time we need the lack of dissatisfactions
(we need hygiene factors, "workpeace") to achieve more efficient work.
− Herzberg’s five factors of job dissatisfaction (hygiene factors – deficiency needs):
o company policy and administration
o supervision
o salary
o interpersonal relationships
o working conditions
1. Skinner's reinforcement theory

− The Reinforcement theory, based on Skinner's operant conditioning theory, says that behaviour
can be formed by its consequences (Gordon, 1987).
Positive reinforcements:
− for example praise, appreciation, a good mark/grade, trophy, money, promotion or any other
reward can increase the possibility of the rewarded behaviours' repetition.
− If a student gets positive verbal feedback and a good grade for his test, this reinforcement
encourages the performance of the behaviour to recur. If the teacher doesn’t tell precisely what
he expects, then the positive reinforcements can drive the behaviour closer to the preferred. For
example, when a student who is usually late to class gets positive feedback when he arrives on
time, the student becomes more and more punctual. Positive reinforcement motivates to get
the anticipated reinforcement of required behaviour.
Negative reinforcements:
− negative reinforcement when we give a meal to a hungry person if he behaves in a certain
manner/way.
− In this case the meal is a negative reinforcement because it eliminates the unpleasant state
(hunger).
− punishment can be undesired reinforcement, or reinforce undesired behaviour.
− For example, if a student is always late to class and thus he gets negative verbal feedback and
also always has to tidy up the classroom at the end of the day, in this case the undesirable
behaviour is reinforced with an undesirable reinforcer. The punishment declines the tendency
to be late.
2. Vroom's expectancy theory

− The expectancy theory places an emphasis on the process and on the content of motivation as
well, and it integrates needs, equity and reinforcement theories.
− Victor Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory aims to explain how people choose from the available
actions. Vroom defines motivation as a process that governs our choices among alternative
forms of voluntary behaviour. The basic rationale of this theory is that motivation stems from
the belief that decisions will have their desired outcomes.
− The motivation to engage in an activity is determined by appraising three factors. These three
factors are the following (Figure 4):
− Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will result in success. If you work harder, it will
result in better performance.
− In this case the question is: "Am I capable of making a good grade on a math test if I learn
more?" Appraisal of this factor is based on the effort to learn math, on knowledge of math, on
the previous experience of math test results, on self-efficacy and specific self-rated abilities.
− Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a connection between activity and goal. If you
perform well, you will get reward.
− In this case the question is that: "Will I get the promised reward (a good mark) for performing
well on a math test?" Appraisal of this factor is based on the accuracy and consistency of
marking. If one day I get a good grade and another day I get a bad grade for the same
performance, then the motivation will decrease.
− Valence – the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of success.
− In this case the question is that: "Do I value the reward that I get?" Appraisal of this factor is
based on the importance of its subject (math), the good mark, and the good performance in
general.

− A person who doesn’t see the connection between effort and performance will have zero
expectancy. A person who can’t perceive the link between performance and reward will have
zero instrumentality. For a person who doesn’t value the anticipated outcome, reward will have
zero valence.
− For example if I think:
− that no matter how hard I’m studying I can’t learn math due to lack of necessary skills or
− that no matter how good I perform on the test I don’t always get good mark so the reward is
unpredictable, not dependent on my success or
− the good mark from math is not important for me, and I’m not interested in math, so the reward
is not attractive, then I won’t be motivated to learn for the exam.
− The expectancy theory highlights individual differences in motivation and contains three useful
factors for understanding and increasing motivation. This theory implies equity and importance
of consistent rewards as well (Konig & Steel 2006).
3. Adams' equity theory

− The equity theory states that people are motivated if they are treated equitably, and receive what
they consider fair for their effort and costs.
− The theory was suggested by Adams (1965) and is based on Social Exchange theory.
− At the workplace the workers put inputs into the job, such as education, experience, effort,
energy, and expect to get some outcomes such as salary, reward, promotion, verbal recognition,
and interesting and challenging work each in equal amounts
− The equity theory works not just in the workplace, but at school as well. For example, when for
the same oral exam performance two students get different marks, then inequity exists. In this
case, the student who gets the worse mark may lose his/her motivation to learn (reduce his/her
efforts), or persuade the teacher to give him/her a better mark, or change the perception of the
reference person's performance ("I did not know everything, but my classmate could answer all
the questions"). At the school it can demotivate students if someone who never studies or who
never performs better than the others always gets good mark. The greater the inequity the
greater the distress an individual feels, which will motivate the endeavour to make the outcomes
and the inputs equal compared to the reference person.
− When inequity exists, a person might…
o reduce his/her inputs, efforts, quantity or quality of his/her work
o try to increase his/her outputs (ask for better mark, or pay raising)
o adjust his/her perception of reference person or his/her outcomes or inputs (re-evaluate
his/her or the reference person's effort or outcome)
o change the reference person
o quit the situation.
− The problem with equity theory is that it does not take into account differences in individual
needs, values, and personalities. For example, one person may perceive a certain situation as
inequitable while another does not. Nevertheless ensuring equity is essential to motivation.
4. Locke's goal-setting theory

− Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative model of motivation just like the expectancy
theory.
− We can distinguish goals according to specificity, difficulty and acceptance. A specific goal can
be measured and lead to higher performance than a very general goal like “Try to do your best!”
A difficult, but realistic goal can be more motivational than easy or extremely difficult ones. The
acceptance of the goal is very important as well, therefore involvement in the goal setting is
recommended.
− For example, if I decide to pass a medium level language exam in German in six months – this
goal is specific and difficult enough – because I want to work in Germany – this goal is very
important for me, therefore the goal commitment is high – then I will be motivated to learn, and
to pass the exam.
− The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting :
• Set challenging but attainable goals. Too easy or too difficult/unrealistic goals don’t
motivate us.
• Set specific and measurable goals. These can focus toward what you want, and can
measure the progress toward the goal.

• Goal commitment should be obtained. If people don’t commit to the goals, then they will
not put effort toward reaching the goals, even specific, or challenging ones. Strategies
to achieve this could include participation in the goal setting process, use of extrinsic
rewards (bonuses), and encouraging intrinsic motivation through providing workers with
feedback about goal attainment. Pressure to achieve goals is not useful because it can
result in dishonesty and superficial performance.
• Support elements should be provided. For example, encouragement, needed materials,
resources, and moral support.
• Knowledge of results is essential – so goals need to be quantifiable and there needs to
be feedback.
2.13 Personality
− The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask
worn by performers in order to either project different roles or disguise their identities.
− Personality is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a
person unique.
− It is believed that personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent
throughout life.
2.14 Types of Personality

− The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a set of psychometric questionnaire designed to weigh
psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The Myers
Briggs model of personality developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, is
established on four preferences namely −
1. Types of social interaction
2. Preference for gathering data
3. Preference for decision making
4. Style of decision making
− With respect to the prescribed Myers Briggs type of indicator, preferences include eight
leadership styles −
1. E or I (Extraversion or Introversion)
2. S or N (Sensing or iNtuition)
3. T or F (Thinking or Feeling)
4. J or P (Judgment or Perception)
− We combine the bias to give our Myers Briggs personality type. Say for example, our preferences
is for E and S and T and J, so it leads to personality type of ESTJ. In the same way, there are
sixteen Myers Briggs personality types that can be generated by combining these four letters
together.
− When we put these four letters together, we get our personality type code, and there are sixteen
combinations. For example, INTJ implies that we prefer Introversion, Intuition, Thinking and

Judging (remember, this implies preferences only - an INTJ also uses Extraversion, Sensing,
Feeling and Perception).
Types of Social Interaction:

− The way a person communicates with people around and links with others socially is called
social interaction. Who are we, how do we communicate with people? In order to answer these
question we classify individuals and their preferences to direct their energy into two types
Extraversion & Extrovert, Introversion & Introvert.
Extraversion or Extrovert:
− If people prefer to direct their energy to cope with others, things, situations, or "the outer world",
then their preference is for Extraversion.
− An extrovert is an outgoing, socially confident person. This is denoted by the letter "E".
Introversion or Introvert:
− If people prefer to direct their energy to deal with ideas, information, explanations, beliefs, or
"the inner world", then their preference is for Introversion.
− An introvert is a shy and reticent person. This is denoted by the letter "I".
− For example − Archana is a nerdy girl and takes time to mingle up with others and is considered
as an introvert while Alka is a very outgoing person and gels easily with everyone, so she is
considered as an extrovert.
− Preference for Gathering Data:

− Everything we see, we hear we process them in our brains. Now how do we prefer to process
information? On what basis? To answer this question, we need to understand how to we choose
to transform our information.
− We can collect information in two different ways, using two different information gathering
functions − Sensing and Intuition.
Sensing:
− If we choose to deal with facts, what we know, to have clarity or to describe what we see, then
our preference is for Sensing.
− This is denoted by the letter "S".
Intuition:
− If we choose to deal with ideas, look into the unknown, to generate new possibilities or to
engage what isn't obvious, then our preference is for Intuition.
− This is denoted by the letter "N" (the letter I has already been used for Introversion).
− For example − If I say that I believe something good is going to happen then it is just an intuition
as I am basing my statement without any evidence rather on just a feeling. However, when I say
that according to today’s weather forecast it is going to rain, then this is sensing as I have an
evidence to support my statement.
Preference for Decision Making:

− There are two main types of functions through which we prefer to make our decisions.
Thinking:
− If we choose to decide on the basis of objective logic, using an analytic and detached path, then
our preference is for Thinking. This is denoted by the letter "T".
Feeling:

− If we prefer to decide using values or our personal beliefs, on the basis of what we believe is
important or what we or others care about, then our preference is for Feeling. This is denoted
by the letter "F".
− For example − If I get Rs. 500 lying on the road and I think as I got it, it’s mine then it is my
thinking. However, if I think it’s not right to keep others money and decide to donate it then it is
considered as a feeling.
− Style of Decision Making:

− Style of decision making is nothing but the way we prefer to organize our life. It is done by either
Perceiving or by Judging.
Perceiving:
− If we prefer to go with the flow, to maintain flexibility and respond to things as they arise in the
first place, then our preference is for Perception. This is denoted by the letter "P".
Judging:
− If we prefer our life to be planned, stable and organized then our preference is for Judging (here
it is not to be confused with being 'Judgmental', which is quite different). This is denoted by the
letter "J".
− For example − Mona gets a job and decides since she has got a job she need not worry about
anything else. This attitude is perceiving. On the other hand, Tina aims for bank PO exam and
plans her life where all her actions will help her achieve her dream job. This attitude is judging.
2.15 Factors influencing the personality

− There are several factors that influence the shaping of our personality. By observing the
behaviour of a person, we can understand which behaviour has what influence on the
personality characteristics of an individual.
Heredity:
− Some characteristics of our behaviour are genetic, which we inherit. Some of the traits like
physical height, slimness, dexterity, intellectual capacity, ability to learn, logical power, etc. are
also inherited. All these have a significant influence on our behavioural patterns.
Family background:

