Forest Pathology

FFB 203 FOREST PATHOLOGY (1+1)
DISEASES OF TEAK, NEEM AND JATROPHA
TEAK (Tectona grandis)

Powdery mildew: : Uncinula tectonae
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the upper
surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As the
disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to
defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting in the
shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the pathogen
represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage of the disease the
fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia.
Pathogen: The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and produce
haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club shaped non septate
and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains.
Rust : Olivea tectonae (Uredo tectonae)
Symptoms: The upper surface of the leaf show dull green flecks corresponding to the
orange yellow uredinia on lower surface. The flecks on the upper surface become
necrotic and appear as brown spots. Severe infection caused premature defoliation in
nurseries and young plantations.
Pathogen: Olivea tectonae is a microcyclic rust having telial and uredinial stage on teak.
Uredinospores are single celled, spherical and deep yellowish orange in colour. The telia
characteristically develop on thick cellular base and produce two celled brown coloured
teliospores.
Leaf spot/blight : Phomopsis tectonae
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots, 2-3mm in diameter. Spots
enlarge to 5 to 8 mm in diameter and turn to light pale brown with dark brown outline.
The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings around the
light coloured centre spot.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces light brown coloured mycelium and round globose
pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled dull brown conidia.
Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy
major portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily
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identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the sporulation of
the fungus. The fungus produces brown coloured conidia with both vertical and
horizontal septa with a beak at the top.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce large
number of pale grey-yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The conidia are
light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top. There
are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
Butt rot/ Root rot : Polyporus zonalis
Symptoms: The fungus attacks heart wood, sometimes soft wood. Initially the fungus
causes white mottled rot with orange yellow lines, later pockets develop in the bleached
area.
Pathogen: The fungus produces sessile, hard and rigid basidiocarp at the base of the
tree. The upper surface is concentrically zonate with reddish brown colour. The lower
surface is shiny white in colour.
Ganoderma Root disease : Ganoderma lucidum
Symptoms: The disease can be visualized as yellowing and dropping of leaves in

one or two branches of the tress, subsequently followed by drying of the branches. As the
disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other branches.
The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap wood which
become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the fungus which
arise from the base of the trees at the soil level.
Pathogen: It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as Bracket (Sexual

fruiting body). The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores
(Sexual spores) which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather.
JATROPHA (Jatropha curcus)
Damping off : Fusarium solani
Symptoms: The disease starts as a water soaked black lesion at the collar region of the
young seedling, which later rot and topple over the soil. Light pink coloured mycelial
masses can be seen on the soil surface.
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Pathogen: The fungus survives in the soil as Chlamydospores and cause primary
infection. In addition, the fungus produces large number of macroconidia and
macroconidia. The macroconidia are sickle shaped , hyaline, multicelled having 5- 6
septa. The micro conidia are also hyaline and single celled, oval in shape. The conidia
help in the secondary spread of the disease.
Root rot : Macrophomina phaseolina
Symptoms: The disease starts as a water soaked black lesion at the collar region of the
plant near soil level and progresses both upward and downward. The lower leaves turn
yellow and wither away. This is followed by sudden dead of the whole plant. The dried
plant show extensive rooting of the root system with disintegrated barks. The close
observation of the shredded bark tissues show large number of black colored resting
structures of the fungus. The stem portion above soil level become ashy brown indicating
the presence of thousands of minute black dot like fungal fructification.
Pathogen: The fungus survives in the soil as Sclerotia (asexual resting structures) and
cause primary infection. In addition, the fungus produces large number of asexual fruiting
bodies (Pycnidia) on the stem portion. The conidia released from these fruiting
bodies help in the secondary spread
Powdery Mildew : Oidium sp.
Pathogen: The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and produce
haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club shaped non septate
and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains.
the fungus.
number of conidia with transverse and longitudinal septa. The conidia are 3-8 septate.
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Leaf blight : Phoma sp.
Symptoms: The symptoms appear as minute dark brown dots, 2-3mm in diameter.
Spots enlarge to 5 to 8 mm in diameter and turn to light pale brown with dark brown
outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three dark brown concentric rings
around the light coloured centre spot with a lot of black pycnidia.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing hundreds of
single celled dull brown conidia.
Leaf spot : Cercopsora jatropha- curcus
Symptoms: Small circular spot with dark brown margin appear on the leaf surface and
shot hole symptoms develop when the centre of the spot become papery and drops off.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces hyaline, thin, long multiseptate conidia in cluster. The
conidia are needle shaped with a slight curling at the centre and are 7-10 septate.
Anthracnose : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Symptoms: The disease initiates as a minute black spot on the leaf surface and enlarges
to form a spot with a black margin showing a large number of Acervuli in the centre. The
black lesions also appear on the young shoots showing die back symptoms. The infection
on the flower stalk lead to flower shedding. Black coloured spots also appear on the
surface of the fruit showing fruit rot symptoms.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces a large number of minute, black coloured Acervuli in
large number in the infected portions. The conidia are sick shaped, single celled and
hyaline and show large number of oil globules in the centre of the conidia.
Mosaic : Virus
Symptoms: The disease appears as light discoloration along the veins of the youngest
leaves. Soon the leaves develop a characteristic light and dark green pattern, the dark
green areas are usually associated with the veins. The dark green areas later
develop into irregular crumpled swellings or blisters due to more rapid growth.
The plants that become infected early in the season are usually very much stunted with
small, chlorotic, mottled and curled leaves. In severe infections, the leaves are narrowed,
puckered, thin and malformed beyond recognition, Later, dark brown necrotic spots
develop under hot weather and this symptom is called “Mosaic burn” or “Mosaic
scorching”.
Pathogen: The nature of the virus and mode of spread is yet to be studied.
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NEEM (Azadirachta indica)
Nursery Root rot/ Web blight : Rhizoctonia solani
Symptoms: The pathogen is soil- borne and infect leaves of young seedlings. Greyish
brown lesions develop on the leaf blade, advances and cover the entire leaf area. The
fungal mycelia fully over the rotten tissues giving a spider web appearance and hence, the
name web blight. The completely rotten tissues contain a large number of irregularly
shaped sclerotia, the asexual resting structure which act as a source for the next crop.
Pathogen: The fungus produces dark brown, septate mycelium with the
constrictions at hyphal branches. The sclerotia are minute, dark coloured.
Fungus also produces dark brown, globose pycnidia on the host tissues. The
pycnidiospores (conidia) are thin walled, hyaline, single celled, elliptical in
shape.
Leaf spot : Cercospora meliae
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute grey
spot with dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots become thin and papery and
drops off leaving shot hole symptoms.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. The mycelium is
dull brown coloured and produces multiseptate (7-9 celled) conidia on the
conidiophres which are produced in cluster.
the fungus.
Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum
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Symptoms: The disease can be visualized as yellowing and dropping of leaves in one or
two branches of the tress, subsequently followed by drying of the branches. As the
Pathogen: It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as Bracket (Sexual fruiting
body). The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores (Sexual
spores) which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather.
Flowering parasite : Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata
The parasite is a partial parasite which has a very hard flattened prostrating stem which
run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive the
food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure from
which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a clusters. In the case of the severe
parasitism, the afftected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off.
The parasite has dark green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches from the galled
portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The parasite produce
dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as a
dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and
produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
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DISEASES OF CASUARINA AND EUCALYPTUS
EUCALYTUS ( Eucalyptus tereticonis)
Leaf spot/Die back : Colletotrichum eucalytii
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to minute black
spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots enlarge and cause irregular
blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute black
coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The infection can also spread to
young shoots leading to death of the growing point and die back symptoms.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. The type of fruiting body
is acervulus with a large number of hyaline single celled oblong or cylindrical conidia.
The conidia contain oil globules in the centre and hence, termed as ‘Guttulate’ or
‘Vacuolate’.
Leaf spot : Cylindrocaldium quinqueseptatum
Symptoms: Minute grayish black water soaked lesions on young and old leaves. Several
spots coalesee leading to blighting.
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with single celled
hyaline to dull brown conidia.

the fungus.
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light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak at the top.
There are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
Stem canker :Diaporthe cubensis
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute black cankerous growth, which later
enlarges and occupies major portion of the branch. Later cracks develop longitudinally
and cause drying of the infected branches showing gummy exudations.
Pathogen: The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the infected portion. The
conidia are single celled initially having dull brown colour, later it may become two
celled and black in colour.
Rust : Puccinia psidii
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow dots on the lower surface of the
leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia
(uredosori). As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop on the
lower surface representing telia (teliosori). In the most advanced stage of infection
defoliation occurs leaving plants barren.
Pathogen: The uredosori contain group of yellow colured single celled uredospores
with a spiny walls. The matured teliosori expose thousands of dark brown colored, two
celled teliopsores.
CASUARINA (Casuarina equisetifolia)
Leaf spot/ Needle blight : Phoma casuarinae
Symptoms: The disease develop as yellow discoloration from the tip of the needle
initially and later spread to occupy major portion of the needle leading to blighting and
drying of the needles. Later, the affected needles turn to black coloured due to production
of hundreds of pycnidia, the asexual fruiting bodies.
Pathogen: The fungus produces round shaped pycnidia in large number in the infected
needles, containing thousands of single celled, dark coloured conidia.
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one or two branches of the tress subsequently followed by drying of the branches.
As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other
branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap
wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the
fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level.
Pathogen: The fungus survives in the basidiocarps (Brackets) for several years and
releases hundreds of basidiospores which initiate fresh infections in the new plantations.
Flowering parasite : Dodder( Cuscuta campestris)
The infection is normally seen in the nursery as well as in the very young plantations.
The infection appear as small yellow thready growth of the parasite from the lower
portion of the stem which later spreads very fast covering major portion of the plant with
complete net work of golden yellow coloured threads of the parasite growth. In the severe
stage of the parasitism, the young tree show withering symptom and later lead to
complete drying.
The parasite is a slender twining plant with a yellow stem, which is thread like with
minute scales in the place of leaves. Flowers are tiny and white; seeds are reddish brown
or grey in color. Seeds, which fall on the ground, may germinate immediately or remains
dormant in the soil.
Flowering Parasite : Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata.
The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem which
which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a clusters. In he case of the severe
parasitism, the affected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off.
The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered branches
from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The
parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and act as
a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem germinate and
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DISEASES OF BAMBOO, SIMARUBA, POLYALTHIA AND PUNGAM
BAMBOO (Bambusa bambos)
Leaf spot : Bipolaris bambusae

