Slide 1

As much as the differences between organisms on Earth are striking, they are still related i n one way
or another. Some organisms share highly distinct features, while others are very much different in
their morphological and developmental features. Since Linnaeus’ time, scientists have been studying
the relationships among organisms by using important taxonomic and evolutionary characters. This
endeavor is important to understand the overall natural history of organisms on Earth.

Slide 3

Taxonomy, in a broad sense the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living
and extinct organisms—i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis
(“arrangement”) and nomos (“law”). Taxonomy is, therefore, the methodology and principles of
systematic botany and zoology and sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants and animals in
hierarchies of superior and subordinate groups. Among biologists the Linnaean system of binomial
nomenclature, created by Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus in the 1750s, is internationally
accepted.

Slide 5

For example, one can describe the venation of a corn plant as parallel.

For example, a flower-bearing plant with netted or reticulate venation can be used as a feature to
identify the dicot group.

Slide 6

For example, at the phylum level in Fig. 7.1.1, a red fox can be classified under Chordata, which is
similar to that of humans.

For example, the standard scientific name for humans, which should be in Latin similar to all other
organisms, is Homo sapiens

Slide 7

In this system, organisms are classified based on the taxonomic levels that start from the domain
down to the species level, as shown in the red fox in Fig. 7.1.1

Slide 9

In the classification of the red fox, organisms are more distantly related at the domain level and tend
to share more similarities as we go down the taxonomic hierarchy.
Slide 10

For example, a comparison between a human and an ostrich is shown in Table. 7.1.1. These two
organisms fall under the same classification from the domain down to the phylum level.

Slide 12

Taxonomy used to be called Systematics. That system grouped animals and plants by characteristics
and relationships. Scientists looked at the characteristics (traits) that each organism had in common.
They used the shared derived characteristics of organisms

Slide 14

It is expected that they all descended from a common ancestor, in which the ancestral trait first
evolved shares this similarity.

an evolutionary trait that is homologous within groups of organisms (see homology) that are all
descended from a common ancestor in which the trait first evolved. Because an ancestral trait may
occur across many species—for example, opposable thumbs in marmosets, ring-tailed lemurs, and
gorillas—it cannot be used to further elucidate their genetic relationships

Slide 15

the presence of jaws is considered as the ancestral trait for fishes, birds, and mammals. This trait is
being shared by all of the organisms in the sample taxonomic tree in Fig. 7.1.2.

Slide 17

This can also be in vice versa condition, where the structures that are not present in an organism,
but were present in its ancestors. Derived traits are very useful in studying the evolution of
organisms. Most of the time, derived traits are products of evolutionary changes that allow
organisms to adapt to their environment. In taxonomy, derived traits are useful in classifying
organisms into their specific taxonomic groups

Slide 18

he presence of hair and milk production in mammals are considered as derived traits in the group
and tend to be absent in the ancestral point.

Slide 21

These can be external or internal morphological features that are useful for the classification of
organisms. For example, the homology in the gross structure of the forelimbs of vertebrates is
shown in Fig. 7.1.3. The presence of related bones, such as humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges, supports the homology among these vertebrate forelimbs. This
similarity in the morphological structure of body parts is important in grouping species together
Morphological traits are the main foundation of classical taxonomic science and still remain useful in
constructing the taxonomic tree of life until today.

Slide 24

Developmental traits are characters that can be observed in living organisms during particular stages
of their embryonic development. Some taxonomic groups may have minimal similarities i n their
morphological features during adulthood but share a lot of homologous developmental traits. For
example, most vertebrates are highly different in appearance during adulthood but can look entirely
the same during their embryonic stages.. At the same time, the development of organisms is
relevant in understanding the evolutionary path of most taxa.

Slide 25

Developmental traits, particularly certain embryonic stages, are useful in the classification of
vertebrates. Most vertebrates are more similar in gross morphology (presence of distinct head,
body, and tail region) during early embryonic stages than during their adulthood. Also, the presence
of pharyngeal slits (in red) is a common feature for vertebrate embryos.

Slide 27

Physiological traits are usually compared among organisms. In some cases, the morphological
structure of the body parts can be highly different, but their functions are the same.. For example,
the wings of the birds and insects are highly different in form and structure, but their functions are
the same.

Slide 28

Ant and horse legs, despite the significant differences in gross structures, share similar functions. The
same is true for the pectoral fins in bony fishes and the flippers of dolphins, as well as insect and bird
wings.

Slide 30

The use of this information lies in the principle of the central dogma of the cell. You can take note
that the DNA contains information for the synthesis of proteins that are needed for the expression
of certain phenotypes. With minimal changes in the DNA, the protein can be altered, leading to the
modification of overall features of the phenotype. Usually, mutations, or changes in the DNA
sequence that once accumulate, can lead to the appearance of derived traits in the evolutionary
history of organisms.
Slide 31

Genetic and morphological data for pine tree species can be used to assess the degree of
relatedness among them. For the genetic data, DNA from the chloroplast can be used as an
alternative to nuclear DNA. In addition, morphological features may include the vascular bundles,
the number of pine needles, and the presence of wings in seeds.

Slide 32

One should not merely rely on genetic sequences in classifying organisms to their proper taxonomic
rank. This is shown in Fig. 7.1.4, where two different taxonomic trees related to artiodactyls, can be
constructed when using morphological features and DNA sequence data.