− The socio-economic status of the family, education of the parents, and other family members
shape the personality of an individual to a considerable extent. In fact, family members
themselves try to influence the behaviour of children in a desperate attempt to personify their
own values, roles, etc.
Nature of people with whom we interact:
− People influence each other and such influences shape the personality. For this reason, we
often say that one’s personality is constantly evolving and is shaped throughout one’s life.
Culture:
− Culture shapes our personal values and predispositions. It is the unique characteristic of a
social group. The values and norms shared by its member’s sets it apart from other social
groups. The essence of culture is the collective programming of the mind.
− According to anthropological concepts, culture relates to a shared system of beliefs, attitudes,
possessions, attributes, customs, and values that define group behaviour. Values are
assumptions about ‘how things ought to be’ in the group. Thus, culture plays a significant role
in influencing the behaviour of an individual.
2.16 Theories of Personality

− A theory is a simple model of reality that helps us understand, explain, predict and deal with
reality. We have some theories that explain an individual’s personality.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
− This theory is based on the belief that man is encouraged more by unforeseen forces than the
conscious and logical thought. Freud believed that most of the things in life are not present at
the conscious level but they are present at an unconscious level.
− The features of Freud’s theory include three attributes − Id, Ego, and Superego.
Id − It defines the innate component of personality. It is the impulsive and unconscious part of
mind that seeks immediate satisfaction. Example − A hungry baby cries till he/she is fed.
Ego − It is derived from Id and assists in dealing with the external world. It also helps in
translating the inner needs into expressions. It deals with practical and rational thinking
process. Example − We have a fight with our friend and expect the friend to talk first, even
though both of us want to talk.
Superego − It is different from ego and is partially unconscious. It includes the traditional values
of society as interpreted by our parents. It also helps in the integral vision of punishment.
Example − Ram came late today so he is grounded for a week.
Erikson’s Theory
− This theory states that personality is groomed throughout lifetime. He presents eight distinct
stages each with two possible outcomes. Successful completion of each stage leads to a
healthy personality. These stages are −
Infancy − It is the period between 0-1 years of age. In this stage, children learn the ability to trust
others depending on their caregivers. Unsuccessful completion in this stage results in anxiety
and insecurity. Example − Children of this age are more comfortable with those faces they see
more often and not with strangers.
Early Childhood − It is the period between 1-3 years of age. In this stage, children learn to be
independent. If given support, they become more confident else they become dependent over
others. Example − Children in this age are taught how to walk, how to talk etc.

Play Age − It is the period between 3-6 years of age. In this stage, children assert themselves
frequently. The failure leads to development of a sense of guilt among them. Example − Children
in this age group, need to be taught how to behave and should be taught to be focused.
School Age − It is the period between 6 years of age till puberty. In this stage, children become
more innovative. They feel confident and want to achieve their goals. If not encouraged they
may feel inferior. Example − Teenagers should be protected and parents need to understand
them and should handle them patiently.
Adolescence − This stage is a transformation from childhood to adulthood. Here children find
their own identity and should be guided and supported in order to help them choose the right
direction. Example − Decision such as which stream to choose science or commerce etc.
happens during this stage.
Young Childhood − This stage is also known as young adulthood. Here, they begin to open up
and become more intimate with others. Example − Making close friends.
Adulthood − In this stage, they focus on establishing career and settling down with relationships
that are important. Example − Applying for jobs.
Mature Adulthood − In this stage, a person is old and thus in this stage the productivity slows
down. Example − Taking care of the family
Sheldon’s Physiognomy Theory

− This theory was proposed by William Sheldon. He presents personalities by classifying
individuals into convenient categories based on their body shapes. They are −
o Endomorphs
o Mesomorphs
o Ectomorphs
Endomorphs
− In this category, the body is soft and spherical. People with this kind of personality love comfort,
eat a lot, like to be around people and desire affection. Some common endomorph features are
large amount of fat accumulation, insatiable appetite, larger frame etc.
− Some endomorph personalities are John Goodman, Jack Black etc.
Mesomorphs
− In this category, the body is hard and rectangular physique. People with this kind of personality
like to take risk, are courageous and have power. Some common mesomorph features are wide
shoulders, small waist, low body fat.
− Some mesomorph personalities are Jennifer Garner, Tina Turner etc.
Ectomorphs
− In this category, the body is fragile, flat chest and delicate body. People with this kind of
personality are anxious, ambitious and dedicated. Some common ectomorph features are
narrow frame, low body fat, etc.
− Some notable ectomorph personalities are Brad Pitt, Bruce Lee etc.
2.17 Value and Type of Value

− Values defined in Organizational Behavior as the collective conceptions of what is considered
good, desirable, and proper or bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture.
− According to M. Haralambos, “A value is a belief that something is good and desirable”.

− According to R.K. Mukherjee, “Values are socially approved desires and goals that are
internalized through the process of conditioning, learning or socialization and that become
subjective preferences, standards, and aspirations”.
− According to T. W. Hippie, “Values are conscious or unconscious motivators and justifiers of
the actions and judgment”
− Thus, values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper or
bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture.
− Familiar examples of values are wealth, loyalty, independence, equality, justice, fraternity and
friendliness.
− There are two types of values;
1. Terminal Values.
2. Instrumental Values.
Terminal Values
− These are values that we think are most important or most desirable.
− These refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals a person would like to achieve during
his or her lifetime.
− They include happiness, self-respect, recognition, inner harmony, leading a prosperous life, and
professional excellence.
Instrumental Values
− Instrumental values deal with views on acceptable modes of conductor means of achieving the
terminal values.
− These include being honest, sincere, ethical, and being ambitious. These values are more
focused on personality traits and character.
− The values a person holds will affect his or her employment.

− For example, someone who has an orientation toward strong stimulation may pursue extreme
sports and select an occupation that involves fast action and high risks, such as firefighter,
police officer, or emergency medical doctor.
− Someone who has a drive for achievement may more readily act as an entrepreneur.
2.18 Learning
− Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect
experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and
experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively
permanent.
− Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
- Stephen P. Robbins
− Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less permanently, by what
he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes. - Munn N.L.
− Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentially that results
from reinforced practice or experience. - Steers and Porter

2.19 Types of Learner
− There are following types of learners:
1. Visual Learners
2. Auditory Learners
3. Kinesthetic Learners
Visual Learners:
− Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
− They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
Auditory Learners:
− Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
− They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you say.
− They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve heard.
Kinesthetic Learners
− Kinesthetic learners learn better by doing
− This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
− They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they think
in terms of physical action.
2.20 Learning Process

− The learning process has the following steps:
1. Stimuli
2. Attention
3. Recognition
4. Translation
5. Reinforcement
6. Behavior
7. Reward
8. Habits
9. Motives
10. Efforts
Stimuli
− Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get stimuli
from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay attention to
these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.
Attention
− The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention to.
Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented stimuli are generally
accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to learn,
motives for need fulfilment and tension reduction.
Recognition
− Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable factors of improvement and new life styles.
Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising the stimuli for learning purposes. The
levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the
employees.
Translation
− The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in
behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes,
objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.
Reinforcement
− Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention,
recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not
learning unless it is reinforced.
− Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be positive, negative, punishment and
extinction. Learners learn as per their perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is
more effective for making permanent changes in behaviour.
Behavior
− Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes
permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning. Positive
behaviour gives rewards to employees.
Reward
− Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it is
accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits. Rewards
may be monetary or non-monetary.
Habits
− A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement in
behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of selfappraisal and development. It
helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave properly
again and again.
Motives
− Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction through
learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete
only when motives are fully realised and translated into efforts.
Efforts

− Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts are
the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. Self-
development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop themselves are self-
motivated and effort-oriented.
2.21 Learning Theories

− Theories of Learning
1. Classical conditioning theory
2. Operant conditioning theory
3. Cognitive learning theory
4. Social learning theory
Classical conditioning theory
− Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus when
paired with an unconditional stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a
conditioned response.
− Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist (Nobel Peace Prize) developed classical conditioning
theory of learning based on his experiments to teach a dog to salivate in response to the ringing
of a bell.
− When Pavlov presented meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of
salivation (conditioned response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was noticed in
the dog.
− Then, when next Pavlov did was to accompany the offering of meat to the dog along with ringing
up of bell.
− He did this several times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now,
the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang.
− After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no meat were
presented. In effect, the dog had learned to respond i.e. to salivate to the bell.
− Pavlov concluded that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (response) to the
sound of the bell (stimulus). It will be seen that Classical Conditioning learning can take place
amongst animals based on stimulus-response (SR) connections.
− This stimulus-response connection (S-R) can be applied in management to assess
organizational behavior. Historically when a CEO visits an organization, production charts are
updated, individuals put on a good dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are washed.
What all one has to do is to just say that the Top Boss is visiting.
− You will find that all the above work is undertaken (response) without any instructions. Because
the people in the organization have learned the behaviour (conditioned). It has caused a
permanent change in the organization (S-R connections).
Operant Conditioning
− Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a consequence of behaviour
Response-Stimulus (R-S). In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a
consequence of many stimulus situations.
− Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences.
− People learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don’t want.
− Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior.
− The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.
− Reinforcement therefore strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be repeated.
− This Response-Stimulus (R-S) can be applied in management to assess organizational
behavior. From an organisational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment will
elicit a response. The consequence of such a response will determine the nature of the future
response.
− For example, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the person to keep
working hard in the future.
Cognitive Learning Theory

− Behaviourists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning through operant and classical
conditioning would be explained without reference to internal mental processes.
− Today, however, a growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental processes. They
choose to broaden the study of learning theories to include such cognitive processes as thinkin,
knowing, problem-solving, remembering and forming mental representations.
− According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more complete,
more comprehensive view of learning.
Social Learning Theory

− Albert Bandura contends that many behaviours or responses are acquired through
observational learning. Observational learning, sometimes called modelling, results when we
observe the behaviours of others and note the consequences of that behaviour.
− Social learning theory is a behavioral approach. The approach basically deals with learning
process based on direct observation and the experience.
− Social learning theory integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognises
that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli (classical and operant
conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views.
− Usually, the following four processes determine the influence that a model will have on an
individual:
1. Attention Process
2. Retention Process
3. Motor Reproduction Process
4. Reinforcement Process
− Management of human resource plays a dominant role in the growth of an organization. Various
material inputs in the organization can be put to its optimum utilization if the employees display
a positive attitude towards organizational systems, processes, activities and have appropriate
interpersonal behavior.
2.22 Oraisatinal Behaviour Modification Technique

− Modern behaviorists lay great emphasis on operant conditioning for molding behaviour of
individuals and motivating them. Behaviour modification, popularly known as OB MOD makes
use of various reinforcements to influence the behaviour of individuals. OB Mod is derived and

developed from the work of B.F. Skinner. This technique helps the managers in modifying or
eliminating undesirable behaviour and replacing it with behaviour that is more compatible with
goal attainment.
− OB Mod in simple words can be defined as a technique for modifying the modifying or behaviour
of the organisational members so that they are engaged in desirable undesirable behaviour and.
replacing it with behaviour. It can be used for motivating the employees as well as for enhancing
organisational effectiveness.
− According to Stephen P. Robbins: “OB Mod is a programme where managers identify
performance related employee behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to
strengthen desirable behaviour and weaken undesirable behaviours.”
A-B-C’s Of Behaviour Modification:
− Behaviour modification as has been just explained helps the manager in eliminating or
modifying undesirable behaviour and replacing it with behaviour that’s more compatible. It
further helps us to understand how environmental contingencies influence behaviour.
− There can be two contingencies of behaviour:
− (i) The Antecedents. These are the events preceding the behaviour.
− (ii) The consequences i.e. the events that follow a particular behaviour.
− Both these variables put together form the A-B-C model.
− The main aim of this model is to change Behaviour by managing its antecedents and
consequences as is shown in the following diagram:
2.23 Emotio and Emotional Labour
− In our analysis, we’ll need three terms that are closely intertwined: affect, emotions, and moods.
− Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings, including both emotions and
moods.
− Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something.
− Moods are less intense feelings than emotions and often arise without a specific event acting
as a stimulus.