Bipolaris maydis
Symptoms: Minute spindle shaped water soaked lesions appear on the leaf surface,
which later turn dark brown to dull violet with greyish brown centres. Lesions coalesce to
form large necrotic areas.
Pathogen: The mycelium is septate and dull brown in colour and produce 3-4 septate
spindle shaped conidia on the septate conidiophores. The young conidia are hyaline and
later matured conidia are dark brown in colour.
Leaf blight : Helminthosporium turcicum
Symptoms: Minute spindle shaped water soaked lesions appear on the margin of the leaf
blade, which later extends and occupies major portion of the leaf, giving a blighted
appearance.
Pathogen: The mycelium is septate and dull brown in colour and produce 7-8 septate,
spindle shaped conidia on the septate conidiophores. The conidia are dark brown in
colour.
the fungus.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is dull brown and septate and produce
large number of pale grey-yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved.
The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with beak at
the top. There are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
Anthracnose : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is
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acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the
secondary spread of the disease. Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young
twigs which started drying back and this is named as “die back” symptom, leading to
complete drying of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting
of the new shoots is called Twig blight.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with setae arise
through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and oblong or
cylindrical in shape
Rust : Puccinia bambusicola
leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia
(uredosori). As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop on
the lower surface representing telia (teliosori).In the most advanced stage of infection
defoliation occurs leaving plants barren.
Pathogen: The uredospores are dark yellow coloured, single celled uredospores with a
spiny walls. The teliospores are two celled and dark brown in colour.
Culm rot/ Brown rot : Fusarium moniliforme var.intermedium

F.equiseti, F.solani
Symptoms; Greyish lesions with a dark brown margin appear on the outer most leaf
sheath of the emerging culms near the soil level. Lesions also form on the tips and
margins of the culms which spread rapidly to cover the entire outer culm sheath leading
to necrosis and drying. Later infection spreads to inner sheaths and cause rotting of tender
and succulent young shoots emitting a sweet odour of molasses.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces dull pink coloured mycelia with a large number of
macroconidia which are sickle shaped, hyaline and 7-9 septate. The macroconidia are
produced in chain over a short conidiophore. The macroconidia are single celled and oval
shaped. The pathogen also produces the resting spores-chlamydospores in large number.
Black mildew : Meliola bambusicola
Symptoms: The infection appears on the upper surface of the leaf as a sparse, black
patches. When the infection become serious the upper leaf surface becomes densely
coated with a black powdery growth of the fungal hyphae with sporulation. The infection
also occur on the leaf sheath and also on the young shoots in a closed canopy plantations
during cool weather periods.
Pathogen: The fungus produces septate, black coloured mycelia. The conidia are single
celled and dull black in colour. Occassionally they are closely crowded to give a ball like
structure. The fungus also produce perithecia.
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Sooty mould : Capnodium braziliense
network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering
a major portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy
infestation of the sucking pests lead to development of the sooty growth on the leaf
surface.
Pathogen: The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 4 types of s pores in the
black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, Brachysporium and
Trichothecium.
Stripe mosaic : Bamboo Mosaic virus
Symptoms: The infection initially appears on the young leaves as yellow discoluration
which become stripes giving a alternate dark green and light yellowish green areas. In
advanced stages of infection entire leaf become dull yellow or white giving a bleached
appearance.
Pathogen: The disease is caused by Bamboo Mosaic Virus. The mode of spread and
survival of the virus are not known.
Streak mosaic : wheat streak mosaic virus
Symptoms: The infection initially appears on the young leaves as minute yellow streak
which later enlarges to occupy the entire length of the leaf. Large number of yellow
streaks cane be seen on the leaves. In advanced stages of infection the leaf size is reduced
abnormally with necrotic patches.
Pathogen: The disease is caused by Wheat Streak mosaic virus . The mode of spread and
survival of the virus are not known.
POLYALTHIA (Polyalthia longifolia)
Leaf spot : Cercospora sp.
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the disease
advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In
severe infection defoliation also occurs.
Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in

clusters through stomata, which are brown producing hyaline, thin walled, 5-8 celled
long obclavate conidia.
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the fungus.
are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophores.
surface.
Trichothecium.
SIMARUBA( Simarouba glauca)
Leaf spot : Cercospora sp.
Symptoms: Minute red spot develops and enlarges to form a grey spot with a dark
margin. Finally the infected leaf portion drops off leaving a shot hole symptom.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces septate mycelium and produces conidia in groups. The
conidia are dull brown in colour and 4-5 celld.
Leaf blight/spot : Helminthosporium sp.
Symptoms: Irregular shaped bark brown spots appear and later join together to form
blighted lesions on the leaves.
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Pathogen: The pathogen produces septate, brown coloured mycelium. The conidia are
dull brown in colour and spindle shaped with 3-4 septa.
Pathogen: It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as Bracket (Sexual fruiting
body). The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of basidiospores (Sexual
spores) which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy weather.
surface.
Trichothecium.
PUNGAM( Pongamia pinnata)
Leaf spot : Cercospora pongamiae
Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in

clusters through stomata, which are brown and simple and bear hyaline, thin walled, 4-7
celled and long obclavate conidia.
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the fungus.
are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophores.
Leaf blight : Phoma indica
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to
light grey centre with dark brown outline. Minute pycnidia are seen in the centre of
the spot.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single
celled dull brown conidia in thousands.
surface.
Trichothecium.
Flowering Parasite: Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata.
which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a clusters. In he case of the severe
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DISEASES OF SISSOO, SILVER OAK, CEIBA AND AILANTHUS
SISSOO (DaIbergia sissoo)
Leaf spot : Cercospora sissoo
Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge

in clusters through stomata, which are brown and simple and bear hyaline, thin walled,
4-7 celled and long obclavate conidia.
large number of pale grey-yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved.
The conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a
beak at the top. There are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
Leaf blight : Phoma indica
Symptoms: A black water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to occupy
identified by presence of large number of black dots in the infected tissue showing the
asexual fruiting bodies, pycnidia.
number of dull black coloured pycnidia containing hundreds of single celled, oval dull
grey conidia
Anthracnose/Fruit rot : Colletotrichum sissoo
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which I later turns to minute
black spot with a dark margins. As the disease ^ progresses, the spots enlarge and cause
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irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues show a hundreds of minute
black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in concentric rings. The type of fruiting body
is acervulus with a large number of hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in
the secondary spread of the disease.
through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape
Powdery mildew : Phyllactinia sissoo
Pathogen: The produces both external and internal mycelium in the leaf surface. The
conidiophore arise form the external mycelia and bear single celled hyaline conidia with
a pointed tip.
Rust : Uredo sissoo
Symptoms: The disease develops as minute yellow uredia on the lower surface of the
leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. As the disease advances thousands of
black raised rough telia also develop on the lower surface.
Pathogen: The fungus produces single celled, oblong, dull yellow coloured uredospores
which are slightly curved at the centre.
disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the other
branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot of the sap
wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic fruiting bodies of the
fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level.
Pathogen: The fungus produce thick woody brackets in the soil near the base of the
severely infected trees.
SILVER OAK (Grevillea robusta)
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Grey leaf spot : Botryodiplodia theobromae
Symptoms: Minute dull black spot appear on the leaves which later enlarges to form a
grey spot with a dark margin. Several such spots join to form necrotic lesions on the
lamina. A large number of minute black dot like fruiting bodies are produced in the
advanced stages of infection.
Pathogen: The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the affected tissues. The
pycnidium contains hyaline to dull coloured conidia in hundreds which are single celled,
occasionally two celled.
Leaf spot : Cercospora agharkeri
advances, the centre of spot become white,thin and drops off leaving a shot holes. In
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull coloured or hyaline and septate mycelium. The
conidiophores arise in clusters and bear 4-6 celled hyaline thin needle shaped conidia.
which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a clusters. In the case of the severe
from the galled portion. It produces i cluster of orange coloured tubular flowers. The
AILANTHUS (Ailanthus excelsa)
Leaf spot : Cercopsora glandulosa
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull brown, septate mycelium. The conidiophores arise
in groups and bear thread like multiseptate hyaline conidia.
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Leaf blight : Alternaria sp.
identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the speculation of
the fungus.
are 5- 8 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.
SEMUL (Bombax ceiba)
Leaf spot : Cercospora bambicina
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a red margin develops on old leaves. As the disease
advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes. In
Pathogen: The mycelium is septate and dull coloured showing large number of
unbranched conidiophores in clusters. The conidia are hyaline 4-7 celled with a broader
base and a tapering tip.
Leaf spot : Myrothecium roridum
Symptoms: Small reddish spots of 0.5 mm-1 cm appear near the margins of the leaves,
The affected portions fall off leaving irregular shot holes in the leaves.
Pathogen:The fungus produces single celled or two celled, hyaline to dull brown
conidia in large numbers.
network of hyphae. Then a thin effuse black powdery coating can be seen covering a
major portion of the leaf. This indicates the sporulation of the fungus. The heavy
surface.
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Pathogen: The fungus produces black coloured mycelia and 4 types of spores in the
black sooty growth. They are Torula, Coniothecium, Brachysporium and Trichothecium.
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DISEASES OF SANDAL, TAMARIND, ALBIZIA AND GMELINA
SANDAL( Santalam album)
Spike : Phytoplasma
Symptoms: The infected trees exhibit shortened internodal length leading to crowding of
the leaves at the top. A drastic reduction in the size of the leaves was also observed. The
leaves show tendency to stand stiffy from the branches giving a spiky appearance. Later
the leaves become yellowish and finally turn to red in colour. The affected branches do
not flower, if flowered produce only fruits with aborted seeds. In severe cases, the floral
parts are modified into green leafy structures called ‘Phylloids’.
Pathogen: The causative agent was confirmed as Phytoplasama. A large number of

pleomorphic bodies are found to present in the infected tissues. The pathogen is
transmitted through the leaf hoppers- Jassus indicus and Moonia albimaculata
The parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem
which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections to drive
the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall like structure
from which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a clusters. In the case of the
severe parasitism, the afftected branch start withering drying from tip and dry off.
parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by the fruits and
act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of the stem
germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in large numbers.
TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica)
Powdery mildew : Oidium sp.
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on the
upper surface or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina.
As the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches
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leading to defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and
flowers resulting in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery
growth of the pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the
advanced stage of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called
Cleitothecia.
Pathogen: The fungus produces septate mycelium and mostly external and
produce haustoria to the host epidermis. The conidiophres are short and club
shaped non septate and produce barrel shaped conidia in chains.
Leaf spot : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Symptoms: The infection starts as watersoaked lesions, which later turns to

minute black spot with a dark margins. As the disease progresses, the spots
enlarge and cause irregular blighting of the leaf lamina. The blighted leaf tissues
show a hundreds of minute black coloured fruiting body of the fungus in
concentric rings. The type of fruiting body is acervulus with a large number of
hyaline, oblong, single celled conidia which helps in the secondary spread of the
disease.
Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started
drying back and this is named as “die back” symptom, leading to complete drying
of the young shoot. The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the
new shoots is called Twig blight.
In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed
lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and
internal tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot.
Pathogen: The mycelium of the fungus is localised in the spot. Acervuli with
setae arise through epidermis. Conidia are hyaline, single celled, vacuolate and
falcate in shape
Symptoms: A brown water soaked lesion develop on the leaf and spreads fast to
occupy major portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The
disease can easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area
showing the sporulation of the fungus.
large number of pale grey-yellow conidiophores which are straight or curved. The
22
conidia are light olive coloured with transverse and longitudinal septa with a beak
at the top. There are 3-5 septate and are borne over short conidiophore.

one or two branches of the tress, subsequently followed by drying of the branches.
As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the
other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes white rot
of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic
fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil
level.
Pathogen: The fungus produces woody basidiocarp named as Bracket (Sexual

fruiting body). The fungus survive in the soil and release hundreds of
basidiospores (Sexual spores) which initiate fresh infection during the moist rainy
weather.
ALBIZIA(Albezia saman)
Leaf spot : Cercospora albiziae
Symptoms: Small circular spot with a re margin develops on old leaves. As the
disease advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving a
shot holes. In severe infection defoliation also occurs.
Pathogen: The mycelium is hyaline and septate with a large number of

conidiophores bearing multiseptate, hyaline conidia in large numbers.
Leaf spot :Helminthosporium

albizicolum
Symptoms: The disease appears first as minute brown dots, later becoming
cylindrical or oval. Several spots coalesce to larger necrotic lesions and leaf
dries up.
Pathogen: The fungus produces greyish-brown to dark brown septate mycelium.

Conidiophores may arise singly or in small groups. Conidia are usually curved
with a bulge in the centre and I tapering towards the ends occasionally almost straight,
pale olive green to golden brown colour and are 6-9 septate.

one or two branches of the tress, subsequently followed by drying of the branches.
23
As the disease progresses, the defoliation and drying symptoms are seen on the
other branches. The fungus grows extensively from the bark and causes
white rot of the sap wood which become spongy. The dried trees show characteristic
fruiting bodies of the fungus which arise from the base of the trees at the soil level.
Pathogen: Woody thick structured basidiocarps (Brackets) appear near the base
of the completely dried dead trees.
Flowering Parasite : Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata
T he parasite is a partial parasite. It produces a very hard flattened prostrating stem

which run over the stem portions of the host and produce haustorial connections
to drive the food source. The point of parasitism become thickened to form a gall
like structure from which multiple shootings ranging from 15-20 arise as a
clusters. In he case of the severe parasitism, the affected branch start withering
drying from tip and dry off.
The parasite is a shrubby plant with green leaves and produce erect, clustered
branches from the galled portion. It produces cluster of orange coloured tubular
flowers. The parasite produce dark red coloured berries.The birds are attracted by
the fruits and act as a dissemination agents. The seeds dropped on the crevices of
the stem germinate and produce haustoria to attach to the host and proliferate in
large numbers.
24
GMELINA( Gmelina arborea)
Leaf spot : Cercospora ranjita
Pathogen: The fungus produces hyaline and septate mycelium. The conidiophores arise
in groups and borne 4-8 celled, thin walled, hyaline clavate conidia.
Powdery mildew : Phyllactinia corylea
Symptoms: The powdery mildew disease develops as a minute white patch on

the upper or lower surface, which later extends to cover the entire leaf lamina. As
the disease progresses the powdery growth turns to light brown patches leading to
defoliation. The infection may also occur on the flower stalk and flowers resulting
in the shedding of flowers and young fruits. The white powdery growth of the
pathogen represents the mass of conidiophore and conidia. In the advanced stage
of the disease the fungi produce the sexual fruiting body called Cleitothecia.
Pathogen: The fungus produces both internal and external mycelia in the
infected leaves. The simple conidiophores arise from external mycelia and
borne single celled hyaline conidia with a pointed tip.
25
DISEASES OF PELTOPHORUM, MAHUA, MULBERRY, BAUHINIA,
LEUCAENA AND HARDWICKIA
PELTOPHORUM (Peltophorum ferugineum)
Leaf Blight : Alternaria alternata
MAHUA (Mathuca latifolia)
Grey Leaf spot : Pestatiopsis mathucae
Symptoms: Grey coloured irregular lesion normally develop near the tip of the leaf or
margin, which advances to occupy major portion of the leaf area showing blighted
appearance. The necrotic dried spots large number of black dots can be seen. They are the
fruiting body of the fungus namely Acervulus.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces septate mycelium and Acervuli in the host tissues.
The conidia are 5 celled with a three way branched appendages from the top cell. The
centre three cells are dark black in colour.
Leaf Blight : Phoma sp.
26
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to light
pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three
dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled
dull brown conidia.
Sooty Mould : Capnodium indicum
surface.
centre three cells are dark black in colour.
Red rust : Cephaleuros parasiticus
Symptoms: Reddish circular spots with slightly radiating margin develop on the upper
surface of the leaves, The affected spots turn to greyish green in colour and leaf shedding
occurs in severe infection.
Pathogen: The pathogen is an Alga and produces filamentous thalli with large number of
sporangiophores. The sporangiophore ends with bulged structure called vesicle: form the
vesicle pedicels are formed. The pedicels end with sporangium. Zoospores are form in
the sporangia and releases zoospores which infect the host subsequently.
MULBERRY (Morus spp.)
Powdery Mildew : Phyllactinia corylea
27
Pathogen: The produces both external and internal mycelium in the leaf surface. The
conidiophore arise form the external mycelia and bear single celled hyaline conidia with
a pointed tip.
Leaf spot : Cercospora moricola
Pathogen: The pathogen produces hyaline and septate with large number of short
conidiophores which give rise to 5-9 celled hyaline to dull brown clavate conidia at the
tip.
Pink disease : Corticium salmonicolor
Symptoms: The diseases normally starts initially as on young twigs as silvery white
growth and later turns to pinkish growth with white feathery margin. The infected bark
splits and exposes a pinkish pustules'containing thousands of minute conidia and later
with large number of basidiospores which help in the disease spread. Because of the
severe damage to the bark the infected twigs are killed. As the pathogen survives in the
dead twigs, the disease is severely noticed in the trees without proper care and irregular
pruning operations. The rainwater and wind help in the spread of the disease.
Pathogen: The fungus produces light pink coloured septate mycelium. The
conidiophores are pink in colour and single celled. The fungus also produces
basidiospores in the infected twigs showing blistered areas. The basidium is simple and
bear 4 basidiospores.
BAUHINIA (Bauhinia purpurea)
Leaf spot : Cercospora bauhiniae
Pathogen: The pathogen produces hyaline and septate mycelium. The conidia are hyaline
to dull brown colour with 3-6 cells. They are produced on the tip of short conidiophore
arise as groups.
Leaf spot : Phyllosticta bauhiniae
28
Symptoms: Minute dull black spot appear on the leaves which later enlarges to form a
grey spot with a dark margin. Several such spots join to form necrotic lesions on the
lamina. A large number of minute black dot like fruiting bodies are produced in the
advanced stages of infection.
Pathogen: The fungus produces large number of pycnidia in the affected tissues. The
pycnidium contains dark coloured conidia in hundreds which are single celled.
LEUCAENA (Leucaena leucophloa)
Leaf Spot : Cercospora cruenta
advances, the centre of spot become white, thin and drops off leaving shot holes.
Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. The hyaline, 4-7 celled thin
thread like conidia develop on the conidiophores which arise in clusters.

major portion of ,the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can easily
surface.
29
HARDWICKIA( Hardwickia blnata)
Leaf spot : Phoma sp.
Symptoms: Spots appear as minute dark brown dots and later enlarge and turn to light
pale brown with dark brown outline. The margin grow out wards forming one to three
dark brown concentric rings around the light coloured centre spot.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces pycnidia on the leaf surface containing single celled
dull brown conidia.
30
DISEASES OF COFFEE, TEA AND COCOA
COFFEE( Coffea arabica)
Leaf Rust : Hemileia vastatrix
leaves with chlorotic spots on the upper surface. The yellow dots represent the uredia of
the fungus. As the disease advances thousands of black raised rough spots develop
on the lower surface representing telia (teliosori) of the fungus. In the case of most
advanced stage of infection defoliation occurs leaving plants barren.
Pathogen: The uredosori contain hundreds of orange yellow coloured, single celled,
kidney shaped uredospores with a spiny walls. The matured sori expose thousands of
hyaline single celled turnip shaped teliospores.
Leaf rot : Pellicularia koleroga ( Corticium koleroga)
Symptoms: The symptoms appear as small water soaked spot near the tip or margin of
the leaf, which slowly expands to cover major portion of the leaves. During the wet
weather, the fungus produces thread like black mycelial webbings. The leaf may defoliate
but hang from the branch with the mycelial thread. The advanced stages of infection, the
group of leaves join together showing the complete blackening of the tissues.
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull black coloured mycelia with large number of single
celled dull black conidia in the rotten tissues.
Leaf blight : Alternaria coffeicola
identified by the presence of concentric rings in the blighted areas showing the
sporulation of the fungus.
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium, having brown coloured
conidia with 7-10 septa , having both vertical and horizontal septation.
Leaf spot : Cercospora coffeanum
31
Pathogen: The fungus produces needle shaped multiseptate, dull brown coloured conidia
on the tips of conidiophore which normally develop in groups.
surface.
TEA ( Thea sinensis)
Blister blight : Exobasidium vexans