− There are dozens of emotions, including anger,contempt(તિરસ્કાર), enthusiasm, envy (ઈર્ષ્ાચ),
fear, frustration, disappointment, embarrassment, disgust, happiness, hate, hope, jealousy, joy,
love, pride, surprise, and sadness.
− we will classify emotions into two categories: positive and negative.
− Positive emotions— such as joy and gratitude—express a favorable evaluation or feeling.
− Negative emotions— such as anger and guilt—express the opposite.
− Keep in mind that emotions can’t be neutral.
− Emotional Labor A situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions

during interpersonal transactions at work.
− If you’ve ever had a job in retail, sales, or waited on tables in a restaurant, you know the
importance of projecting a friendly demeanor (વિચન) and smiling.
− Emotional labor is a key component of effective job performance.
− We expect flight attendants to be cheerful, funeral directors to be sad, and doctors emotionally
− The way we experience an emotion is obviously not always the same as the way we show it.
− To analyze emotional labor, we divide emotions into felt or displayed emotions.
− Felt emotions are our actual emotions.

− In contrast, Displayed emotions are those the organization requires workers to show and
consider appropriate in a given job. They’re not innate; they’re learned, and they may or may not
coincide with felt emotions.
− Displaying fake emotions requires us to suppress real ones.

− Surface acting is hiding inner feelings and emotional expressions in response to display rules.
A worker who smiles at a customer even when he doesn’t feel like it is surface acting.
− Deep acting is trying to modify our true inner feelings based on display rules.
− Surface acting deals with displayed emotions, and deep acting deals with felt emotions.
− Affective Events Theory (AET) A model that suggests that workplace events cause emotional
reactions on the part of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviors.
− Affective events theory (AET) proposes that employees react emotionally to things that happen
to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction.
− Say you just found out your company is downsizing. You might experience a variety of negative
emotions, causing you to worry that you’ll lose your job. Because it is out of your hands, you feel
insecure and fearful, and spend much of your time worrying rather than working. Needless to
say, your job satisfaction will also be down.
− AET offers two important messages. First, emotions provide valuable insights into how
workplace events influence employee performance and satisfaction. Second, employees and
managers shouldn’t ignore emotions or the events that cause them, even when they appear
minor, because they accumulate.
−
2.24 Emotional Intelligence

− Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. Some
researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others
claim it's an inborn characteristic.
− The ability to express and control emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand,
interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which you could not
understand when a friend was feeling sad or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer
to this ability as emotional intelligence, and some experts even suggest that it can be more
important than IQ in your overall success in life.
− A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence.
Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.
− Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score.
On such tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors.
For example, on a statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a
test-taker might describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly
agree.
− Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing
their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated
by a third party.
− If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional,
here are two measures that might be used:
− Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an ability-based test that
measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks
designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
− Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is based on an older instrument known as
the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer
ratings of that person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is

designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong
leaders.
− There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to investigate your
emotional intelligence.
2.25 Impression Management

− We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them.
− For example, North Americans spend billions of dollars on diets, health club memberships,
cosmetics, and plastic surgery – all intended to make them more attractive to others. Being
perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in the organization.
− It might, for instance, help them initially to get the jobs they want in an organization and, once
hired, to get favorable evaluations, superior salary increases, and more rapid promotions. In a
political context, it might help sway the distribution of advantages in their favor.
− The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is
called impression management. It’s a subject that has gained the attention of OB researchers
only recently.
− Keep in mind that IM does not imply that impressions people convey are necessarily false.
− Excuses, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. Referring to the example used in Figure
you c’an actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region. But misrepresentation
can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited.
− Impression Management Techniques are;
1. Conformity.
2. Excuses.
3. Apologies.
4. Self-promotion.
5. Flattery.
6. Favors.
7. Association.
− Most of the studies undertaken to test the effectiveness of IM techniques have been limited to
determining whether IM behavior is related to job interviews success.
− Employment interviews make a particularly relevant area of study since applicants are clearly
attempting to present positive images of themselves and there are relatively objective outcome
measures. The evidence indicates that IM behavior works.
− In one study, for instance, interviewers felt that applicants for a position as a customer service
representative who used IM techniques performed better in the interview, and they seemed
somewhat more inclined to hire these people.
− Moreover, when the researchers considered applicants’ credentials, they concluded that it was
the IM techniques alone that influenced the interviewers.
− That is, it didn’t seem to matter if applicants were well or poorly qualified. If they used IM
techniques, they did better in the interview.
2.26 Individual decision making techniques

− In a practical situation, a person is different from others. That’s why different people use
different decision-making styles in the organization.

− There are two reasons for the differences between decision-making styles. The first is the way
of thinking.
− Some people are logical and rational. They process information serially. In contrast, some
people are intuitive and creative. They perceive things as a whole. The other reason addresses
a person’s tolerance for ambiguity.
− Some people have a high need to structure information in ways that minimize ambiguity, while
others can process many thoughts at the same time. Research on decision styles has identified
four different individual approaches to making decisions.
− These are Individual decision-making styles are 4 types; analytic style, conceptual style,
directive style, and behavioral style.
1. Analytic Style.
2. Conceptual Style.
3. Directive Style, and
4. Behavioral Style.
− The analytic style has a much higher tolerance for ambiguity than do directive decision-makers.
Analytic managers would be best characterized as careful decision-makers with the ability to
adapt to or cope with novel and unexpected situations.
− Individuals with conceptual styles tend to use data from multiple sources and consider many
alternatives. Their focus is on taking long-run decisions, and they are very good at finding
creative solutions to problems.
− People using a directive style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and seek rationality. They are
efficient and logical, but their efficiency concerns result in decisions made with minimal
information and with few alternatives assessed.
− Directive style makes decisions fast, and they focus on the short run.
− Lastly, behavioral style characterizes decision-makers who have a strong concern for the people
in the organization and their development. They are concerned with the well-being of their
subordinates and usually receive suggestions from others.
− Although these four decision-making styles are different, most managers have the
characteristics to fall into more than one. It is probably best to think in terms of the manager’s
dominant style and his or her backup styles.
− Some managers rely almost exclusively on their dominant style; however, more flexible
managers can make shifts ‘depending on the situation.
2.27 Reference

Contents
3.1 Organization structure ............................................................................................................. 2

3.2 Groups in organizations .......................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Influence of Group ................................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Group decision making techniques ........................................................................................ 6
3.5 Team building .......................................................................................................................... 9
3.6 Communication ..................................................................................................................... 11
3.7 Johari Window ....................................................................................................................... 12
3.8 Reference ............................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Organization structure
− A worker reports to a manager. A manager reports to a director, a director reports to a vice

president, and a vice president reports to a C-level senior leader, like a chief executive officer or
a chief administrative officer. If you’ve ever worked in a corporate setting, you’re likely to
recognize this as the basic set of layers of an organization’s structure.
− Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated.
The structure of an organization usually features six different elements:
o Work specialization
o Departmentalization
o Chain of command
o Span of control
o Centralization and decentralization
o Formalization
− An organization’s structure contains the six elements we described, and is laid out in such a
way that employees are able to, be productive, make a profit, and accomplish the organization’s
mission. Let’s take a look at some of the older, simpler organizational structures that
companies have adopted. They’re still very much in use today.
The Simple Structure

− The simple structure is aptly named because, well, there’s just not much to it. Simple structures
have
o A low degree of departmentalization
o Wide spans of control
o Centralized authority
o Little formalization
o The typical simple organization structure is flat:
− This type of organizational structure is inexpensive to maintain and accountability is very clear.
However, it’s difficult to maintain this kind of structure in any but a small organization. When
this kind of organization structure increases in size, decision making slows down and the
manager becomes overly burdened as the go-to decision maker for 50-100 people. It’s also risky
– everything depends on one person, and should that person become ill or die, it puts the
business in jeopardy.
− The simple structure is often referred to as “pre-bureaucratic,” in that it lacks a standardization
of tasks.
Unit-3 Group Behavior – Organizational Behavior
Bureaucratic Structure
− Bureaucratic organizational structures take a chapter out of researcher Max Weber’s book, with
clearly defined roles and responsibilities, hierarchical structure and respect for merit. This
organizational structure is characterized by
o Highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization
o Very formalized rules and regulations
o Functional departmentalization
o Centralized authority
o Narrow spans of control
o Decision making that follows the chain of command
− Bureaucratic organizational structures are pyramid-like, with a CEO atop the chain of command
in the corporate structure and a clear chain of command underneath. A bureaucratic
organizational structure might look like this:
− Bureaucratic organizational structures are ideal for organizations that require standardization
(think banks, government offices). They’re ideal for organizations looking for the ability to
perform standard tasks highly efficiently. Organizations with bureaucratic structures can get by
with less talented people at lower levels, because decision making almost always falls to senior
leaders.
− The Matrix Structure
− A matrix structure creates dual lines of authority and combines functional and product
departmentalization.
− Ad agencies, hospitals, universities and management consulting firms use the matrix
organizational structure. It’s easy to see why – by creating a dual reporting situation, a manager
who’s working with a company on advertising would be able to manage a team that included a
representative from each of the needed areas to get a campaign running—a graphic designer, a
space planner and so on.
− This structure allows for the efficient allocation of specialists. Information is more easily
exchanged, as the contact between the different departments is increased.
−
− The major disadvantage is the ability to get all these people moving at the same time, with clear
priorities, to deliver a solution that’s on time and on budget. It can also create power struggles,
because it tosses aside the idea of unity of command.
Modern Organizational Design

The Team Structure
− A team structure can define a whole company. Whole Foods Market boasts a team-based
organizational structure, with the teams shaped around their departments within the store—
there was a produce team, a meat team, and so on. Based on the shape of the organizational
chart in Figure 1, you can understand why Whole Foods refers to its mission statement as the
“Declaration of Interdependence.” Indeed, each of the teams is dependent on and answers to
the other members of their own team and the other teams.
Virtual Organization
− A virtual organization is a small, core organization that outsources major business functions.
Think of it as “renting” departments rather than owning them.
− The chart in Figure illustrates a typical virtual organization, which includes employees that
practice flex-time in a home office, ones that are in satellite offices domestically and
internationally, and then a group of independent contractors, telecommuters and vendors.
− The virtual organization is definitely on the other side of the spectrum from bureaucratic
organizational structure. The bureaucratic organizational structure seeks control in multiple
levels and, if there is a downfall to the virtual organizational structure, it is that there is far less
control over the different parts of the business.
3.2 Groups in organizations

− A group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come
together to achieve particular objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of action a
group takes as a family. For example: Strike.
Types of Groups
− There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and informal groups.
Let us know about these two groups.
Formal Groups
− These are the type of work groups created by the organization and have designated work
assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving
organizational goals.
− These can be further classified into two sub-groups –

o Command group − It is a group consisting of individuals who report directly to the
manager.
o Interest group − It is a group formed by individuals working together to achieve a specific
objective. Example − A group of workers working on a project and reporting to the same
manager is considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling out together is
considered as interest group or say members of a club.