Symptoms: The disease initiates as a small water soaked spot in the young leaf bud,
which later extends fast and occupies larger areas of the leaf. The affected become pink,
red and finally black in colour and the leaf portion show downward/ upward curling
giving a blistered appearance to the leaves. Later the blistered area become velvetty and
rough leading to drying.
Pathogen: The fungus produces both conidia and basidiospores in the infected leaf
areas. The conidia are hyaline and single celled, occasionally two celled, produced on a
short conidiophores. Later, same spot may give rise to basidia each containing single
celled basidiospores.
Leaf blight : Alternaria theae
major portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can
easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the
sporulation of the fungus.,
Pathogen :The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium with dark brown conidia
with 5-6 septa having both horizontal and vertical septation.
Grey Blight : Pestatiiopsis theae
Symptoms: Grey coloured irregular lesion normally develop near the tip of the leaf ^
margin, which advances to occupy major portion of the leaf area showing blighted
appearance. The necrotic dried spots large number of black dots can be seen. They are
the fruiting body of the fungus namely Acervulus bearing large number of 5 celled
spores with apical appendages.
32
centre three cells are dark in colour whereas the end cells are hyaline in colour.
COCOA ( Theobroma cacao)
Leaf blight : Cylindrocladium quisquiseptatum
Symptoms: Minute greyish black water soaked lesions develop on both young and old
leaves. Several spots coalesce leading to complete blighting of the leaf lamina.
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with single celled hyaline
to dull brown conidia.
Pink disease : Corticium salmonicolor
Symptoms: The diseases normally starts initially as on young twigs as silvery white
growth and later turns to pinkish growth with white feathery margin. The infected bark
splits and exposes a pinkish pustules containing thousands of minute conidia and later
with large number of basidiospores which help in the disease spread. Because of the
severe damage to the bark the infected twigs are killed. As the pathogen survives in the
dead twigs, the disease is severely noticed in the trees without proper care and irregular
pruning operations. The rainwater and wind help in the spread of the disease.
Pathogen: The fungus produces light pink colour and single celled conidia. The
fungus also produces basidiospores in the infected twigs showing blistered areas. The
basidium is simple and bear 4 basidiospores.
33
34
DISEASES OF CLOVE, NUTMEG, CINNAMON AND PEPPER
CLOVE( Eugena caryophyllata)

Red leaf spot : Colletotrichum capsici
secondary spread of the disease.
Some times infection also spread to the tip of the young twigs which started drying back
and this is named as “die back” symptom, leading to complete drying of the young shoot.
The extensive dieback symptom leading to blighting of the new shoots is called Twig
blight. In addition, the fungus also cause infection on the fruits as a black depressed
lesion with a dark margin which cause extensive rotting of the fruit skin and internal
tissues, named as fruit rot or fruit spot.
NUTMEG (Mystrica fragrans)

Leaf spot : Colletotrichum capsici
major portion of the leaf leading to complete drying of the lamina. The disease can
easily identified by presence of concentric rings in the blighted area showing the
sporulation of the fungus.,
35
Pathogen :The fungus produces dull brown septate mycelium with dark brown conidia
with 5-6 septa having both horizontal and vertical septation.
Fruit rot : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

CINNAMON(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
Leaf spot : Colletotrichum capsici
Leaf blight : Cylindrocladium quisquiseptatum

Symptoms: Minute greyish black water soaked lesions develop on both young and old
leaves. Several spots coalesce leading to complete blighting of the leaf lamina.
36
Pathogen: The fungus produces dull brown coloured mycelia with single celled hyaline
to dull brown conidia.
PEPPER (Piper nigrum)
Leaf rot/ Leaf blight : Phytophthora capsici
Symptoms: The disease can be visualized as paling and yellowing of few leaves in the
lower portion of the vines. As the disease progresses, the rotting symptom develop from
the margin of the leaf or from the tip of the leaves showing lighted areas. Later
defoliation is very commonly noticed with slow drying of the vine from the tip. The
conspicuous diagnostic symptom of the disease is extensive decay of the collar region of
the vine with exudation of black coloured fluid. (Gummosis) During the highly moist
weather the fallen leaves show extensive wet rot symptoms covered with cottony
white webby mycelial growth.
Pathogen: The pathogen produces hyaline non-septate mycelium. The sporangia are
single celled, hyaline and pear shaped with a papilla at the top. The sexual spores
are oospores which are dark brown and spherical in shape. These oospores survive in the
soil for several years and cause initial infection in the field.
37
TIMBER DECAY AND POST HARVEST SPOILAGE OF WOODS
In general, the breaking down of the wood tissues is termed as Decay.
Decay or rot is mainly caused by fungi. Some time rot due to bacteria also occur but the
decay process is very slow when compared to the fungal invasion. Wood decaying fungi
are those which inhabit the live, dead or felled tree trunks (Logs), roots and coppiced
wood. These are the major contributor for lignin decomposition in the forest or in the
plantation. These include large number of genera and species from Polyporaceae, so
called “Bracket fungi”.
The importance of Wood Decaying Fungi (WDF) was recognized only after the
establishment of the concept of ‘Heart rot’ by Robert Hartig. The majority of the fungi
belong to the genus- Fomes (=Phellinus) are the most important in causing loss of timber
through out the world. The phenomenon of wood decay by fungi is both an asset and a
liability. Because of their unique capacity to degrade lignified tissues, these fungi play a
critical role in the carbon cycle. As the fungi decay wood, the forest debris is diminished,
organic material are added to the soil and carbon is returned to the atmosphere in the
form of carbon dioxide.
In commercially important trees, wood decay fungi are liability since they destroy
valuable raw material. Some also attack wood in service, an additional significant loss.
TYPES OF DECAY
Based upon the nature of infection and damage to the wood, the diseases may be
classified as ‘Staining’and ‘Decay’.
STAINING
Stain or discolouration phenomena are frequently considered along with decay but
are actually important independent processes in themselves. Decay is typically associated
with some degree of stain. Stain, however, may exist in the absence of any decay. Stains
may be divided into those which occur in trees under natural conditions in the forest and
those which develop in the wood of harvested trees. The former may be of considerable
significance in the preconditioning of wood for decay organisms and in direct tree
mortality. The staining is mainly noticed in the sap wood as a dark coloured growth of
the mouldy fungi which can be easily planed off as it is a superficial infection on the
surface of the wood. The fungal hyphae initially concentrate with in the ray cells and
nutrition is obtained from the cell contents as they do not have enzyme system to break
down the components of cell wall. The causal fungi manly develops mainly in the sap
wood, cause little strength reduction. The fungi may be surface moulds like Penicillium
spp. Or interior sap stain fungi such as Ceratocystis spp. Of Cladosporium spp. A
common blue stain is caused by the latter type of fungi.
38
Some times, the pathogen may spread deep into the wood and the toxic substance
produced by the fungi( mainly belong to the Sub Divisions- Asomycotina and
Deuteromycotina) show blue, brown or black stains. Among them, the blue staining is
very common leading to deterioration of the wood quality. The pathogen involved in the
decay also cause stains in the wood in the initial stages of the infection, which later
develop into a typical rotting.
DECAY
In living trees, microbial decay is primarily restricted to the heart wood, which is
the interior core of the tissue in stems and branches of the mature trees and consists of
xylem devoid of living parenchyma cells. Sap wood decay is usually associated with
large wounds.
Constituents of Primary and secondary layers of wood
Constituent Approximate percentage

Cellulose. Linear glucose polymers 51
Hemicellulose, short polymers of various 23

sugars( glucose, mannose, galactose,
xylose and arabinose)
22
Lignin
Extraneous organics (Waxes, fats, oils, 4

tannins, resins)
Miscellaneous inorganics Traces
Based on the nature of the pathogen involved, the decay may be classified as
Bacterial decay and Fungal decay
BACTERIAL DECAY
The decay caused by bacteria are very slow and prolonged process. The bacteria
colonize the ray parenchyma cells of sap wood and grow. Later, they attack the walls of
the ray cells by producing some pectic enzymes leading to soft rots.
FUNGAL DECAY
Based on the nature of destruction of the wood tissues, the wood destroying fungi
can be broadly grouped into three broad classification as Soft rots, White rots and
Brown rots.
Soft rots: When the wood is exposed to highly humid/ moist weather, soft rot occurs
superficially on the surface of the wood due to the break down of the cellulose. This type
39
of rot is found to be insignificant in the standing trees, but most important in wood in
service. It is most prevalent in the wood exposed to excessive moisture, such as in
cooling tower slats, pilings, boats, fence posts, telephone poles, ponded logs and
unpainted building siding. The fungi which soft rot are primarily members of
Ascomycotina and Deuterumycotina. The organisms mainly attack polysaccharide
constituents of secondary cell wall, while lignin is left relatively left unaffected.
White rots:
White rot and brown rot are commercially and ecologically extremely important
as they are the types found in standing trees.
The fungus decomposes all components of wood, including lignin. Because of

degradation of both lignin and cellulose, the affected wood is reduced to spongy mass, to
white pockets or streaks of various size separated by firm, strong wood, giving a bleached
appearance to the wood. The decomposed wood is usually white, but sometimes it may
be yellow, tan or even light brown in colour. This type of rot is very common in hard
woods when compared to soft woods. Although a few fungi under Ascomycotina (mostly
the family- Xylariaces) cause these types of rots, majority are the results of fun belong to
Basidiomycotina.
Family Species Host Decay type

Agaricaceae Collybia velutipes Hard woods White
Schizophyllum commune Hard woods White
Lentinus lepideus Conifers Brown

Hydnaceae Echinodotium tinctorium Conifers Brown
Hydnum abietis Firs White

Polyporaceae Foems pini Oaks White
Ganoderma lucidum Hard woods White
Polyporus sulphureus Hard woods Brown
Poria weirii Conifers Brown
Thelephoraceae Coniophora cerebella Conifers Brown
Peniophora gigantean Conifers White
Brown rots:
In contrast to soft rot fungi, organisms which cause white and brown rots
generally move through and between, as well as, within the wood cell walls. The fungus
40
decomposes the cellulose and its associated pentosans, leaving the lignin more or less
unaffected. The fungus removes cellulose and hemi cellulose in very short time from the
wood leaving behind modified lignin as brown rot residues. The wood is reduced to a
carboneous mass in various shades of brown, which can be powdered between fingers
and to which the name “dry rot’ is often applied.
Decays can often described according to their position in the tree as root rot, butt
rot or stump rot which confined to the base of the tree: trunk rot in the main portion of
the bole; top rot confined to the top portion of the tree. Again the names sap rot and
heart rot are used to denote the type of wood attacked. Heart rots in the standing trees
does not occur till heart wood is formed. This may occur after the formation of heart
wood and may de serious during 15 to 30 years based on the nature of the tree attacked.
When the centre core of the heart wood is exposed through wounds or openings in the sap
wood and bark, the pathogen make entry and progress slowly with time. Normally decay
attacks only heart wood and living wood remain free from infection and thus the trees are
not usually killed immediately.
The decay of heart wood is caused by the fungi belong to the family Polyporaceae
of the class Hymenomycetes of the Sub Division- Basidiomycotina.
Differentiating characters of White rot and Brown rot
White rot Brown rot

1. More common in Angiosperms 1. More associated with Gymnosperms
2. Decomposition of all components of 2. Decomposition of celllulose and its

wood, including lignin associated pentosans, leaving the lignin
more or less unaffected
3. Decayed wood is white in colour or 3.Decayed wood is brown in colour,

gives a bleached appearance presumed due to lignin residues resulting
from preferential utilization of
carbohydrates
4. Dark lines (Zone lines) are seen in the 4. Absent
decayed wood due to strings of tightly
woven hyphae.
5. White rotted woods has normal 5. Brown rotted woods exhibit longitudinal
shrinkage properties and is quite similar to swellings and shrinkage which gives rise to
uninfected wood in terms of dimensional characteristic cubical checking pattern
stability
6. Brown rotted trees show considerable
6. White rotted wood exhibits only slight reduction in the strength
reduction in strength
7. Much reduction in the pulp yield is
7. No major reduction in the pulp yield in noticed
comparison to sound wood
41
Wood decay fungi are frequently classified as top- rotting organisms or butt/ root rotting
organisms, depending on where they generally reside in the host tree.
FUNGI INVOLOVED IN DECAY
Heart rots
Ganoderma applanatum- Acacia, Albizia, mulberry, Fir, Chir Pine, jack

Fomes caryophylli- sal
F. fastuosus- sal, Albizia
F.badius- Acacia
F. fastulosus- Casuarina
F. annosus- Eucalyptus
General Root rots
Ganoderma lucidum- Neem, Bamboo, Pungam, Sal, sissoo, Acacia, Casuarina, Semul,
Albizia, Eucalyptus, Deoder, Chir Pine, Poplar, Rose wood
Fomes lamaoensis – Sal, teak, Rubber, jack

F.noxius- teak, Albizia, Rubber
F. lignosus- Semul, Rubber,jack
F.pini- Chir Pine,Blue pine
F. caryophylli- Mathuca
F.merillii - Pungam
Helicobasidium compactum- Teak, Eucalyptus, Chir Pine

H.mompa- Mulberry
Peniophora rhizomorpho-sulphurea - Teak

P. luna - Deoder
Polyporus shoreae- sal, teak

Poyporus gilvus- Sissoo. Rose wood, Acacia, Albizia, Blue pine
P.zonalis- teak, jack
P. glomeratus- Casuarina
P. tomentosus- Deoder
P.annosus- Blue pine
Rosellinia necatrix- Mulberry,

R. bunodes- Silver oak
Ustulina zonata- Rubber
Poria hypobrunnea- Rubber
42
Armillaria mellea - Teak, Casuarina, Albizia, rubber, Eucalyptus, Deoder, Fir, Chir
Pine, Blue pine, Silver oak, Gmelina
Root rot and butt rot- Fomes annosus, Polyporus schweinitzii
Stump rot- Fomes lignosus
STAGES OF DECAY
There are two stages in the decay as wood is changed from sound to completely
decayed. In the earliest stages, the wood appears to be hard and firm, the only evidence of
attack is a slight to marked colour change from normal. This is known as incipient or
early or initial or beginning or first or primary or invasion stage. In the case of
Brown rot, the incipient decay itself is highly dangerous as it seriously weaken the wood
and it should not be used where strength is required. In some cases, the decays continue
to develop under favorable conditions after the tree is converted which lead to rapid
deterioration of the timber.
After the incipient stage is passed , the wood becomes more and more affected
until it is finally changed in appearance and structure, leading to destruction of the
tissues. This is known as advanced or late or mature or typical or complete or
ultimate or destruction stage. In this stage, the strength of the wood is so reduced that it
can be crumbled between the fingers or easily broken into pieces.
FACTORS INFLUENCING DECAY
The decay of wood is highly influenced by some factors which can be grouped as
External and Internal. The progress and severity of the decay occur in combination of the
both the factors.
Internal Factors
1. Natural Resistance of the wood
The natural durability and decay resistance of the wood may be based on the
inherent character of the tree species and it can resist the invasion by the fungi. The
inherent characters may be the thickness of the bark, nature of the sap wood, nature of the
heart wood, pH of the substrate and the nature of the quality of the wood i.e. soft wood or
hard wood.
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun has devised four decay resistant classes
based on the filed and service tests of the wood.
Class Decay Resistance of wood/ timber

Class I Very resistant: Average life of timber is more than 120 months or more
Class II Resistant: Average life of timber is between 60- 199 months.
43
Class III Moderately resistant: Average life of timber is less than 59 months
Class IV Non- resistant: Average life of timber is very less
2. Natural toxic exudates
The natural toxic extracts present in the wood give a certain degree of resistance
to the to the fungal infection. These chemicals usually formed during development of
the heart wood and are deposited in the cell wall. Most of the extractives are phenols
and their chemical nature varies from tree species to species. Some of the phenolics
present in tree species are shown below:
Thujaplicin - Conifers
Tactile - Teak
Lepachono - Broad leaved species
Coumarins and Phenols- Many other forest trees
In addition, the pH of the substrate also plays a role in the invasion by the decay
fungi. Optimum growth of the fungi is experienced between pH of 6 to 7, below and
above which the growth is adversely affected and the timber rendered less prone to attack
by the pathogen.
External factors
1. Tree age
The age of the tree also have an impact on the decay pathogens. The tree becomes
more prone to attack by heart rot with age. The severity of the heart wood decay in forest
stand increases with age. Decay is more common in a severe form in over mature trees. In
the same age class, stand vigour has a major impact on the decay incidence. When the
plantation is in a poorly growing condition there occurs increase in the establishment and
multiplication of the fungal pathogens lead to severe decay.
2. Temperature
The atmospheric temperature also has a influence over the decay fungi. The
optimum range of temperature for the fungi ranges from 17- 30° C. The growth and
enzymatic activities of the fungi are adversely affected by the very low and very high
temperature.
3. Air- moisture balance
The balance between air and moisture is the controlling factor for the
development of decay. The pathogen requires enough moisture in the wood and high
relative humidity to survive and act. Hence, a suitable air- moisture balance has to be
maintained for the pathogen to cause decay. Fungi are unable to grow if moisture of
the wood is below 20 per cent.
44
4. Soil Moisture
The soils with less moisture favour more of heart rots than the wet soils.
5. Soil reaction
The pH levels of the soils also have an impact on the growth of the decay fungi.
The infection of Fomes annosus in Pine forests is found increase with increase in the soil
pH. Similarly, in Picea, the F. annosus infection is mores in area of high pH.
6. Soil texture
The soil texture also show a bearing on the decay of heart woods. The incidence
of heart rot is more in Picea when it is grown in clayey soils and less in sandy soils. In
contrast, the diseases are more in Larix, when it is grown in sandy soils. Populus stands
are less prone to heart rot diseases when grown in sandy silt or sandy loam. The disease is
more in the impervious soils like clay.
7. Injury
The tree wounds are the main entry point for many of the fungi which cause
different types of rots on the forest plantations. The injuries caused by frost and fire also
pave way for the pathogen to establish and cause decay. In Sal, the cankers developed
due to frost give way for the entry of Fomes caryophyli.
CHEMISTRY OF DECAY
The decay of wood is a chemical reaction on the substances secreted by the fungal
pathogens on the substance comprising of wood. Generally the wood decaying fungi
produce different enzymes which have a specific effect on the constituents of cell wall to
cause different types of wood decay. Brown rot fungi normally attack celluloses and
associated pentosans by producing cellulase enzymes. The white rot fungi attack both
celluloses and lignin by producing lignases in addition to cellulases.
i) Early attack on lignin and pentosans and delay in disorganization of
cellulose
ii) Early disintegration of cellulose and its associated pentosans and
delayed attack on lignin
iii) Early decomposition of both lignin and cellulose in varying
proportions.
The utilization of the chromogenic materials in the wood resulted in a typical bleached
appearance. The bleaching effect of all white rot fungi is probably due to pigment
destruction rather than by lignin destruction. The wood affected by white rots undergo
normal shrinkage. The white rot fungi act in three ways based on the nature of the
substrate.
45
GROSS CHARACTERS OF DECAY
In the advanced stages of decay, wood is markedly changed in its physical

properties and can be easily apparent to the unaided eye. A knowledge on the gross
characters of the wood is essential for intelligent use of wood and to avoid use of decayed
wood. Some important gross characters usually employed are colour, zonelines, odour
and strength.
ODOUR
In general, the odour of the decayed wood is noticeable only in the advanced
stage from the freshly cut surfaces. Decay due to Polyporus schweinitzii. In oak and
spruce wood has a distinct odour of anise oil. Decay by Lentinus lepides in pine has a
characteristic odour of aromatic resinous and fungus odour.
COLOUR
Pronounced colour change is very commonly observed in the decayed woods.
Usually, in the case of sap stain the colour change takes place within a few days of
infection . Though the usual shades of colour change is blue, the wood may exhibit
brown or black colour. In white rot infection, the wood is bleached indicating the natural
colour of the wood. Fomes applanatus which causes white heart rot first produces a
brownish discoloured zone, later the colouration is accompanied by pinkish, reddish or
purplish shades. The infection of F. annosus and Polyporus circinatus is indicated by
pinkish to reddish discolourations.
ZONELINES
The infection by the decay fungi also form zonation lines in the affected
areas of the wood. Narrow zone line, usually black sometimes, brown are very
commonly noticed in many decays. Narrow, black to dark brown zone lines
usually seen in the case of white rots showing the host cells fully filled with
fungal mycelia.
STRENGTH
The incipient decay may or may not seriously weaken the strength,
depending upon the type of decay. The wood with incipient stages of brown rot is
seriously impaired in strength, however, the wood with incipient white rot is little
weakened. Toughness and shock resistance is first affected by the decay so that
wood breaks abruptly across the grain with relatively little resistance, indicating
little tensile strength. The wood affected by white rot breaks in splinters or as
peculiar fibres. In addition white rot infected wood develop pockets within the
tissues and make them useless.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Usually there occurs reduction in the specific gravity of the wood due to decay as
the quantity of wood substance per unit volume gets less. So the decayed wood
has lower volume and colorific values
46
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD/ TIMBER
In timber, the fungal pathogen attack after felling and conversion of wood may
initiate from
i) The fungus present in the living tree may multiply in the dead wood
ii) Fresh infection on the dead wood after felling and conversion.
Prevention of decay after felling and in storage
The decay resistance of the heartwood varies widely from species to species. In
nature, the sapwood of most species suffers to decay very fast, if suitable protective
measures are not attempted. The following are some of the prophylactic measures to be
adopted for prevention of wood decay after felling.
i) The felled and converted logs should be transported from forest