Informal Groups
− These groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These can be further classified
into two sub-groups −
o Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is known as task group.
o Friendship group − Those brought together because of their shared interests or common
characteristics is known as friendship group.
3.3 Influence of Group

− There is no particular reason answering why individuals join groups. Group helps individual
to feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and be more contrary to threats.
− The following points help us understand the need of joining a group by individuals −
o Security mirrors strength in numbers. Status pinpoints a prestige that comes from
belonging to a specific group. Inclusion in a group is considered as important
because it provides recognition and status.
o Self-esteem transmits people's feelings of self-worth. Membership can sometimes
raise feelings of self-esteem like being accepted into a highly valued group.
o Affiliation with groups can meet one's social needs. Work groups significantly
contribute to meet the need for friendships and social relations.
o Groups represent power. What mostly cannot be achieved individually becomes
possible with group effort. Power might be aimed to protect themselves from
unreasonable demands. Informal groups provide options for individuals to practice
power.
o People may join a group for goal achievement. Sometimes it takes more than one
person to accomplish a particular task.
3.4 Group decision making techniques

− In order to eliminate group think and group shift from a group, we can use four different
techniques that will help us make a collaborative decision that is best for the group. These
techniques are −
o Brainstorming
o Nominal group thinking
o Didactic technique
o Delphi technique

Brainstorming
− This technique includes a group of people, mostly between five and ten in number, sitting
around a table, producing ideas in the form of free association. The main focus is on generation
of ideas and not on evaluation of these ideas.
−
− If more ideas can be originated, then it is likely that there will be a unique and creative idea
among them. All these ideas are written on the blackboard with a piece of chalk so that all the
team members can see every idea and try to improvise these ideas.
−
− Brainstorming technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively precise and can
be simply defined. A complex problem can be divided into parts and each part can be dealt with
separately at a time.
Nominal Group Thinking
− This technique is similar to brainstorming except that this approach is more structured. It
motivates individual creativity. Members form the group for namesake and operate
independently, originate ideas for solving the problem on their own, in silence and in writing.
Members do not communicate well with each other so that strong personality domination is
evaded.
− The group coordinator either collects the written ideas or writes them on a large blackboard so
that each member of the group can see what the ideas are. These ideas are further discussed
one by one in turn and each participant is motivated to comment on these ideas in order to
clarify and improve them. After all these ideas have been discussed, they are evaluated for their
merits and drawbacks and each actively participating member is needed to vote on each idea
and allot it a rank on the basis of priority of each alternative solution.
− The idea with the highest cumulative ranking is selected as the final solution to the problem.

Didactic Interaction
− This technique is applicable only in certain situations, but is an excellent method when a
situation actually demands it. The type of problem should be such that it generates output in
the form of yes or no. Say for example, a decision is to be made whether to buy or not to buy a
product, to merge or not to merge, to expand or not to expand and so on. These types of
decision requires an extensive and exhaustive discussion and investigation since a wrong
decision can have serious consequences.
− There are many advantages as well as disadvantages of this type of situation. The group that
makes the decision is divided into two sub-groups, one in favor of the “go” decision and the
opposing in favor of “no go” decision.
− The first group enlists all the “pros” of the problem solution and the second group lists all the
“cons”. These groups meet and discuss their discoveries and their reasons.
− After tiring discussions, the groups switch sides and try to find weaknesses in their own original
standpoints. This interchange of ideas and understanding of various viewpoints results in
mutual acceptance of the facts as they exist so that a solution can be put together around these
facts and ultimately a final decision is reached.
Delphi Technique
− This technique is the improvised version of the nominal group technique, except that it involves
obtaining the opinions of experts physically distant from each other and unknown to each other.
− This isolates group members from the undue influence of others. Basically, the types of
problems sorted by this technique are not specific in nature or related to a particular situation
at a given time.

− For example, the technique could be used to explain the problems that could be created in the
event of a war. The Delphi technique includes the following steps −
o The problem is first identified and a panel of experts are selected. These experts are
asked to provide potential solutions through a series of thoughtfully designed
questionnaires.
o Each expert concludes and returns the initial questionnaire.
o The results of the questionnaire are composed at a central location and the central
coordinator prepares a second set of questionnaire based on the previous answers.
o Each member receives a copy of the results accompanied by the second questionnaire.
o Members are required to review the results and respond to the second questionnaire.
The results typically trigger new solutions or motivate changes in the original ideas.
o The process is repeated until a general agreement is obtained.
3.5 Team building

− Team building is a management technique used for improving the efficiency and performance
of the workgroups through various activities. It involves a lot of skills, analysis and observation
for forming a strong and capable team. The whole sole motive here is to achieve the
organization vision and objectives.
− Forming a great team requires a lot of skills and presence of mind. Usually, some managers
specialize in team-building skills and are hired by the companies on this parameter.
− The manager responsible for team building must be able to find out the strengths and
weaknesses of the team members and create the right mix of people with different skill sets.
He must focus on developing strong interpersonal relations and trust among the team
members.
− The manager must encourage communication and interaction among the team members and
also reduce stress with the help of various team-building activities.
− He must clearly define the goals and objectives of the organization to the team members. He
must also specify the role of each member in the team to direct them towards the achievement
of the organizational goals.
Team Building Process
− Team building is not a one-time act. It is a step by step process which aims at bringing a
desirable change in the organization. Teams are usually formed for a particular task or project
and are mostly for the short term.

Advantages of Team Building
− Team building has radically evolved as a technique to develop and manage effective teams in
the workplace.
− The aim to achieve long-term organizational objectives developed the need for carrying out
team building activities frequently.
Disadvantages of Team Building
− Team building is not an easy task. A high-performance team can fulfil the organizational
objectives. However, an inefficient team can lead to wastage of time and resources of the
organization.
− Therefore, we can say that there are multiple adverse effects of team building too, which are as
follows:

3.6 Communication
− Communication is vital to organizations—it’s how we coordinate actions and achieve goals. It
is defined in Webster’s dictionary as a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
− We know that 50% to 90% of a manager’s time is spent communicating and communication
ability is related to a manager’s performance. In most work environments, a miscommunication
is an annoyance—it can interrupt workflow by causing delays and interpersonal strife. But, in
some work arenas, like operating rooms and airplane cockpits, communication can be a matter
of life and death.
− So, just how prevalent is miscommunication in the workplace? You may not be surprised to
learn that the relationship between miscommunication and negative outcomes is very strong.
The Communication Process
− Communication fulfills three main functions within an organization, including coordination,

transmission of information, and sharing emotions and feelings. All these functions are vital to
a successful organization.
− The coordination of effort within an organization helps people work toward the same goals.
Transmitting information is a vital part of this process. Sharing emotions and feelings bonds
teams and unites people in times of celebration and crisis.
− Effective communication helps people grasp issues, build rapport with coworkers, and achieve
consensus. So, how can we communicate effectively? The first step is to understand the
communication process.
− We all exchange information with others countless times each day by phone, e-mail, printed
word, and of course, in person. Let us take a moment to see how a typical communication works
using this as a guide.

− A sender, such as a boss, coworker, or customer, originates the message with a thought. For
example, the boss’s thought could be: “Get more printer toner cartridges!”
− The sender encodes the message, translating the idea into words.
− The boss may communicate this thought by saying, “Hey you guys, let’s order more printer toner
cartridges.”
− The medium of this encoded message may be spoken words, written words, or signs.
− The receiver is the person who receives the message.
− The receiver decodes the message by assigning meaning to the words.
3.7 Johari Window

− The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-
awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. This model can also
be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other groups. This model is
particularly useful in team development.
− It was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 while
researching group dynamics at the University of California Los Angeles. The model was first
published in the Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development by
UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was later expanded by Joseph Luft. Today the Johari
Window model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on, and influence of, 'soft' skills,
behaviour, empathy, cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonal development.
− This model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of "self-awareness" and by some
people an "information processing tool".
− The Johari Window actually represents information - feelings, experience, views, attitudes,
skills, intentions, motivation, etc - within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four
perspectives, which are described below.
− The model can also be used to represent the same information for a group in relation to other
groups. Terminology hereafter refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means oneself, ie, the person
subject to the analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team.
− The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of these
regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known about the
person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether
the information is known or unknown by others in the group. The four regions in the model are
outlined in detail below.

− What is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others - open area, open
self, free area, free self, or 'the arena'
− What is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know - blind area, blind self,
or 'blindspot'
− What the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden area, hidden self,
avoided area, avoided self or 'facade'
− What is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others - unknown
area or unknown self
Johari Window Model Quadrant 1

− 'Open Self/Area' or 'Free Area' or 'Public Area', or 'Arena'
− Region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the person -
behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc. - known by the
person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').
− The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person because
when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the
group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the arena', can be seen as the space
where good communications and cooperation occur, free from distractions, mistrust,
confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.
− Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members.
New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge
about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded horizontally
into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.
This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'.
− Other group members can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback,
sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically downwards into
the hidden or avoided space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc. about
him/herself to the group and group members.
− Group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the
person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating
feedback and disclosure among group members and indirectly giving feedback to individuals
about their own blind areas.
− Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest,
positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge
throughout their organization. Top-performing groups, departments, companies and
organizations always tend to have a culture of open positive communication, so encouraging
the positive development of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet
fundamental aspect of effective leadership.

− 'Blind Self' or 'Blind Area' or 'Blindspot'
− Region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the person
him/herself.
− By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to reduce this area and thereby
to increase the open area i.e, to increase self-awareness.
− This blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area
could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded.
− A blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person.
This relates to the difficulty one experiences when being "kept in the dark".
− Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to reduce
their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and encouraging
disclosure.
− Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback, and group response to
individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages both processes to happen.
− The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on which feedback is sought,
must always be at the individual's own discretion.
− Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional
upset. The process of soliciting serious and deep feedback relates to the process of 'self-
actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.

− 'Hidden Self' or 'Hidden Area' or 'Avoided Self' or 'Facade'
− Region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown, to others.
− This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc., anything that a person knows
about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others.
− The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions,
secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason.
− It is natural for very personal and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed,
certain information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should
remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or
performance-related, and so is better positioned in the open area.
− Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through the
process of 'disclosure'.
− The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and feelings - hence the Johari
Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process', thereby increasing the open area.
− By telling others how we feel and other information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area
and increase the open area, which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-
working effectiveness and productivity.
− Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor
communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team effectiveness.

− Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members'
preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and
therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc., that if moved into the open area, i.e
known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve group
awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness.
− The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues
which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. As with
feedback, some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing
emotional upset. Also as with soliciting feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates to
the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and
motivation model.