immediately.
ii) The cut ends should be painted with suitable preservatives.
iii) The wood logs of species whose bark are not resistant to fungal attack
may be removed thereby eliminating the risk of infection.
iv) Suitable protective chemicals may be applied at different stage of the
conversion process: apply immediately after felling, after conversion and
before storage. In warm and humid weather, the preservatives should be
applied within 48 hrs after felling as stain causing fungi may infect
quickly the surface of the log.
v) After preservative treatment, the logs may be end- coated by applying
thick, viscous bituminous preparation of asphalt or coal tar pitch.
Alternatively, mud plaster can also be applied as end-coating. The end
coating is useful in preventing infection of the fungi from any cracks left
out in the chemically treated wood lots.
Wood Preservatives
The wood decay can be eliminated by proper treatment with some chemicals-
preservatives. The treatment usually helps in increasing the service life of the wood. A
good preservatives should be highly toxic to the fungi, have low volatility, high
resistance to leaching and more ability to penetrate deep into the wood.
Types of preservatives
1. Preservative Oils
Creosote is the very commonly used oil for preservation of wood used in railways
and marine industry.
2. Chemicals soluble in Water
47
The chemicals like copper sulphate, zinc chloride and mercuric chloride are used
for preservation of woods. ‘ASCU’, the mixture of Copper-chrome-arsenic is very
effectively used for wood preservation.
3. Chemicals soluble in organic solvents

The chemicals like pentachlorophenol, zinc and copper napthenates come under
this group.
Methods of application of preservatives
1. Surface application
This type of application is used for short term preservation of wood as it is

applied on the surface of the wood.
2. Wood Impregnation
This method is useful for long term preservation of the wood, in which the
chemical is impregnated into the wood either by open tank treatment under
atmospheric pressure or by employing pressure to fill the cells of wood with the
chemical.
3. Boucherie method
In this method, the sap is replaced with the preservative chemical.
Precautionary measures at Timber Yard
i) The storage yard must be in an elevated area or well drained and should
always be clean
ii) The floor of the yard should be of concrete or brick lined with a gradual
slope to the drain.
iii) The storage of timber should be well planned and arranged in a systematic
manner with proper ventilation.
iv) Periodic checking of the logs to be done and any log showing the
symptoms must be removed.
48
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
INTRODUCTION
Mushroom is a fleshy fruiting body of some fungi arising from a group of
mycelium buried in substratum. Most of the mushrooms belong to the Sub-
Division: Basidiomycotina and a few belong to Ascomycotina.
In Basidiomycotina, three types of mycelia viz., primary, secondary and tertiary,

are noticed. The primary mycelium is monokaryotic and is formed by germination of
Basidio-spores. These are of different mating types and give rise to secondary mycelium
by somato-gamy or fusion of two basidiospores or spermatization of two female sex
organs. The secondary mycelium forms major portion of the somatic phase and later
produces tertiary mycelia, which give rise to fruiting body- basidiocarp (Mushroom).
Mushrooms and toadstools are included under Agaricals. Their fruiting bodies are
like umbrella, found in every country from snowy mountains to sandy deserts on all types
of soils, pastures, forests, wastelands and cultivable lands. Naturally they appear in all
seasons, chiefly during rainy season, as the conditions favour the development of fruiting
bodies from the buried mycelia. The edible fruiting bodies are called mushroom and
poisonous ones are called as toadstools. The word “toadstool” in fact, is a distortion of
the German word ”Toadestuhl”, which means “ death chair”. Moreover, the name of the
“mycology” was given to the “study of mushrooms” (Mykes = mushroom). In addition,
some fungi belong to Ascomycotina (Class: Discomycetes, Order: Pezizales and Family:
Morchellaceae) also produce fleshy fruiting bodies which are used as food. They are
commonly called as Morels and Truffles. Species of Morchella and Tuber are such edible
fungi under this sub division. In Tuber, the cup-shaped fruiting body is infolded and
resembles like potato and hence called Tuber. In Morels, the cup is infolded and
convoluted like a sponge, hence called as Sponge mushroom.
It is reported that there are about 50,000 known species of fungi and about 10000
are considered as edible ones. Of which, about one hundred and eighty mushrooms can
49
be tried for artificial cultivation and seventy are widely accepted as food. The cultivation
techniques were perfected for about twenty mushrooms and about dozen of them have
been recommended for commercial cultivation. However, only six mushrooms are widely
preferred for large-scale cultivation. They are
1) Paddy straw mushroom - Volvariella spp.
2) Oyster mushroom - Pleurotus spp.
3) Button mushroom - Agaricus spp.
4) Milky mushroom - Calocybe spp.
5) Shiitake mushroom - Lentinus spp.
6) Jew’s ear mushroom - Auricularia sp.
Morphology of Mushroom
The mycelium of the fungus is present in the substratum and produce fruiting
bodies when the conditions are conducive. The fruit bodies begin as tiny knob of tissue
arising from the under ground mycelium. It grows into a button, which later enlarges to
form a well-developed fruiting body. The fruiting body of the mushroom consists of a
stem( Stipe), which supports as expanded, umbrella-shaped cap(Pileus). On the under
side of the umbrella are the gills or lamellae, which in the young stage are enclosed by a
membrane that extends from the margin of the pileus to stipe.This membrane is known as
Partial veil and usually tears around the margin of the pileus as the latter expands but
remains attached to the stipe where it forms a ring (Annulus). In some mushrooms, the
young buttons are covered by a membrane called Universal veil or General veil. When
the cap expands, the veil is torn and the remnants at the base form Volva and some of the
fragments remain attached to the pileus surface.
Mushroom varieties/ strains released from TNAU for commercial cultivation
Scientific Name Variety/ Place of release

strain name
50
Oyster mushroom
Pleurotus sajor- caju M2 Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU,

Coimbatore
P. citrinopileatus Co1 Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU,
Coimbatore
P. djamor MDU 1 Dept. of Plant Pathology,
Agricultural College & Research
P. eous (= P. salmoneo APK 1 Institute., Madurai
stramineus) Regional Research Station,
Aruppukottai
P. ostreatus Ooty 1 Horticultural Research Station,
Uthagamandalam
P. florida Pf Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU,
Coimbatore
P. platypus Pp Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU,
Coimbatore
P. Flabellatus MDU 2 Dept. of Plant Pathology,
Agricultural College & Research
Institute., Madurai
Hipsizygus ulmarius Co2 Dept. of Plant Pathology, TNAU,
Coimbatore
Milky mushroom
APK 2 Regional Research Station,
Calocybe indica Aruppukottai
Button mushroom AB1(Ooty1 Horticultural Research Station,

) Vijayanagaram
Agaricus bisporus Horticultural Research Station,
Ooty 2 Vijayanagaram
EQUIPEMENTS, INSTRUMENTS AND ESSENTIALS FOR MUSHROOM

CULTIVATION
The following are the essentials needed for spawn as well as cultivation of
mushroom.
1. Autoclave/ Pressure cooker
51
Autoclave is a container used for sterilizing liquid media as well as other
substrates employing super heated steam under pressure. It is a double –walled
equipment, packed with glass wool in between to maintain the heat, fixed with heating
elements in the bottom. A safety valve is also fixed to protect the equipment form high-
pressure development and an outlet to release air and steam before pressure built up. The
pressure cooker also works on the same principal but the pressure built inside the vessel
cannot be measured as Pressure gauge is missing. For small scale cultivation, pressure
cookers can be used, but autoclaves should be engaged for large scale commercial
cultivation.
2. Hot Air Oven
It is a hot air chamber mainly used to sterilize glass wares like petri dishes, flasks,
beakers, test tubes etc. The above materials are sterilized by maintaining the temperature
ranging from 120º to 180ºC for a specified time.
3. Chaff cutter
It is needed for chopping paddy straw into small bits of 2-3” for easy handling
and bed preparation. Hand operated chaff cutters are available for small units and motor
operated cutters can be used in large commercial units.
4. Culture room (Inoculation Chamber)/ Air Flow Chamber
Culture room is a most essential facility required for preparation of fungal

cultures and spawn production. The size of room may be 3mX3mX3m with an air tight
false roofing and a tight fitting door. A clean platform may be constructed or otherwise a
laminated table may be placed inside the chamber. An Ultra Violet (UV) light should be
fixed for sterilizing the chamber for sterilizing the room before operation. A fluorescent
light may also fixed inside for using at the time of working inside the chamber. A gas
cylinder and a Bunsen burner are the other items necessarily kept inside the unit. In
addition, a small plastic tray may be kept inside to keep razor blades, inoculation needles,
forceps etc.,
52
Airflow chambers of different dimensions are available readily for use. In this
chamber, the atmospheric air taken in and sterilized air is gently flow inside the work
chamber while operating. An UV lamp is fixed inside the work chamber for sterilizing
before using the equipment.
5. Mushroom Sheds:
a) Thatched sheds: For cultivation of mushroom, thatched shed is mostly suitable in

Plains whereas asbestos sheds are highly preferred in hilly areas. The erection of thatched
sheds is a must for the successful cultivation of oyster as well as milky mushroom
because the required optimum temperature and relative humidity are easily maintained
with minimum efforts. The sheds should have a door, ventilators with fly-proof nets, false
roofing and racks/ plastic thread hang system (Uri method) for placing the beds. River
sand may be filled to a height of 6” on the floor. It is better to construct mushroom sheds
with separate rooms for spawn running and cropping. One or two low voltage electric
bulbs may be fixed inside the shed.
The shed may be constructed in East-west direction to avoid direct effect of sun
and to reduce the temperature inside the shed. The height of thatched shed should be
around 4 metres and with a false ceiling at a height of 2.5 metres. The size of door may
be 2.25 x 0.75 metres. The ventilators size may 0.6 x 0.3 metre and 2 ventilators for 8
square metre shed is essential for proper air circulation.
i) Spawn running room:

Spawn running room is one where the newly prepared beds are kept for
proliferation of mycelium in the bed. Preferably, a separate room can be erected inside
the thatched shed for this purpose. The spawn running room does not require light but
sufficient provision for air ventilation is necessary. Normally, the optimum temperature
of 22-25º C and a relative humidity of 80-85% should be maintained inside the spawn
running room.
ii) Cropping room:
Cropping room is one where the completely spawn- run beds are kept for
production of mushroom. This room requires a relatively cooler atmosphere than the
53
spawn running room. The temperature should be around 20-23 º C with a relative
humidity of 85-90%. Cropping room should have good ventilation and diffused light.
The size of the shed may vary according to the cost of the project. The
approximate size of spawn running and cropping rooms required for the production of
mushrooms of required quantity are indicated below.
Size of Spawn running Size of cropping room
Mushroom Production room
(Kg/ day)
1 4x2m (8 Sq. m.) 4x2m (8 Sq. m.)
5 16 x 2.5 m* ( 40 16 x 2.5 m* ( 42
20 Sq.m.) Sq.m.)
20 x 8 m* ( 160 20 x 8 m* ( 160
Sq.m) Sq.m)
* Instead of single room of above size, small rooms with size of 8 Sq. m. may be
erected for easy operation and maintenance.
b) Polythene shed:
For cultivation of milky mushroom, in addition to thatched shed, pit with a

structure covered with blue coloured polythene sheet is a must for production of
mushroom buttons. For this purpose, normally 3’ deep pit is dug out and a semi-circular
structure is constructed over it either with bamboo or iron rods to cover it with a blue
coloured High-Density Polythene (HDPE) sheet. This is necessary to maintain
temperature of 35-40 º C and relative humidity of 85-90 % inside. The beds are placed in
the thatched sheds till completion of spawn running and the beds are cased and cased
beds are to be kept inside the blue tent for production of mushroom.
6. Other essentials:
i) Paddy straw: Freshly harvested and well-dried paddy is highly preferable. Paddy straw.
Spoiled/ moulded paddy straw or cattle thrashed paddy straw are not suitable.
54
ii) Cement trough or tank: This is used for soaking paddy straw before sterilization.
Instead of this, G.I. drums/ barrels can be used for this purpose.
iii) G.I. drums: G.I. drums of different capacities (50, 100 and 200 litres) are necessary.
The paddy straw can be soaked in big drums and for boiling the straw, small one
are preferable.
iv) Chullah: It is used for boiling paddy straw, in the place of gas cylinder.
v) Wire baskets: Big sized wire baskets are necessary for draining excess water after
soaking or boiling.
vi) Hessian cloth rolls: These are essential for drying boiled straw as well as cooked
sorghum grains.
vii) Wall thermometer: It is fixed inside the mushroom sheds to observe the temperature
maintained inside.
Viii) Hand operated sprayers/ atomizers: These are used to spray water in side the
mushroom shed as well as on mushroom beds.
ix) Polythene bags: Polythene bag of 80gauge thickness and of size, 60 cm x 30 cm is
used for preparation of beds. Polybags of size, 20cm x 15 cm are used for packing
mushroom after harvesting.
x) Polypropylene bags: Polypropylene bags of size, 27 cm x 12 cm with a thickness of
200 gauge are used for spawn preparation.
xi) Cotton wool: Non –absorbent cotton wool is used for plugging spawn bags. Absorbent
cotton rolls are required for cleaning the culture room/ inoculation table etc.,
xii) Miscellaneous items: Gas stove, Small balance (1 Kg capacity), plastic trays, jute
thread balls, cotton thread balls, conical flask of different capacity, Petri plates,
test tubes, boiling test tubes, funnel, muslin cloth, pH indicator papers,
Hydrochloric acid, Sodium hydroxide, antiseptic lotions, waste newspapers, glass/
iron rods, match boxes, permanent marker pens etc.,
CULTIVATION OF OYSTER MUSHROOM
PREPARATION OF SPAWNS
BASE SPAWN
55
Tissue culture technique is used to bring the edible mushroom to pure culture so
that the mushroom fungus can further be used to prepare spawn, which is an essential
material for mushroom cultivation. This nucleus culture is grown on Potato Dextrose
Agar medium in test tubes. A small tissue from a well-grown mushroom is aseptically
transferred to agar medium in a test tube in a culture room. The test tubes are incubated
under room temperature for 10 days for full white growth of fungal culture. This is
further used for preparation of Mother spawn.
Procedure:
i) Select well grown, disease free oyster mushroom early in the morning
and keep it on a clean paper for 2-3 hr. to get certain amount of moisture
present in the mushroom to get evaporated.
ii) Clean the culture room/ laminar flow chamber with antiseptic solution.
iii) Keep the sterilized PDA slants, razor blades, forceps etc. inside the
chamber and put on the UV light.
iv) After 20 minutes put off the UV light and and start working after 5
minutes.
v) Sterilize all the instruments to be used by exposing to Bunsen burner.
vi) Take in the mushroom and split open the mushroom longitudinally into
two halves.
vii) Using a new, sterilized blade cut a small piece of tissue from the
centre of the split mushroom at the junction of pileus and stipe.
viii) Remove the cotton plug of the agar slant and the tissue is aseptically
placed inside the slant by using a sterilized forceps and close it
immediately.
xi) After transferring tissues from the mushroom, the tube are arranged in
a wire basket and kept in a clean room at room temperature for the growth
of the fungus.
xii) Observe the tube at periodical intervals and remove the contaminated
ones. The tubes will be ready for further use within another ten days. The
base spawn is used for preparation of mother spawns.
56
Precautions to be observed:
• Wash the hands with antiseptic lotion before start working inside the chamber. If
possible, it is better to use hand gloves while operation.
• It is better that the maximum of two persons may work inside the room at a time.
Avoid unnecessary talking while working inside the room.
• While separating the tissue from the centre of the mushroom it should not touch the
bottom or sides of the mushroom.
PREPARATION OF MOTHER SPAWN

Mother spawn is nothing but the mushroom fungus grown on a grain based
medium. Among the several substrate materials tested by TNAU, Coimbatore, sorghum
grains are the best substrate for excellent growth of the fungus. Well-filled, disease- free
sorghum grains are used as substrate for growing the spawn materials. The various steps
involving in preparation of mother spawn are listed below here under.
i) Wash the sorghum grains in water thoroughly to remove chaffy and
damaged grains.
ii) Cook the grains in an autoclave / vessel for 30 minutes just to soften
them.
iii) Take out the cooked grains and spread evenly over a Hessian cloth on
a platform to remove the excess water.
iv) Mix Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)thoroughly with the cooked, dried

grains @ 20 g / Kg .
v) Fill the grains in polypropylene bags up to 3/4th height (approximately

300-330 g / bag), insert a PVC ring , bold the edges of the bag down and
plug the mouth tightly with non-absorbent cotton wool.
vi) Cover the cotton plug with a piece of waste paper and tie tightly
around the neck with a jute thread.
vii) Arrange the bags inside an autoclave and sterilize under 20-lbs.
pressure for 2 hours.
viii) Take out the bags after cooling and keep them inside the culture
room and put on the UV light.
ix) After 20 minutes put off the UV light and start working in the culture
57
room.
Cut the fungal culture into two equal halves using a inoculation needle
and transfer one half portion to a bag. Similarly, transfer another half
portion of the culture to an another bag.
x) Incubate the inoculated bags in a clean room under room

temperature for 10 days for further use to prepare bed spawn.
Note: The purpose of mixing Calcium carbonate is i) to remove the excess

moisture present in the cooked grains, ii) to neutralize the pH of the grains and iii)
to avoid caking of grains after sterilization.
Precaution to be observed:
• Avoid over cooking of sorghum grains, as over cooking lead to splitting of grains.
• Don’t dry the cooked grains on the floor. Always dry over hessian cloth spread on a
raised platform
• Use only recommended dose of CaCo3 for mixing with the cooked grains. Mixing
over dose reduces the fungal growth in the inoculated bags.
PREPARATION OF BED SPAWN
The method of preparation of bed spawn was same as that of mother spawn.
The cooking, filling and sterilization were similar to that of mother spawn. After
sterilization, the bags are taken for inoculation.
Procedure:
i) The sterilized bags are placed inside the culture room and put on
the UV light.
ii) After 20 minute put off the UV light and take in the well-grown
mother spawn.
iii) Transfer spawn from the mother spawn to sterilized bags @ 10

g per bag.
iv) After inoculation the spawn bags are kept in a clean room for
fungal growth. (This is first generation of bed spawn)
v) Use the bed spawn after 10 days of inoculation for bed

preparation.
58
vi) Sub culture the first generation bed spawn as mother spawn to
produce one more generation, which is second generation bed
spawn.
• Avoid over cooking of sorghum grains, as over cooking lead to splitting of grains.
• Don’t dry the cooked grains on the floor. Always dry over hessian cloth spread on a
raised platform
• Use only recommended dose of CaCo3 for mixing with the cooked grains. Mixing
over dose reduces the fungal growth in the inoculated bags.
• Avoid further sub culturing of the second generation bed spawns. This leads to lose of
virulence of the spawn lead to reduced yield and repeated sub culturing lead to
complete lose of virulence wherein the fungal growth may be noted in the beds but no
buttoning is completely arrested.
59
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
BED PREPARATION AND CROPPING
PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATES AND STERILIZATION
Pleurotus spp. can be grown indoors and any well-ventilated room would be
suitable. A thatched shed with false roofing is an ideal room for successful cultivation of
this mushroom, as the required temperature pf 20-25° and relative humidity of 80-85 %
cab easily be maintained.
Preparation of substrate:
In the cultivation of oyster mushroom, most cellulosic farm waste is used as

substrate. These include paddy straw, corncobs, bagasse, banana leaves, leaf litters of
various kinds, waste paper, cotton waste etc., Among them, paddy straw is found to be
the best substrate giving more bio efficiency. Paddy straw is chopped into bits of size2-3”
for easy handling and operation.
Sterilization of substrate:
There are three methods with which the chopped straw can be sterilized. Any one
method can be adopted based on the facilities available.
1) Hot water treatment/ Boiling method:
i) Soak the chopped paddy straw in cold water for 4 hr in a G.I. Drum..
ii) Drain the water and add fresh water and cover the drum with gunny
sac.
iii) Boil the contents over the flame for one hr.
iv) After boiling, take out the straw and drain the excess water by keeping
60
then in wire baskets.
v) Spread the straw as thin layer on a hessian cloth, spread on a raised

platform.
vi) Shade dry the straw to get 60-65 % moisture capacity.
2. Steaming:
i) Soak the chopped paddy straw in cold water for 4 hr in a G.I. Drum..
ii) Drain the water and take straw out and fill it in big wire baskets.
iii) Keep the wire baskets in an autoclave and put on the autoclave and
allow it to steam for 1 hr.
iv) After steaming, take out the straw and drain the excess water by
keeping then in wire baskets.