− 'Unknown Self' or 'Area of Unknown Activity' or 'Unknown Area'
− Region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that are
unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown issues
take a variety of forms:
− They can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to
the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or they can be deeper aspects of a person's
personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various degrees. Large unknown areas would
typically be expected in younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief.
− Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant and
common, especially in typical organizations and teams:
o An ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity,
encouragement, confidence or training
o A natural ability or aptitude that a person does not realise they possess
o A fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
o An unknown illness
o Repressed or subconscious feelings
o Conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood
− The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various and can
be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations through
collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery, experienced on outward bound courses
or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can also uncover unknown issues, but this
would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.
− Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends
on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as
feedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and disclosure, striving to
discover information and feelings in the unknown is related to the process of 'self-actualization'
described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and motivation model.
− Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self-discovery is a sensitive
one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown
feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion.
− Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with
developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is
not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new things,

with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities, and
thereby reduce the unknown area.
− Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery, and
to promote the processes of self-discovery, constructive observation and feedback among
team members. Creating a culture, climate and expectation for self-discovery helps people to
fulfil more of their potential and thereby to achieve more, and to contribute more to
organisational performance.
3.8 Reference

Contents
4.1 Meaning and Importance ......................................................................................................... 2

4.2 Leadership Style ....................................................................................................................... 2
4.3 Behavioural Theories................................................................................................................ 3
4.4 Fiedler model ............................................................................................................................ 4
4.5 LMX theory and Path Goal theory ........................................................................................... 6
4.6 Leaders vs Managers………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...10
4.7 Power and Politics…………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….10
4.8 References….…………………………………………………………….………….……………………………………………………..14
4.1 Meaning and Importance
 Leadership can be defined as the ability of the management to make sound decisions and
inspire others to perform well.
 It is the process of directing the behavior of others towards achieving a common goal. In short,
leadership is getting things done through others.
 Leadership is very important in a firm as it leads to higher performance by the team members,
it improves motivation and morale within the members, and helps to respond to change.
 Leadership facilitates organizational success by creating responsibility and accountability
among the members of the organization. In short, it increases value in an organization.
4.2 Leadership Style

 Different leadership styles exist in work environments. The culture and goal of an organization
determine which leadership style fits best. Some organizations offer different leadership styles
within an organization, depending on the necessary tasks to complete and departmental needs.
 We find five different leadership styles in the corporate world. They are as follows –
Laissez-Faire
 A laissez-faire leader does not directly supervise employees and fails to provide regular updates
to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and trained employees with minimal
requirement of supervision fall under the laissez-faire leadership style.
 But, not all employees possess these features. This leadership style blocks the production of
employees needing supervision. The laissez-faire style implements no leadership or supervision
efforts from managers, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing costs.
Autocratic
 The autocratic leadership style permits managers to make decisions alone without the input of
others. Managers access total authority and impose their will on employees. No one opposes
the decisions of autocratic leaders. Countries like Cuba and North Korea operate under the
autocratic leadership style.
 This leadership style benefits those who require direct supervision. Creative employees who
participate in group functions detest this leadership style.
Participative
 This is also known as the democratic leadership style. It values the input of team members and
peers, but the responsibility of making the final decision rests with the participative leader.
Participative leadership motivates employee morale because employees make contributions to
the decision-making process. It accounts to a feeling that their opinions matter.
Unit-4 Leadership and Power– Organizational Behavior
 When an organization needs to make changes within itself, that is internally, the participative
leadership style helps employees accept changes easily as they play a role in the process. This
leadership style meets challenges when companies need to make a decision in a short period
of time.
Transactional
 Transactional leadership style is formed by the concept of reward and punishment.
Transactional leaders believe that the employee's performance is completely dependent on
these two factors. When there is an encouragement, the workers put in their best effort and the
bonus is in monetary terms in most of the cases. In case they fail to achieve the set target they
are given a negative appraisal.
 Transactional leaders pay more attention to physical and security requirements of the
employees.
Transformational
 Transformational leadership has the ability to affect employee's perceptions through the
returns that organization gets in the form of human capital benefits. These leaders have the
ability to reap higher benefits by introducing knowledge management processes, encouraging
interpersonal communication among employees and creating healthy organizational culture.
 It helps in flourishing organizational innovation by creating a participative environment or
culture. It promotes a culture where the employees have autonomy to speak about their
experiences and share knowledge.
 It has been seen that transformational leaders are more innovative than transactional and
laisse-faire leaders.
4.3 Behavioural Theories

 Behavioral Leadership Theories are developed scientifically by behavior-focused studies of a
leader’s behavior in a conditioned situation that one can have a specific response to specific
stimuli.
 This behavior-focused approach provides real marketing potential.
 Behavioral Leadership Theories are developed by scientifically studying the behaviors of
leaders and the effects of them on the workforce and environment.
 Many behavioral scientists have attempted to identify appropriate behavioral patterns of
leadership styles.
 Some of the important contributions in this regard include Michigan University Studies and Ohio
State Studies.
 The behavioral scientists don’t concentrate on the traits of leaders, rather they study the
activities of leaders to identify their behavioral patterns.
Michigan Leadership Studies

 Michigan Leadership Studies is a behavioral Leadership theory that indicates the Institute for
Social Research at the University of Michigan conducted empirical studies to identify styles of
leader behavior that results in higher performance and satisfaction of a group.
 The value of Michigan Leadership Studies lies in the analysis of 2 leadership styles task and
employee-oriented styles.
 Instead of restricting to traits of leaders, they concentrated on the behavior of leaders.

Unit-4 Leadership and Power – Organizational Behavior
Ohio State Leadership Studies
 Ohio State Leadership Studies is Behavioral Leadership Theory.
 A series of studies on leadership was done by Ohio State University in 1945 to identify
observable behaviors of leaders instead of focusing on their traits.
 Ohio State Leadership Studies showed that initiating structure and consideration are two
distinct dimensions and not mutually exclusive.
 A low score on one does not require a high score on the other. Consideration is the people-
orientation and initiating structure is the task orientation.
 The Ohio State studies were conducted around the same time as the Michigan Leadership
Studies, which also identified as critical the focus on tasks and people.
4.4 Fiedler model

 The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist who
studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.
 The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness
is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors – "leadership style" and "situational
favorableness" (later called "situational control").
Leadership Style
 Identifying leadership style is the first step in using the model. Fiedler believed that leadership
style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-
Worker (LPC) Scale (see figure 1).

 The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with. This can
be a person who you've worked with in your job, or in education or training.
 You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor, and add up your scores. If your
total score is high, you're likely to be a relationship-orientated leader. If your total score is low,
you're more likely to be task-orientated leader.
 The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively, resulting in
a lower score. Fiedler called these low LPC-leaders. He said that low LPCs are very effective at
completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get tasks and projects done.
Relationship-building is a low priority.
 However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving them a
higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal connections, and
they're good at avoiding and managing conflict. They're better able to make complex decisions.
Situational Favorableness
 Next, you determine the "situational favorableness" of your particular situation. This depends
on three distinct factors:
 Leader-Member Relations – This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has in you.
A leader who is more trusted and has more influence within the group is in a more favorable
situation than a leader who is not trusted.
 Task Structure – This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or vague and
unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little knowledge of
how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.
 Leader's Position Power – This is the amount of power you have to direct the group, and provide
reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable your situation. Fiedler
identifies power as being either strong or weak.
Applying the Fiedler Contingency Model

 Step 1: Identify your leadership style
o Think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with, either now or in the past.
o Rate your experience with this person using the scale in figure 1, above. According to
this model, a higher score means that you're naturally relationship-focused, and a lower
score means that you're naturally task-focused.
 Step 2: Identify your situation
o Answer the questions:
o Are leader-member relations good or poor?
o Is the task you're doing structured, or is it more unstructured, or do you have little
experience of solving similar problems?
o Do you have strong or weak power over your team?
 Step 3: Determine the most effective leadership style
o Figure 2 shows a breakdown of all of the factors we've covered: Leader-Member
Relations, Task Structure, and Leader's Position Power. The final column identifies the
type of leader that Fiedler believed would be most effective in each situation.

 For instance, imagine that you've just started working at a new company, replacing a much-
loved leader who recently retired. You're leading a team who views you with distrust (so your
Leader-Member Relations are poor). The task you're all doing together is well defined
(structured), and your position of power is high because you're the boss, and you're able to offer
reward or punishment to the group.
 The most effective leader in this situation would be high LPC – that is, a leader who can focus
on building relationships first.
 Or, imagine that you're leading a team who likes and respects you (so your Leader-Member
relations are good). The project you're working on together is highly creative (unstructured) and
your position of power is high since, again, you're in a management position of strength. In this
situation, a task-focused leadership style would be most effective.
4.5 LMX theory and Path Goal theory

The Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Also known as LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory)
 As a manager, it's not always right to treat everyone on your team in the same way.
 For instance, you probably have team members that you've developed a great relationship with:
you trust them, they work hard, and they've never let you down. To you, these team members
are invaluable, and you make an extra effort to send challenging projects their way.
 It's also likely that you have others on your team who you think less well of. They may not have
far-reaching career goals, they're less competent, and you simply don't trust them to the same
extent. These team members get everyday responsibilities, and are not considered for
promotions or challenging assignments.
 However, have you ever stopped to analyze why you don't trust certain team members? Rightly
or wrongly, do you let that distrust, or the belief that they're unreliable, influence how you relate
to them? Do you, even subconsciously, withhold opportunities that might help them grow and
succeed?
 This situation is at the heart of the Leader-Member Exchange Theory. This theory, also known
as LMX or the Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, explores how leaders and managers develop
relationships with team members; and it explains how those relationships can either contribute
to growth or hold people back.

Understanding the Theory
 The Leader-Member Exchange Theory first emerged in the 1970s. It focuses on the relationship
that develops between managers and members of their teams.
 The theory states that all relationships between managers and subordinates go through three
stages. These are:
o Role-Taking.
o Role-Making.
o "Routinization."
 Let's look at each stage in greater detail.
Role-Taking
 Role-taking occurs when team members first join the group. Managers use this time to assess
new members' skills and abilities.
Role-Making
 New team members then begin to work on projects and tasks as part of the team. In this stage,
managers generally expect that new team members will work hard, be loyal and prove
trustworthy as they get used to their new role.
 The theory says that, during this stage, managers sort new team members (often
subconsciously) into one of two groups.
 In-Group - if team members prove themselves loyal, trustworthy and skilled, they're put into the
In-Group. This group is made up of the team members that the manager trusts the most.
Managers give this group most of their attention, providing challenging and interesting work,
and offering opportunities for additional training and advancement. This group also gets more
one-to-one time with the manager. Often, people in this group have a similar personality and
work-ethic to their manager.
 Out-Group - if team members betray the trust of the manager, or prove that they're unmotivated
or incompetent, they're put into the Out-Group. This group's work is often restricted and
unchallenging. Out-Group members tend to have less access to the manager, and often don't
receive opportunities for growth or advancement.
Routinization
 During this last phase, routines between team members and their managers are established.
 In-Group team members work hard to maintain the good opinion of their managers, by showing
trust, respect, empathy, patience, and persistence.
 Out-Group members may start to dislike or distrust their managers. Because it's so hard to
move out of the Out-Group once the perception has been established, Out-Group members may
have to change departments or organizations in order to "start over."
 Once team members have been classified, even subconsciously, as In-Group or Out-Group, that
classification affects how their managers relate to them from then on, and it can become self-
fulfilling.
 For instance, In-Group team members are often seen as rising stars and the manager trusts
them to work and perform at a high level. This is also the group that the manager talks to most,
offering support and advice, and they're given the best opportunities to test their skills and grow.
So, of course, they're more likely to develop in their roles.
 This also holds true for the Out-Group. The manager spends little, if any, time trying to support
and develop this group. They receive few challenging assignments or opportunities for training
and advancement. And, because they're never tested, they have little chance to change the
manager's opinion.
Path-Goal Leadership Theory
 The Path-Goal model is a theory based on specifying a leader's style or behavior that best fits
the employee and work environment in order to achieve a goal (House, Mitchell, 1974). The goal
is to increase your employees' motivation, empowerment, and satisfaction so they become
productive members of the organization.
 Path-Goal is based on Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory in which an individual will act in a
certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The path-goal theory was first introduced
by Martin Evans (1970) and then further developed by House (1971).
 The path-goal theory can best be thought of as a process in which leaders select specific
behaviors that are best suited to the employees' needs and the working environment so that
they may best guide the employees through their path in the obtainment of their daily work
activities (goals) (Northouse, 2013).
 While Path-Goal Theory is not a detailed process, it generally follows these basic steps as
shown in the graphic below:
o Determine the employee and environmental characteristics
o Select a leadership style
o Focus on motivational factors that will help the employee succeed

 Employees interpret their leader's behavior based on their needs, such as the degree of
structure they need, affiliation, perceived level of ability, and desire for control. For example, if
a leader provides more structure than what they need, they become less motivated. Thus, a
leader needs to understand their employees so they know how to best motivate them.
Task and Environmental Characteristics

 Overcoming obstacles is a special focus of path-goal theory. If an obstacle becomes too strong,
then the leader needs to step in and help the employee select a path to work around it. Some of
the more difficult task characteristics that often arise are:
 Design of the task - The design of the task might call for the leader's support. For example, if
the task is ambiguous, then the leader might have to give it more structure or an extremely
difficult task might call for leader support.
 Formal authority system - Depending upon the task authority, the leader can provide clear goals
and/or give the employee some or all control.
 Work group - If the team is non-supportive, then the leader needs to be cohesiveness and
espouse esprit-de-corps that provides comradeship, enthusiasm, and devotion to all team
members.
Leader Behavior or Style

 The independent variables of Path-Goal Theory are the leader's behavior — the leader adjusts
her style of behavior to the employee and task characteristics so that the employee's motivation
is to excel at their goal.
 House and Mitchell (1974) defined four types of leader behaviors or styles: Directive,
Supportive, Participative, and Achievement (explained in detail below). They are based on two
factors that were identified by an Ohio State University study behaviors (Stogdill, 1974):
 Consideration - relationship behaviors, such as respect and trust.
 Initiating Structure - task behaviors, such as organizing, scheduling, and seeing that work is
completed.
 The first behavior listed below, Directive, is based on initiating structure. The other three
(achievement, participative, and supportive) are based upon consideration.
The four path-goal types of leader behaviors are:

 Directive: The leader informs her followers on what is expected of them, such as telling them
what to do, how to perform a task, and scheduling and coordinating work. It is most effective
when people are unsure about the task or when there is a lot of uncertainty within the
environment.
 Supportive: The leader makes work pleasant for the workers by showing concern for them and
by being friendly and approachable. It is most effective in situations in which tasks and
relationships are physically or psychologically challenging.
 Participative: The leader consults with his followers before making a decision on how to
proceed. It is most effective when subordinates are highly trained and involved in their work.
 Achievement: The leader sets challenging goals for her followers, expects them to perform at
their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. It is most
effective in professional work environments, such as technical, scientific; or achievement
environments, such as sales.
 The leaders' behavior is not set in stone, as there are other leadership styles that may be used
depending upon the situation. For example, House (1996) defined four other behaviors:
o Work Facilitation
o Group Oriented Decision Process
o Work Group Representation and Networking
o Value Based
4.6 Leaders vs Managers
 A leader is someone whom people follow or someone who guides or directs others. A manager
is someone who is responsible for directing and controlling the work and staff in an
organization, or of a department within it.
 The main difference between the two is that a leader works by example, while a manager
dictates expectations. If a manager goes against the rules, that will tarnish his position as a
manager. If a leader goes against the example he or she is trying to set, that will be seen as a
setback. Following are a few subtle differences between the two –
o A leader is an innovator and creator whereas a manager is a commander.
o A leader can’t be a manager but the opposite is possible, a manager is more than a
leader.
o A leader does what is right, while the manager makes things right.
o A leader deals with change whereas a manager plans for a change.
o A leader gives direction to do something whereas the manager plans for everything that
is to be done.
o A leader encourages people whereas the manager controls people.
o A leader handles communication, credibility, and empowerment whereas a manager
deals with organizing and staffing.
4.7 Power and Politics

 Generally, power is the ability to cause or prevent an action, make things happen; the discretion
to act or not act.
 Ability conferred on a person by law to determine and alter (by his or her own will) the rights,
duties, liabilities, and other legal relations, of himself or others. The ability to do something or
act in a particular way, especially as a faculty or quality.
 The capacity or ability to direct or influence the behavior of others or the course of events.
“Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts following A’s
wishes”.
 According to Kingsley Davis, “Power as the determination of the behavior of others following
one’s own ends.1‘
 According to Sheriff, “Power denotes the relative Weights of behavior by a member in a group
structure.”
 According to Weber, “Power as the probability that one actor (individual or group) within a social
relationship in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on
which this probability rests”.
 According to Green, “Power is simply the extent of the capability to control others so that they
will do what they are wanted to do.”
 According to Lundberg and others, “By power, we mean the extent to which persons or groups
can limit or regulate the alternative courses of action open to other persons or groups with or
without their consent.”
 According to Michel Foucault. “Power is a complex strategic situation in a given society social
setting”.
 According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, “The ability to attain these unique
powers is what enables leaders to influence subordinates and peers by controlling
organizational resources.”
 Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, capacity or potential. One can have power but
not impose it. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of
dependency.
 The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, in
turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the
alternative(s) that A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls
something you desire. (Robbins, 2003)
 Organizational power is defined as the ability of the organization structure to utilize all the
mandatory resources in favor of organization development such as man, machine and other
resources.
 Power is not uniformly distributed to all levels in the organization; however, it is confined to
certain departments or groups of people depending on the level of responsibility and seniority.
 The motive of assigning power to these levels is to streamline the underlying activities by
designing work structures, circulars, policies, and their successful implementation for the
success of the organization.
Sources of Power
 Power refers to the possession of authority and influence over others. Power is a tool that,
depending on how it’s used, can lead to either positive or negative outcomes in an organization.
 Where does power come from?
 What is it that gives an individual or a group influence over others?
 We answer these questions by dividing the bases or sources of power into two general
groupings – formal and personal – and then breaking each of these down into more specific
categories.
 In 1959, American sociologists John French and Bertram Raven published an article, “The Bases
of Power”, that is regarded as the basis for classifying power in organizations. They identified
some sources of power.
 10 sources of power are;
o Formal Power.
o Legitimate Power.
o Expert Power.
o Referent Power.
o Coercive Power.
o Reward Power.
o Informational Power.
o Connection Power.
o Political Power.
o Charismatic Power.
Let’s explain 10 sources of power.

Formal Power
 Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. Formal power can come
from the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authority, or the control of information.
 The formal power is based on rank—for example, the fire chief or the captain.
Legitimate Power
 In the formal groups and organizations, probably the most frequent access to one or more of
the power bases is one’s structural position. This is called legitimate power.
 Legitimate power is also known as positional power. It’s derived from the position a person
holds in an organization’s hierarchy.
 Job descriptions, for example, require junior workers to report to managers and give managers
the power to assign duties to their juniors. For positional power to be exercised effectively, the
person wielding it must be deemed to have earned it legitimately.
 An example of legitimate power is held by a company’s CEO.
Expert Power
 Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. Expert
power is derived from possessing knowledge or expertise in a particular area.
 Such people are highly valued by organizations for their problem-solving skills.
 People who have expert power perform critical tasks and are therefore deemed indispensable.
The opinions, ideas, and decisions of people with expert power are held in high regard by other
employees and hence greatly influence their actions.
 Possession of expert power is normally a stepping stone to other sources of power such as
legitimate power.
 For example, a person who holds expert power can be promoted to senior management, thereby
giving him legitimate power.
Referent Power
 Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or
personal traits.
 If I like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you.
It is derived from the interpersonal relationships that a person cultivates with other people in
the organization.
 People possess reference power when others respect and like them. Referent power is also
derived from personal connections that a person has with key people in the organization’s
hierarchy, such as the CEO.
 It’s the perception of the personal relationships that she has that generates her power over
others.
Coercive Power
 Coercive power is derived from a person’s ability to influence others via threats, punishments
or sanctions.
 A junior staff member may work late to meet a deadline to avoid disciplinary action from his
boss. Coercive power is, therefore, a person’s ability to punish fire or reprimand another
employee.
 Coercive power helps control the behavior of employees by ensuring that they adhere to the
organization’s policies and norms.

Reward Power
 The opposite of coercive power is reward power. People comply with the wishes or directives
of another because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute
rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others.
 These rewards can be either financial – such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses; or
nonfinancial – including merit recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly
colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.
 In an organization, people who wield reward power tend to influence the actions of other
employees. Reward power, if used well, greatly motivates employees.
 But if it’s applied through favoritism, reward power can greatly demoralize employees and
diminish their output.
Informational Power
 Informational power is where a person possesses needed or wanted information. It comes from
access to and control over information. This is a short-term power that doesn’t necessarily
influence or build credibility.
 For example, a project manager may have all the information for a specific project and that will
give him/her “informational power.”
 But it’s hard for a person to keep this power for long, and eventually, this information will be
released.
 This should not be a long-term strategy.
Connection Power
 It is where a person attains influence by gaining favor or simply acquaintance with a powerful
person.
 This power is all about networking. If I have a connection with someone that you want to get to,
that’s going to give me power.
 People employing this power build important coalitions with others. It is a natural ability to forge
such connections with individuals and assemble them into coalitions that give him/her strong
connection power.
Political Power
 This power comes from the support of a group. It arises from a leader’s ability to work with
people and social systems to gain their allegiance and support.
 It develops in all the state-owned organizations, especially when a certain political party holds
power and their supporters show power in many aspects in the organizations.
 By using political power, leaders can influence others and get some facilities from the
organization.
Charismatic Power
 Charismatic power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality
and interpersonal style.
 Charismatic leaders get others to follow them because they can articulate an attractive vision,
take personal risks, demonstrate environmental and follower sensitivity, and are willing to
engage in behavior that most others consider unconventional.
 But many organizations will have people with charismatic qualities who, while not in formal
leadership positions, nevertheless can exert influence over others because of the strength of
their heroic qualities.
 The above-mentioned bases/types of power are normally practiced in many organizations.

 But, indeed, all the powers are not seen in a single organization. The uses of powers vary
organization to organization, time to time, person to person, situation to situation, etc.
Politics:
 Politics is the making of a common decision for a group of people, that is, a uniform decision
applying in the same way to all members of the group. It also involves the use of power by one
person to affect the behavior of another person.
 More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance organized control
over a human community, particularly a state.
 Furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within
a given community as well as the interrelationship(s) between communities.
 A variety of methods are employed in politics, which include promoting or forcing one’s own
political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and
exercising force, including warfare against adversaries.
 Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional
societies, through modem local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign
states, to the international level. It is very often said that politics is about power.
 A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given
society.
 History of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as
Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics and the works of Confucius. Formal Politics refers to the
operation of a constitutional system of government and publicly defined institutions and
procedures.
 Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the
category of Formal Politics. Informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising
power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals.
What is Organizational Politics?