platform.
vi) Shade dry the straw to get 60-65 % moisture capacity.
3. Chemical method:
i) Take 100 litre of clean cold water in a 200-litre G.I. drum and mix 10 g
of carbendazim and 120 ml. of formalin.
ii) Weigh 10 kg of dry straw and soak in the solution and cover it air tight
with a thick polythene sheet.
iii) Soak the straw in the chemical solution for 16 hr. .
iv) After soaking, take out the straw and drain the excess chemical
solution by keeping then in wire baskets.

platform.
61
vi)Shade dry the straw to get 60-65 % moisture capacity.
i) The straw should not be dried on a floor.
ii) The hessian cloth should be disinfected Dettol or any disinfectant

before use.
iii) In the case of chemical treatment, the doses of the chemical should
not exceed the recommended level.
iv) The 60 % moisture content in the straw can be judged by taking a

handful of straw and squeeze it tightly. The water should not drip out and
the palm can feel the wetness of the straw.
BED PREPARATION
The cultivation of oyster mushroom is usually carried out in transparent polythene

covers. The size of the cover should be 60 x 30 cm, with a thickness of 80 gauge.
Procedure:
i) Wash hands thoroughly with antiseptic lotion.
ii) Take the polythene cover and tie the bottom end wit a thread and turn
it inwards.
iii) Mix the dried straw thoroughly to get a uniform moisture level in all
areas.
iv) Take out a well-grown bed spawn, squeeze thoroughly and divide into
two halves.
(Two beds are prepared from the single spawn bag)
v) Fill the straw to a height of 3” in the bottom of polythene bag, take a

handful of spawn and sprinkle over the straw layer , concentrating more
on the edges.
vi) Fill the second layer of the straw to a height of 5” and spawn it as
above.
vii) Repeat this process to get five straw layers with spawns.
viii) Gently press the bed and tie it tightly with a thread.
62
ix) Put 6 ventilation holes randomly for ventilation as well as to remove
excess moisture present inside the bed.
x) Arrange the beds in side the thatched shed, (Spawn running room)
following Rack
system or Hanging system.
xi ) Maintain the temperature of 22-25° C and relative humidity of 85-90
% inside the shed.
xii) Observe the beds daily for contamination, if any. The contaminated
beds should be removed and destroyed.
xiii) Similarly, observe regularly for the infestation of insect pests viz.,
flies, beetles, mites etc., If noticed, the pesticide like Malathion
should be sprayed in side the shed @ 1 ml per litre of water.
xiv) The fully spawn run beds can be shifted to cropping room for
initiation of buttons.
i) Keep the spawn running room dark so that spawn running will be faster.
ii) Periodically place Rat-baiting to kill rats as they are attracted by the
spawn.
iii) Periodically sprinkle water on sand layer to maintain the required

conditions.
iv) Never spray any insecticides on the mushroom beds.
CROPPING, HARVESTING AND PACKING
The fully spawn run beds should be transferred to cropping room in the thatches
shed, where the diffused light and good ventilation are necessary for the button
development.
There are different methods to handle the spawn run bed to initiate button
development. They are
1. Open bed method , wherein the polythene cover is completely
removed and allowed for cropping.
63
2. Closed bed method, wherein the polythene cover is intact and buttons
will come out through the holes made of pierce through the cover.
3. Half cover open method, wherein the one half of the polythene cover is
removed for cropping and second half after first harvest.
4. Stripe method, wherein the polythene cover as longitudinal strips of 5-
cm breadth at 4-5 places in the bed.
5.Tear method, wherein the polythene cover is teared longitudinally at
several places.
6. Round opening method, wherein the round shaped openings of 5 cm
diameter are made at random.
However, among all the methods of opening of beds, complete removal of the polythene
cover is found to give more yields than others. The steps followed in full opening of bed
are described below:
Procedure:
i) Use a new blade and cut the polythene covers and remove fully.
ii) Allow the bed to dry for a day, as freshly opened beds contain more
moisture.
iii) Spray water on the beds from second day of opening using an
atomizer.
( Based on the condition, two to three sprays are necessary daily and never allow
beds to dry completely))
iv) Observe the beds regularly and bed, if any, showing contamination
should be removed.
(Two to three days after opening pinheads of mushroom button develop
which will be ready for harvest with in another 4 days)
v) Harvest the entire bunch of mushroom gently in the early hours of
morning.
vi) Remove the straw bits adheres to the mushroom and cut off the
bottom portion of the stalk.
vii) Pack neatly in a polythene cover @ 200 g per bag and put a few
64
ventilation holes.
viii) Keep them in an icebox and send to sales unit immediately.
( The freshly harvested and packed mushrooms can be kept in a
refrigerator, if mushroom to be sold next day)
xi) After harvest, scrap out the mushroom bed with a new comb to
remove dried and rotten buds of mushroom.
xii) Spray the beds daily, based on the conditions of the beds two to three
sprays may be needed.
( Second harvest can be done 7-10 days after the first harvest)
xiii) After second harvest, scrap out the outer layers as above and spray
water regularly.
(Third harvest can be had after a week or ten days).
xiv) Dispose the beds after third harvest as it is uneconomical to keep the
beds further.
i) Always maintain the optimum temperature of 23-25° C and relative
humidity of 80- 85% inside the shed.
ii) Never pour water on the beds, which leads to complete rotting of
young developing buds.
iii) Spray water on the beds only after harvesting the mushroom.
iv) Always harvest the mushroom in the morning and pack them
immediately.
v) If the closed bed system or other partial opening methods is followed,
it is better to wet the sand layer frequently to maintain the temperature and
relative humidity)
MILKY MUSHROOM
65
The methods of spawn and bed preparation are similar to that of oyster
mushroom. After spawn running inside the thatched shed, the beds should be kept inside
the Blue polythene house after casing.
CASING AND CROPPING
In the case of milky mushroom, an extra process called casing has to be done to
induce button formation. After casing operation the beds should be arranged inside the
Blue polythene covered pit tent for the growth of the mushroom. The fungus requires an
optimum temperature of 30-35° C and relative humidity of 80-85 per cent for the better
growth and production of sporocarp. In addition, the fungus needs a light intensity of
2500- 3000-lux for production of buttons, and the cased beds should be kept inside the
blue tent.
Casing:
Casing nothing but application of thin layer of sterilized soil on the surface of
mushroom bed to induce buttons formation. For casing, garden land soil rich in calcium
is preferable. Instead of that soil and river sand , mixed in equal proportion can also be
used. Sometimes the soil is mixed with Calcium carbonate @ 100 g/ kg and used as a
casing medium. The soil used for casing process should be free of stones and stubble and
has to be sterilized before casing. The soil is taken in a mud pot or a vessel and steamed
in an autoclave or pressure for 45 minutes. (Soil can also be mixed with a little quantity
of water and sterilized for this purpose). The soil is used for casing after cooling.
Procedure:
i) Take the fully spawn run bed and cut horizontally into two equal halves.
ii) Compact the beds as much as possible by pressing firmly with hand.
66
iii) Apply casing soil to a height of 1 cm and press it gently.
iv) Spray the water sufficiently to wet the cased soil.
v) Place the beds inside the blue tent.
vi) Observe the beds daily and spray water, if necessary, to keep the beds
wet.
vii) Watch for any contamination and insect pests. If noticed take
necessary steps.
( Ten after casing the small pin head buttons develop and with in another 7
days mushrooms are ready for harvest)
viii) Harvest the mushroom, clean it and pack it in a polythene bag for
sales.
xi) Stir the top of the bed after first harvest and spray water regularly.
(Second harvest can be obtained in another 10 days)
xii) Disturb the topsoil after second harvest and spray water as regular.
(Third harvest can be done after 10 days and for commercial
cultivation a maximum of three harvests is recommended).
The mushroom yield of 350 –400 g can be obtained from 250 g dry weight of the
straw, providing all optimum conditions inside the mushroom shed.
67

Forest Pathology

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FFB 203 FOREST PATHOLOGY (1+1)

DISEASES OF TEAK, NEEM AND JATROPHA

TEAK (Tectona grandis)

Rust : Olivea tectonae (Uredo tectonae)

Leaf spot/blight : Phomopsis tectonae

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Butt rot/ Root rot : Polyporus zonalis

Ganoderma Root disease : Ganoderma lucidum

Symptoms: The disease can be visualized as yellowing and dropping of leaves in

Pathogen: It produces a thick and woody basidiocarp named as Bracket (Sexual

JATROPHA (Jatropha curcus)

Damping off : Fusarium solani

Root rot : Macrophomina phaseolina

Powdery Mildew : Oidium sp.

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Leaf spot : Cercopsora jatropha- curcus

Anthracnose : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Nursery Root rot/ Web blight : Rhizoctonia solani

Leaf spot : Cercospora meliae

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum

Flowering parasite : Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata

EUCALYTUS ( Eucalyptus tereticonis)

Leaf spot/Die back : Colletotrichum eucalytii

Leaf spot : Cylindrocaldium quinqueseptatum

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Stem canker :Diaporthe cubensis

Rust : Puccinia psidii

CASUARINA (Casuarina equisetifolia)

Leaf spot/ Needle blight : Phoma casuarinae

Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum

Flowering parasite : Dodder( Cuscuta campestris)

Flowering Parasite : Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata.

BAMBOO (Bambusa bambos)

Leaf spot : Bipolaris bambusae

Leaf blight : Helminthosporium turcicum

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Anthracnose : Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Rust : Puccinia bambusicola

Culm rot/ Brown rot : Fusarium moniliforme var.intermedium

Stripe mosaic : Bamboo Mosaic virus

Streak mosaic : wheat streak mosaic virus

POLYALTHIA (Polyalthia longifolia)

Leaf spot : Cercospora sp.

Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in

Sooty mould : Capnodium braziliense

SIMARUBA( Simarouba glauca)

Leaf spot : Cercospora sp.

Leaf blight/spot : Helminthosporium sp.

Root rot : Ganoderma lucidum

Sooty mould : Capnodium braziliense

PUNGAM( Pongamia pinnata)

Leaf spot : Cercospora pongamiae

Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge in

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata

Leaf blight : Phoma indica

Sooty mould : Capnodium braziliense

Flowering Parasite: Giant Mistle toe- Dendrophthoe falcata.

SISSOO (DaIbergia sissoo)

Leaf spot : Cercospora sissoo

Pathogen: Mycelium of the fungus is hyaline and septate. Conidiophores emerge

Leaf blight : Alternaria alternata