 Organizational politics are informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts to sell
ideas, influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted objectives.
 Politics has been around for millennia. Aristotle wrote that politics stems from a diversity of
interests, and those competing interests must be resolved in some way. “Rational” decision
making alone may not work when interests are fundamentally incongruent, so political
behaviors and influence tactics arise.
 Organizational politics refers to intentional behaviors that are designed to enhance or protect a
person’s influence and self-interest used professionally, these behaviors may help attain a well-
earned promotion, sell higher management on the merits of a proposal that will expand one’s
responsibilities and resources, or gain personal visibility.
 Other employees, however, choose either to avoid politics at all cost or to use politics in a self-
serving, manipulative, and deceitful fashion. The risk is that unscrupulous employees involved
in organizational politics might put their self-interest above that of their employer in their
attempts to gain political power for short-term or long-term benefits.
4.8 Reference
Contents
5.1 Organizational Culture ............................................................................................................. 2

5.2 Characteristics of Organizational Culture .............................................................................. 3
5.3 Types of Organization Culture ................................................................................................ 4
5.4 Organizational Climate ............................................................................................................ 6
5.5 Factors affecting Organizational Climate .............................................................................. 6
5.6 Job Satisfaction……..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7
5.7 Importance of Job Satisfaction…………………………………………………………………………………………………9
5.8 Factors affecting Job Satisfaction……………………………………………………………………………………………9
5.9 Stress …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...9
5.10 Reducing Workplace Stress……………………………………………………………………………………………………..10
5.11 Kurt Lewin’s–three step model…………………………………………………………………………………………………11
5.12 Reference ............................................................................................................................... 13
5.1 Organizational Culture
− The unique personality of an organization is referred to as its culture.

− In groups of people who work together, organizational culture is an invisible but powerful force
that influences the behavior of the members of that group.
− There seems to be wide agreement that organizational culture refers to a system of shared
meaning held by members that distinguish the organization from other organizations.
− Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs, which governs
how people behave in organizations. Organizational culture includes an organization’s
expectations, experiences, philosophy, and values that hold it together, and is expressed in its
self-image, inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and future expectations.
− It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and written and unwritten rules that have been
developed over time and are considered valid.
− These shared values have a strong influence on the people in the organization and dictate how
they dress, act, and perform their jobs.
− Every organization develops and maintains a unique culture, which provides guidelines and
boundaries for the behavior of the members of the organization.
Organizational culture/corporate culture includes-

o The ways the organization conducts its business, treats its employees, customers, and
the wider community,
o The extent to which freedom is allowed in decision making, developing new ideas, and
personal expression,
o How power and information flow through its hierarchy, and
o How committed employees are towards collective objectives.
− Many Scholars had given the definition of organizational culture. Some of the popular
definitions are given below:
− According to Robbie Katanga, “Organizational Culture is how organizations do things.”
− According to Alec Haverstick, “In large part, Organizational culture is a product of
compensation.”
− According to Bruce Perron, “Organizational culture defines a jointly shared description of an
organization from within.”
− According to Richard Perrin, “Organizational culture is the sum of values and rituals which serve
as a glue to integrate the members of the organization.”
− According to Alan Adler, “Organizational culture is civilization in the workplace.”
− According to Elizabeth Skringar, “Organizational culture is shaped by the main culture of the
society we live in, albeit with greater emphasis on particular parts of it.”
− According to Abdi Osman Jama, “An organization is a living culture that can adapt to the reality
4s fast as possible.”

Unit-5 Dynamics of Organizational Behavior
− Organizational, culture affects the organization’s productivity and performance and provides
guidelines on customer care and service, product quality and safety, attendance and
punctuality, and concern for the environment.
− It also extends to production methods, marketing, and advertising practices, and to new product
creation.
− Organizational culture is unique for every organization and one of the hardest things to change.
Corporate culture reflects the values, beliefs, and attitudes that permeate a business.
5.2 Characteristics of Organizational Culture

− As individuals come into contact with organizations, they come into contact with dress norms,
stories people tell about what goes on, the organization’s formal rules and procedures, its
formal codes of behavior, rituals, tasks, pay systems, jargon, and jokes only understood by
insiders and so on.
− Organizational culture is composed of seven characteristics that range in priority from high to
low. Every organization has a distinct value for each of these characteristics.
− Members of organizations make judgments on the value their organization places on these
characteristics, and then adjust their behavior to match this perceived set of values.
− Characteristics of organizational culture are;
o Innovation (Risk Orientation).
o Attention to Detail (Precision Orientation).
o Emphasis on Outcome (Achievement Orientation).
o Emphasis on People (Fairness Orientation).
o Teamwork (Collaboration Orientation).
o Aggressiveness (Competitive Orientation).
o Stability (Rule Orientation).
Innovation (Risk Orientation)

− Companies with cultures that place a high value on innovation encourage their employees to
take risks and innovate in the performance of their jobs.
− Companies with cultures that place a low value on innovation expect their employees to do their
jobs the same way that they have been trained to do them, without looking for ways to improve
their performance.

Attention to Detail (Precision Orientation)
− This characteristic of organizational culture dictates the degree to which employees are
expected to be accurate in their work.
− A culture that places a high value on attention to detail expects its employees to perform their
work with precision. A culture that places a low value on this characteristic does not.
Emphasis on Outcome (Achievement Orientation)

− Companies that focus on results, but not on how the results are achieved, place a high emphasis
on this value of organizational culture.
− A company that instructs its sales force to do whatever it takes to get sales orders has a culture
that places a high value on the emphasis on outcome characteristics.
Emphasis on People (Fairness Orientation)

− Companies that place a high value on this characteristic of organizational culture place a great
deal of importance on how their decisions will affect the people in their organizations.
− For these companies, it is important to treat their employees with respect and dignity.’
Teamwork (Collaboration Orientation)

− Companies that organize work activities around teams instead of individuals place a high value
on this characteristic of the organizational culture.
− People who work for these types of companies tend to have a positive relationship with their
coworkers and managers.
Aggressiveness (Competitive Orientation)

− This characteristic of organizational culture dictates whether group members are expected to
be assertive or easygoing when dealing with companies they compete within the marketplace.
− Companies with an aggressive culture place a high value on competitiveness and
outperforming the competition at all costs.
Stability (Rule Orientation)

− A company whose culture places a high value on stability is rule-oriented, predictable, and
bureaucratic in nature. These types of companies typically provide consistent and predictable
levels of output and operate best in non-changing market conditions.
− These are the seven characteristics that are common in the context of organizational culture.
− Of course, it is true that the characteristics are not the same in all times and spheres.
5.3 Types of Organization Culture

− The culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are −
o Mechanistic and Organic culture
o Authoritarian and Participative culture
o Subculture and Dominant culture
o Strong and Weak culture
o Entrepreneurial and Market culture
Mechanistic and Organic Culture

− Mechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures. Everything
needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility and concerned

authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction given by the
organization. Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic culture.
− Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus there exists
a high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in the company. It has a
systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of communication. Some key
elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility, accountability and direct flow
towards the employee.
Authoritarian and Participative Culture

− Authoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top level
management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no employee
involvement in the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The authority demands
obedience from the employee and warns them for punishment in case of mistake or irregularity.
This type of culture is followed by military organization.
− In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal shaping
process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In this type of
culture, employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with group decision making,
group problem solving process is also seen here.
Subculture and Dominant Culture

− In subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all
members. It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an
organization. Every department in a company have their own culture that gets converted to a
subculture. So, the strength and adaptability of an organizational culture is dependent on the
success of subculture.
− In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The
success of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that is, the
mixture of different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a dominant
culture and a minor culture can also be seen.
Strong and Weak Culture

− In a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness towards the
organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they do and they slave
towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception and commitment are two
aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture, there is less employee turnover and
high productivity.
− In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty towards
the company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two aspects of this
culture.
Entrepreneurial and Market Culture

− Entrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show their
innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations make the goal
easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The organization rewards the
employees for better performance.
− Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and completely
profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and the organization is to
achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not motivating.

5.4 Organizational Climate
− The concept of organisational climate was formally introduced by the human relationists in the
late 1940s. Now it has become a very useful metaphor for thinking about and describing the
social system. Organisational climate is also referred to as the “situational determinants” or
“Environmental determinants” which affect the human behaviour.
− Some persons have used organisational culture and organisational climate interchangeably.
But there are some basic differences between these two terms. According to Bowditch and
Buono, “Organisational culture is connected with the nature of beliefs and expectations about
organisational life, while climate is an indicator of whether these beliefs and expectations are
being fulfilled.”
− Climate of an organisation is somewhat like the personality of a person. Just as every individual
has a personality that makes him unique and different from other persons. Each organisation
has an organisational climate that clearly distinguishes it from other organisations.
− Basically, the organisational climate reflects a person’s perception of the organisation to which
he belongs. It is a set of unique characteristics and features that are perceived by the employees
about their organisations which serves as a major force in influencing their behaviour. Thus,
organisational climate in a broad sense, can be understood as the social setting of the
organisation.
− “Climate in natural sense is referred to as the average course or condition of the weather at a
place over a period of years as exhibited by temperature, wind, velocity and precipitation.”
− However, it is quite difficult to define organisational climate incorporating the characteristics
of natural climate. This is so because the most frustrating feature of an attempt to deal with
situational variables in a model of management performance is the enormous complexity of
the management itself. People have defined organisational climate on the basis of its potential
properties. A few important definitions are as given below.
− According to Forehand and Gilmer, “Climate consists of a set of characteristics that describe
an organisation, distinguish it from other organisations are relatively enduring over time and
influence the behaviour of people in it.”
− According to Campbell, “Organisational climate can be defined as a set of attributes specific to
a particular organisation that may be induced from the way that organisation deals with its
members and its environment. For the individual members within the organisation, climate
takes the form of a set of attitudes and experiences which describe the organisation in terms
of both static characteristics (such as degree of autonomy) and behaviour outcome and
outcome- outcome contingencies.”
− Thus, organisational climate is a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment that is
experienced by its members, influences their behaviour and can be described in terms of the
value of a particular set of characteristics of the organisation. It may be possible to have as
many climates as there are people in the organisation when considered collectively, the actions
of the individuals become more meaningful for viewing the total impact upon the climate and
determining the stability of the work environment. The climate should be viewed from a total
system perspective. While there may be differences in climates within departments these will
be integrated to a certain extent to denote overall organisational climate.
5.5 Factors affecting organizational climate

− Litwin and Stringer have included six factors which affect organisational climate. These
factors are:
o Organisational Structure: Perceptions of the extent of organisational constraints,
rules, regulations,
o Individual Responsibility: Feeling of autonomy of being one’s own boss,
o Rewards: Feelings related to being confident of adequate and appropriate rewards,

o Risk and Risk Taking: Perceptions of the degree of challenge and risk in the work
situation,
o Warmth and Support: Feeling of general good fellowship and helpfulness prevailing
in the work setting.
o Tolerance and Conflict: Degree of confidence that the climate can tolerate, differing
opinions.
5.6 Job Satisfaction
− Job satisfaction is the feeling and perception of a worker regarding his/her work and how he or
she feels well in an organization. It indicates the extent of employees’ positive or negative
feelings towards their jobs and organizational behavior tried to improve it.
− In Organizational Behavior, job satisfaction is one of the most researched variables in the area
of workplace psychology and has been associated with numerous psychosocial issues, the
changing world of work, organizational factors ranging from leadership to job design.
− It is the level of contentment a person feels regarding his or her job. This feeling is mainly based
on an individual’s perception of satisfaction.
− It can be influenced by a person’s ability to complete the required tasks, the level of
communication in an organization, and the way management treats employees. There are
different levels of job satisfaction.
− Effective job satisfaction is a person’s emotional feeling about the job as a whole. Cognitive job
satisfaction is how satisfied employees feel concerning some aspect of their job, such as pay,
hours, or benefits.
− Due to the popularity of job satisfaction within the field of occupational and organizational
psychology, various researchers and practitioners have provided their definitions of what job
satisfaction is.
− E. A. Locke describe job satisfaction as, “the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of one’s job values”
− According to P. E. Spector, “Job satisfaction is the extent to which people like or dislike their
jobs”.
− De Nobile defined job satisfaction as “the extent to which a staff member has favorable or
positive feelings about work or the work environment.”
− Davis, Newstrom, and Dessler describe job satisfaction as “a set of favorable or unfavorable
feelings for the employees to perceive their work and that determine the possibility of a major
disposition to achieve higher performance”.
− According to S.P. Robbins, “Job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his
or her job.”
− Job satisfaction may be defined in many different ways.
− Some believe it is simply how content an individual is with his or her job, in other words, whether
or not they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as the nature of work or
supervision.
5.7 Importance of Job Satisfaction
− Job satisfaction has been linked to many variables, including productivity, absenteeism,
turnover, etc. It is significant because a person’s attitude and beliefs may affect his or her
behavior.
− Importance of job satisfaction are;
o Lower Turnover.
o Higher Productivity.
o Increased Customer Satisfaction.
o Employee Absenteeism.
o Helps to Earn Higher Revenues.
o Satisfied Employees Tend to Handle Pressure.
5.8 Factors affecting Job Satisfaction

− No doubt, job satisfaction is a big factor in employee engagement and the level of discretionary
effort team members are likely to make.
− Job satisfaction depends on several different factors such as satisfaction with pay, promotion
opportunities, fringe benefits, job security, relationship with co-workers and supervisors, etc.
− Factors affecting the level of job satisfaction are;
o Working Environment.
o Fair Policies and Practice.
o Caring Organization.
o Appreciation.
o Pay.
o Age.
o Promotion.
o Feel of Belongings.
o Initiation and Leadership.
o Feel of Being Loved.
o Safety and Security.
o Challenges.
o Responsibilities.
o Creativity in Job.
o Personal Interest and Hobbies.
o Respect from Co-Workers.
o Relationship with Supervisors.
o Feedback.
o Flexibility.
o Nature of Work.
5.9 Stress

− Stress is defined in terms of its physical and physiological effects on a person, and can be a
mental, physical, or emotional strain.
− Stress is defined in terms of how it impacts physical and psychological health; it includes
mental, physical, and emotional strain. Stress occurs when a demand exceeds an individual’s
coping ability and disrupts his or her psychological equilibrium. Stress occurs in the workplace
when an employee perceives a situation to be too strenuous to handle, and therefore
threatening to his or her well-being.
Stress at Work
− While it is generally agreed that stress occurs at work, views differ on the importance of worker
characteristics versus working conditions as its primary cause. The differing viewpoints
suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. Different individual characteristics, like
personality and coping skills, can be very important predictors of whether certain job conditions
will result in stress. In other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for
someone else.
− Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological
disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of
emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension), maladaptive behaviors (e.g.,
aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory
problems). Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may ultimately
lead to compromised physical health, such as cardiovascular disease.
Categories of Work Stress
− Four categories of stressors underline the different causal circumstances for stress at work:
− Task Demands – This is the sense of not knowing where a job will lead you and whether the
activities and tasks will change. This uncertainty causes stress that manifests itself in feelings
of lack of control, concern about career progress, and time pressures.
− Role Demands – Role conflict happens when an employee is exposed to inconsistent or difficult
expectations. Examples include: interole conflict (when there are two or more expectations or
separate roles for one person), intrarole conflict (varying expectations of one role), person-role
conflict (ethics are challenged), and role ambiguity (confusion about their experiences in
relation to the expectations of others).
− Interpersonal Demands – Examples include: emotional issues (abrasive personalities, offensive
co-workers), sexual harassment (directed mostly toward women), and poor leadership (lack of
management experience, poor style, cannot handle having power).
− Physical Demands – Many types of work are physically demanding, including strenuous activity,
extreme working conditions, travel, exposure to hazardous materials, and working in a tight,
loud office.
Consequences of Workplace Stress
− Stress can impact an individual mentally and physically and so can decrease employee
efficiency and job satisfaction.
Stress

− Negative or overwhelming work experiences can cause a person substantial distress. Burnout,
depression, and psychosomatic disorders are particularly common outcomes of work-related
stress. In general, individual distress manifests in three basic forms: psychological disorders,
medical illnesses, and behavioral problems.
Psychological Disorders
− Psychosomatic disorders are a type of psychological disorder. They are physical problems with
a psychological cause. For example, a person who is extremely anxious about public speaking
might feel extremely nauseated or may find themselves unable to speak at all when faced with
the prospect of presenting in front of a group. Since stress of this type is often difficult to notice,
managers would benefit from carefully monitoring employee behavior for indications of
discomfort or stress.
Medical Illnesses
− Physiological reactions to stress can have a long-term impact on physical health. In fact, stress
is one of the leading precursors to long-term health issues. Backaches, stroke, heart disease,
and peptic ulcers are just a few physical ailments that can arise when a person is under too
much stress.
Behavioral Problems
− A person can also exhibit behavioral problems when under stress, such as aggression,
substance abuse, absenteeism, poor decision making, lack of creativity, or even sabotage. A
stressed worker may neglect their duties, impeding workflows and processes so that the
broader organization slows down and loses time and money. Managers should keep an eye out
for such behaviors as possible indicators of workplace stress.
5.10 Reducing Workplace Stress

− A combination of organizational change and stress management is a productive approach to
preventing stress at work.

− Stress management refers to a wide spectrum of techniques and therapies that aim to control
a person’s levels of stress, especially chronic stress, to improve everyday functioning.
− Specifically, organizations can prevent employee stress in the following ways:
Intentional Job Design
− Design jobs that provide meaning and stimulation for workers as well as opportunities for them
to use their skills.
− Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the
job.
− Consider flexible schedules—many organizations allow telecommuting to reduce the pressure
of being a certain place at a certain time (which enables people to better balance their personal
lives).
− Monitor each employee’s workload to ensure it is in line with their capabilities and resources.
Clear and Open Communication
− Teach employees about stress awareness and promote an open dialogue.

− Avoid ambiguity at all costs—clearly define workers’ roles and responsibilities.
− Reduce uncertainty about career development and future employment prospects.
Positive Workplace Culture
− Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers.

− Watch for signs of dissatisfaction or bullying and work to combat workplace discrimination
(based on race, gender, national origin, religion, or language).
Employee Accountability
− Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions that affect their jobs.
− Introduce a participative leadership style and involve as many subordinates as possible in
resolving stress-producing problems.
5.11 Kurt Lewin’s–three step model

− The Kurt Lewin three-step model change theory, Unfreeze the current behaviours and
processes, make the changes you need, then practice and freeze the new behaviours and
practices into everyday actions.
− The Kurt Lewin, change theory model, is based around a 3-step process (Unfreeze-Change-
Freeze) that provides a high-level approach to improvement. It gives a manager or other change
agent a framework to implement a change effort, which is always very sensitive and should be
as seamless as possible.
− The Kurt Lewin change theory or model can help a leader do the following three steps:
o Make a radical change (innovation)
o Minimise the disruption of the structure’s operations
o Make sure that the amendment is adopted permanently
− This three-step model gives a manager or change agent an idea of what implementing change
means when dealing with people. The 3 phases of the Kurt Lewin model guide how to go about
getting people to change. A manager will implement new processes and re-assign tasks. But
change will only be effective if the people involved embrace it and help to put it into practice it.

Lewin change model – Unfreeze – “ready to change.”
− When a structure has been in place for a while, habits and routine have naturally settled in. The
organisation as a whole is going in the right direction. But, as shown in the illustration, people
or processes may have strayed off course. For example, tasks that are not relevant or useful
anymore are still being performed by force of habit, without anyone questioning their legitimacy.
Similarly, people might have learned to do things one way, without considering other, more
efficient methods. Unfreezing means getting people to gain perspective on their day-to-day
activities, unlearn their bad habits, and open up to new ways of reaching their objectives. The
current practices and processes have to be reassessed for the wheels of change to be set in
motion.
Lewin change model – Change – “Implementation.”
− Once team members have opened up their minds, change can start. The change process can
be a very dynamic one and, if it is to be effective, it will probably take some time and involve a
transition period.
− To gain efficiency, people will have to take on new tasks and responsibilities, which entails a
learning curve that will look at first slow the organisation down.
− A change process has to be viewed as an investment. This process is both in terms of time and
the allocation of resources. After the new organisation and procedures have been rolled out,
inevitable chaos might ensue, but that is the price to pay to attain enhanced effectiveness within
the structure.
Lewin change model – Freeze (sometimes called refreeze)- “Making it stick.”
− The change will only reach its full effect if it’s made permanent. Once the organisational
changes have been made and the structure has regained its effectiveness, every effort must be
made to cement them and make sure the new organisation becomes the standard. More
changes can be made later on. Still, once the structure has found a way to improve the way it
conducts its operations, “re-freezing” will allow the people to thrive in the new organisation and
take full advantage of the change. Many quote the model as saying the third step of this
approach is to re-freeze when in Lewin’s original work it was “freeze”.

5.12 Reference


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Contents

1.1 Definition .................................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Need and Importance of OB

The importance of organizational behaviour is:

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.5 Conceptual Framework of OB

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.1 Attitude ..................................................................................................................................... 3

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.2 Characteristics of Attitude

− Attitude can be described as a tendency to react positively or negatively to a person or

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.3 Components of Attitude

− Let’s discuss about them in details.

2.4 Formation/Sources of Attitude

1. Direct Personal Experience:

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.5 Measurement of Attitude

Technique # 1. Method of Equal Appearing Interval (Thurstone’s Scale):

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Limitation of Thurstone’s Scale:

Technique # 2. Method of Summated Rating (Likert’s Scale):

Advantages of Likevts’ Scale:

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Limitation of Likevts’ Scale:

Technique # 3. Social Distance Scale (Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale):

Limitations of Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale:

Advantages of Bogardus’s Social Distance Scale:

Technique # 4. Cumulative Scaling Method (Guttman’s Scale):

Technique # 5. The Scale Discriminating Technique:

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Balance and Consistency:

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

− Sometimes, an improper reward system acts as a barrier to change attitude.

− Another barrier is resistance to change.

2.7 Meaning and Concept of Perception

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.8 Factors Affecting Perception

Characteristics of Perception in Organisational Behaviour:

Characteristics of the Perceiver:

Characteristics of the Target:

Characteristics of the Situation:

2.10 Importance of Motivation

2.11 Types of Motivation

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

5. Internal desires e.g. desire to gain power or dominance (વર્ચસ્વ)

2.12 Theories of Motivation

− Content theories are the earliest theories of motivation.

1. Maslow – hierarchy of needs:

A. Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, shelter, sleep)

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

3. McClelland – Need for achievement, affiliation and power

4. Herzberg – Two factor theory

1. Skinner's reinforcement theory

2. Vroom's expectancy theory

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering

3. Adams' equity theory

4. Locke's goal-setting theory

− The following guidelines have been useful in the goal-setting :

Mr. Mehul Pujara, Department of Mechanical Engineering